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DEVELOP WATER RESOURCES INDIA

Ministry of Water Resources, River development,

Ganga rejuvenation

VISION:

Optimal sustainable development, maintenance of quality and

efficient use of water resources to match with the growing

demands on this precious natural resource of the country.

MISSION

India is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural

resources, water being one of them. Its development and

management plays a vital role in agriculture production.

Integrated water management is vital for poverty reduction,

environmental sustenance and sustainable economic

development. National Water Policy envisages that the water

resources of the country should be developed and managed in an

integrated manner.

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WATER FOR INDIA

Water is essential for human civilisation, living organisms,

and natural habitat. It is used for drinking, cleaning, agriculture,

transportation, industry, recreation, and animal husbandry. It is an

necessary input for producing electricity for domestic, industrial

and commercial use.

Due to its multiple benefits and the problems created by its

excesses, shortages and quality deterioration, water as a

resource requires special attention. The hydrologic cycle moves

enormous quantity of water around the globe. Much of the world’s

water has little potential for human use because 97.5% of all

water on earth is saline water. Out of the remaining 2.5%

freshwater, most of which lies deep and frozen in Antarctica and

Greenland, only about 0.26% fresh in rivers, lakes and in the soils

and shallow aquifiers which are readily usable for mankind.

Surface Water:

India’s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall

and snowmelt is estimated to be about 1869 billion cubic meter

(BCM). However, it is estimated that only about 690 BCM or 37

per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised.

This is because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the

Himalayas rivers occur over a four month period and (ii) potential

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to capture such resources is complicated by limited suitable

storage reservoir sites.

Rainfall

The average annual rainfall in India is about 1170 mm. This

is considerable variation in rain both temporarily and spatially.

Most rain falls in the monsoon season (June-September),

necessitating the creation of large storages for maximum

utilisation of the surface run-off. Within any given year, it is

possible to have both situations of drought and of floods in the

same region.

Regional varieties are also extreme, ranging from a low

value of 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to over 11,000 mm in

Meghalaya in North-Eastern India. Possible changes in rainfall

patterns in the coming decade, global warming and climate

change and other predicted or observed long-term trends on

water availability could affect India’s water resources.

Ground Water

India’s rechargeable annual groundwater potential has been

assessed at around 431 BCM in aggregate terms. On an all India

basis it is estimated that about 30 per cent of the groundwater

potential has been tapped for irrigation and domestic use. The

regional situation is very much different and large parts of India

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have already exploited almost all of their dynamic recharge.

Haryana and Punjab have exploited about 94 per cent of their

groundwater resources. Areas with depleting groundwater tables

are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat, most of western Uttar Pradesh

and in all of the Deccan states.

Occurrence of water availability at about 1000 cubic meters per

capita per annum is a commonly threshold for water indicating

scarcity (UNDP).

Investment to capture additional surface run-off will

become increasingly more difficult and expensive in the future.

Over time, both for surface and groundwater resources, a

situation where resources were substantially under utilised and

where considerable development potential existed, has

transformed in little more than a generation to a situation of water

scarcity and limited development options.

India faces an increasingly urgent situation: its finite and

fragile water resources are stressed and depleting while various

sectoral demands are growing rapidly. Historically relatively

plentiful water resources have been primarily for irrigated

agriculture, but with the growth of Indian economy and industrial

activities water demands share of water is changing rapidly. In

addition increase in population and rapid urbanization also put an

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additional demand on water resources. Summing up the various

sectoral projection reveals a total annual demand for water

increasing from 552 billion cubic meters (BCM) in 1997 to 1050

BCM by 2025.

At Independence population was less than 400 million and

per capita water availability over 5000 cubic meter per year

(m3/yr). With the population crossed 1 billion mark, water

availability has fallen to about 2000m3/yr per capita. By the year

2025 per capita availability is projected at only 1500 m3/yr or 30%

of availability levels at Independence.

The water availability index includes surface water only,

yet groundwater is an important component of water availability

that factors significantly in the Indian economy. Ground water is

an important source of drinking water and food security for India,

supplying about 80 per cent of water for domestic use in rural

areas and about 50 per cent of water for urban and industrial

uses. Ground water provides a very significant percentage of

water supply for irrigation, and contributed significantly to India’s

agricultural and overall economic development. With more than

17 million energised wells nationwide, groundwater now supplies

more than 50 per cent of irrigated area.

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Populations Food Grain Requirement

In India the food grain availability is at present around 525 gms

per capita per day whereas the corresponding figures in China &

USA are 980 gms and 2850 gms respectively. If small raise is

made in per capita consumption to 650 gms the food grain

requirement will be about 390 MT of food grain. Taking the

projections of about 1800 million by 2050 AD as reasonable, it

would require about 430 MT of food grain annually at the present

level of consumption. This will mean a much greater use of

available inputs. First input is water, the second input would be

fertilizers and third input would be much larger emphasis of

research. This would also need increasing area under irrigation

from present 28% to roughly 40% by the year 2050 and adopting

drip and sprinkler irrigation in India.

The total geographical area of land in India is 329 mha which

is 2.45% of the global land area. The total arable land is 165.3

mha which is about 50.2% of total geographical area against the

corresponding global figure of 10.2%. India possesses 4% of the

total average run off in the rivers of the world. The per capita

water availability of natural run off is at least 1100 cu.m per year.

Water availability of both surface and groundwater is further

reduced due to water pollution and in appropriate waste disposal

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practices. There are now few states or river basins in India where

water quality issues are not present.

Environmental problems include water quality degradation

from agro-chemicals, industrial and domestic pollution,

groundwater depletion, water-logging, soil salinization, siltation,

degradation of wetlands, ecosystem impacts and various health

related problems.

Though India is facing various serious water constraints to-

day, India is not on the whole a water scarce country. The

present per capita availability of water in India of approximately

2200 m3 per annum actually compares quite favourably with a

number of other countries.

Current water resource constraints in India, in terms of both

quality and quantity, can be expected to manifest themselves

even more rapidly in the coming years. In the past, with lower

population and development levels, there was still substantial

room for each sector to satisfy its water needs and concerns

independently. Now as the gap between the availability of water

resources and the demands on such resources narrows, the past

approach to water management pursued in India is no longer

tenable. Competition for water between urban and agricultural

sectors will be a major challenge in the forthcoming century.

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Provision for environmental and ecological concerns will have to

be made.

Water should be treated as both a Social and Economic

Ground

Water management in India in future must shift its emphasis

from social good as at present to economic good, and use of

market mechanisms with the participation of the business sector.

Such a change will achieve a more efficient and effective

allocation, use and management of water, and their roles of both

public and private sectors in managing water resources must be

defined.

Decentralisation of operation will be critical

Achieving sustainable use and management of water in India

will further require a shift from the traditional top down centralised

approach towards a more decentralised approach. While

government has an important role to play, it is only one among

many stakeholders involved. These stakeholders include

Government of India, State Government, every household in India

as a consumer of water, business sector, industries, larger

community aggregates such as water uses association, villages.

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Policy, Legislative and Regulatory Framework

The Central Government plays an important role in framing

policy guidelines, legislative and regulatory framework. The most

comprehensive Government of India (GoI) statement on water is

the National Water Policy (NWP) adopted by the National Water

Resources Council in 1987, which calls for a holistic, and

integrated basin-oriented approach to water development,

promoting combined use of both the surface and groundwater,

water conserving crop patterns as well as irrigation and

production technologies. The National Water Policy in its present

form appears to be a statement of intentions as it is not supported

by any legislation and does not have an action. The NWP is

undergoing revision.

Water Sharing Issues

The existing Constitutional provisions and legislation in India

do not provide an appropriate framework to deal with water

sharing issues between states, sectors and individuals. In the

present set up (i) primary powers are vested at state levels which

do not correspond to river basin boundaries; (ii) surface water

rights are not clearly defined and such rights cannot be

commercially transferred; (iii) ground water rights are purely

private, and; (iv) environmental laws have not been

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comprehensively operationalised and regularly standards are

either not enforced or do not exist.

The legal and absolute right to groundwater rests with the

owner of the overlying land, irrespective of the social and

environmental consequences.

Institutional Arrangements and Mechanisms

The present institutional arrangements in India, including

central, state and local institutions, and both formal and informal

structures, do not enable comprehensive water allocation,

planning and management. The main problems that exist are : (i)

inadequacies in necessary institutions for comprehensive water

allocation, planning and management, particularly at state and

basin levels where they are frequently absent; (ii) lack of co-

ordination between institutions, duplication of responsibility and

accountability gaps; (iii) inadequate fostering of grass-roots

institution; and (iv) lack of involvement of civil society - local

communities, NGOs, the business sector and academia.

Mechanism for conflict resolutions in matters of sharing of

water resources and utilisation is weak and needs to be looked

into and strengthened at various levels.

In the matters of water resources management the civil

society has a very crucial role to play but unfortunately their

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contribution, and the contribution of the business sector has been

greatly neglected. A substantial reason for their limited

involvement to date is the limited efforts of government to inform

the public on issues pertaining to water resources. In particular,

outreach to women has been neglected, yet women are the most

interested and involved in rural water supply, domestic urban

water consumption, health and sanitation issues and are at least

equally concerned as men in agricultural production.

Water Sector Investment

Being a vital resource for the lives and livelihoods of all

Indian citizens, and having contributed significantly to India’s

economic growth since independence, water sector investments

have rightly been accorded high priority in India’s development

plans.

With a massive resource commitment for irrigation since

independence of Rs. 576 billion the gross irrigated area increased

four-fold from 23 million hectares in 1951 to about 90 million ha in

1997, substantially increasing and stabilising the incomes of

millions of farmers throughout the country. Significant

achievements in drinking water coverage have also been realised.

About 85 per cent of India’s urban population have access to

public water supplies and over 75 per cent of the rural population

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are now provided with public water supply. It may be mentioned

here that more than 1000 million of people in India, about 70%

live in the rural areas.

In all the sectors however there is a considerable scope for

conserving water resources. Such conservation can be a reality if

the subsidies in water pricing are gradually removed, particularly

in the agricultural sector.

Reforms in the Water Sector

Various reforms in the management of water resources are

necessary but by its nature water is multidimensional - it involves

users from different sectors with widely different needs. India’s

task is made all the more difficult by its enormous population and

its federal administrative structure.

The role of government needs to be more of facilitation from

a provider and financier of services, and an enabling environment

to be put in place for the different stakeholders to play their role,

with necessary incentive framework.

As the reform program is implemented a long-term vision

needs to be conceived through a public debate and participatory

process.

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References

1. Website: www.nih.ernet.in; National Institute of Hydrology

2. Initiating and Sustaining Water Sector Reform: A

Synthesis; World Bank in Collaboration with the Govt. of India,

Ministry of Water Resources. Allied Publishers, 1999.

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India has a long history of water development. However,

large scale water development started in the 19th century.

Initially, a large number of “run of the river” types of diversion

projects for irrigation got built at the foot hills of the Himalayas as

also at the deltas of the peninsular rivers. Later, the emphasis is

shifted to storage development, from 1940 onward. After the

electric energy became available in the rural areas, i.e. after

about 1975, a very large ground water based development took

place.

By now, as per the public statistics of the Central Water

Commission, a live storage of around 220 km3 has been built in

the various places. However, this information does not include the

small (minor and small medium) storages. Currently, around 17

million ha. are being irrigated from surface minor projects, and for

achieving this, a live storage of about 60 km3 would have been

constructed through the lakhs of such dams.

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Thus, the current live storage available in surface reservoirs

in India would be around 280 km3. In addition, around 60 km3 of

storage is under construction through the larger projects.

However, this storage appears insufficient for meeting all the

future demands.

Although the large scale ground water use in India is a

unique feature, not noticed in most other countries, the ground

water development in some areas, is already leading to over-

exploitation of the available ground water and consequently to

falling trend in the ground water levels.

The main water resources of India consists of (i) the

precipitation on the Indian territory which is estimated to be

around 4000 km3/year, and (ii) transboundary flows which it

receives in its rivers and aquifers from the upper riparian

countries. For the latter, estimates as projected by FAO are

available. FAO estimate for China‘s total contribution is 347 km3.

Any climate change may alter both the precipitation received

on the Indian territory as also the hydrology of the catchments in

the upper riparian countries. Thus, the climate change in these

countries, and the larger utilizations in these countries (including

the additional demand driven by climate change) would alter the

Indian water situation.

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Introduction to Climate – Climate Change and

Anthropogenic Climate Change

Climate in a narrow sense is defined as “average weather”,

or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of mean

and variability of relevant quantities of weather parameters over a

period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of

years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by WMO.

These parameters are most often surface variables such as

temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate change in IPCC

usage refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to

natural variability or as a result of human activity. This usage

differs from that of UNFCCC which defines climate change as, “a

change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to

human activity that alters the composition of the global

atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability

observed over comparable time periods”.

The earth’s atmosphere - the layer of air that surrounds the

earth - contains many gases. Short-wave radiation from the sun

passes through the earth’s atmosphere. Partly this radiation is

reflected back into space, absorbed by the atmosphere and

remainder reaches the earth’s surface, where it is either reflected

or absorbed. In turn the earth’s surface, emits longwave radiation

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toward space. The Green Houses Gases (GHG) available in the

atmosphere, which principally include CO2, NO2, CH4, CFCs and

O3, absorb some of this long-wave radiation emitted by the

Earth’s surface and re-radiate it back to the surface. Thus GHG

modify the heat balance of the Earth by retaining long-wave

radiation that would otherwise be dispersed through the Earth's

atmosphere to space. This effect is known as the greenhouse

effect. Evidently, GHG have an important role in controlling the

temperature of the earth and an increase in their concentration in

the atmosphere would increase the temperature of the Earth. In

addition, presence of excess quantities of CFCs affects the

protective ozone layer which deflects the harmful short wave rays.

The IPCC observed that global average air temperature near

earth’s surface rose to 0.74±0.18 oC in the last century.

A Short Status of Knowledge about Climate Change

Studies have been carried out by NIH to analyze the trends

of variation in temperature over India/Indian sub-continent and the

results have been compared with global trend. An analysis of

temperature data of 125 stations distributed all over India shows

an increase of 0.420 C, 0.920 C and 0.090 C in annual mean

temperature, mean maximum temperature and mean minimum

temperature respectively over the last 100 years. However, the

trends are varying on regional basis. It has been observed that

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the changes in temperature in India/Indian-Subcontinent over last

century are broadly consistent with global trend of increase in

temperature.

Scenarios of future climate change are usually developed

using the Global Circulation Models with different scenarios of

GHG emissions. GCMs are complex 3-dimensional models of the

land, atmosphere and oceans. GCMs are invaluable tools for

identifying climatic sensitivities and changes in global climate

characteristics; the major problem of the current generation of

GCMs is the limitation of their spatial resolution. A single grid of

GCM may encompass hundreds of square kilometers and include

mountainous and desert terrain, oceans and land areas. Usually,

the output of GCMs is given for a scale much larger than that of

even a large watershed. There are more than 200 GCMs

available which have been developed by different agencies. Input

data requirement for the these GCMs are generally same but the

output results vary and sometimes with slight variation in input

parameters (which may be due to different data collection

agencies) the results are contradictory giving confusing future

climate scenarios. Despite recent improvements in modeling of

the climate dynamics with complex and large-scale models, use

of GCMs is still limited in evaluating regional details of climatic

changes. For generating future climate scenarios on regional

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basis there are downscaling models called RCMs which use

output of GCMs. However, RCMs do not give basin level

scenarios.

Predictive Findings of Scientists about Likely

Climate Change in India

Studies related to the impacts of climate change on various

components of the hydrological cycle may be classified broadly

into two categories: (i) studies using GCM/RCMs directly to

predict impact of climate change scenarios (ii) studies using

hydrological models with assumed plausible hypothetical climatic

inputs.

IITM is active in studying long-term climate change from

observed and proxy data as well as model diagnostics and

assessment of climatic impacts, with a particular focus on the

Indian summer monsoon. IITM used the Hadley Centre Regional

Climate Models (RCMs) for the Indian subcontinent to model the

potential impacts of climate change.

The RCMs have shown significant improvements over the

global models in depicting the surface climate over the Indian

region, enabling the development of climate change scenarios

with substantially more regional detail. High-resolution climate

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change scenarios have been generated for different states of

India.

Some major findings concerning water resources are:

• The rainfall scenarios are dependent on climate scenarios.

• There are substantial spatial differences in the projected rain fall

changes. The maximum expected increase in rainfall (10 to 30%)

is for central India.

• There is no clear evidence of any substantial change in the year

to year variability of rainfall over the next century.

• Surface air temperature shows comparable increasing trends by

as much as 3 to 4° C towards the end of the 21st century.

• The warming is widespread over the country, and relatively

more pronounced over northern parts of India.

Findings of Scientists "if – then type”

The scientists of NIH, Roorkee have a made a literature survey to

examine the findings of the various important studies in regards to

climate Change and its likely effect on Water Resources of India.

The general consensus in these studies seems to be as follows:

• Temperatures may increase throughout India and particularly in

Northwest and Southeast;

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As a consequence there may be an increase in potential

evapotranspiration;

• As a further consequence, there may be more glacial melt for

some years, recession of glaciers and less melt later on;

• Summer monsoon precipitation may increase throughout, but

this would be more marked in the Northeast;

• There may not be any increase or there may be a decrease in

winter precipitation;

• Rainfall variability may increase;

• The date of onset of summer monsoon become more variable;

• More extreme rainfall events are projects

The High Level Steering Committee of the National Water Mission

has set-up six Sub-Committees as follows:

• Policy and Institutional Framework

• Surface Water Management

• Ground Water Management

• Domestic and Industrial Water Management

• Efficient Use of Water for various Purposes

• Basin Level Planning and Management

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Obviously, the Policy and Institutional Framework Sub-

Committee has to deal with the issues brought out by the other

five Sub-Committees and then discuss the policy related issues.

This would also include institutional and legal issues, regulatory

structures, entailment and pricing, etc. The Surface Water

Management Sub-Committee also deals with a large number of

issues with considerable overlaps with the coverage of the other

four SubCommittees. The Sub-Committees on Ground Water

Management, Domestic and Industrial Water Management,

Efficient use of Water for various purposes and Basin level

management, deal with more pinpointed issues.