introduction to european studies lectures

8/3/2019 Introduction to European Studies Lectures

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Factors of division in European historyFactors of division in European history

languageslanguagesthe strongest indicators of national identities (without thisthe strongest indicators of national identities (without thisproblem unification of the U.S. was much easier)problem unification of the U.S. was much easier)

overlapping historiesoverlapping histories (mostly regular wars) stressing differences between(mostly regular wars) stressing differences betweencountries rather than unificationcountries rather than unification -- integration is mainly a reactive idea ofintegration is mainly a reactive idea ofending the past conflictsending the past conflicts

colonial pastcolonial past -- colonial interests drove European countries apart from onecolonial interests drove European countries apart from oneanotheranothereven today some countries have closer links with their formereven today some countries have closer links with their formercolonies than with other European countries, e.g.colonies than with other European countries, e.g. the Commonwealth, lathe Commonwealth, laFrancophonieFrancophonie

national identitiesnational identities

religionsreligions


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no single European raceno single European race, instead, instead European nationsEuropean nations

every European state hasevery European state has national minoritiesnational minorities

several European minorities are split with state border lines, eseveral European minorities are split with state border lines, e.g. Irish,.g. Irish,

BasquesBasques

a large number of geographically nona large number of geographically non--European people living in EuropeEuropean people living in Europe

frontier societies in the intermediate landsfrontier societies in the intermediate lands : Balkans, Turkey, Cyprus,: Balkans, Turkey, Cyprus,

MaltaMaltaalways difficult to define their Europeannessalways difficult to define their Europeanness


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Different political structuresDifferent political structures in the past (empires, republics,in the past (empires, republics,dictatorships, all possible political systems). A legacy ofdictatorships, all possible political systems). A legacy ofmonarchies in Europe is the distinction between head of statemonarchies in Europe is the distinction between head of stateand head of government (U.S. does not have such). Today:and head of government (U.S. does not have such). Today: constitutional monarchiesconstitutional monarchies

figurehead presidents, elected or appointed, (Italy, Switzerlanfigurehead presidents, elected or appointed, (Italy, Switzerland, Germany)d, Germany)

dual executive or presidential/parliamentary systemdual executive or presidential/parliamentary system

variety of political parties; different electoral systemsvariety of political parties; different electoral systems

variety of administrative systemsvariety of administrative systems


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Factors of unity in European historyFactors of unity in European history

Europe becameEurope became unifiedunified only in the face ofonly in the face of

invasions or threats from the outside, e.g.invasions or threats from the outside, e.g. the Hunsthe Huns5th c.5th c.

the Arabsthe Arabs7th c.7th c.

the Turksthe Turks15th15th -- 17th c.17th c. the Sovietsthe Soviets20th c.20th c.

However,However, attempts and dreams of unityattempts and dreams of unity havehave

existed since the Early Middle Ages.existed since the Early Middle Ages.


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Europe identificationsEurope identifications

In history there wereIn history there were threethree different identifications of the termdifferent identifications of the termEUROPEEUROPE, rediscovered and reused in the 19th century; all of, rediscovered and reused in the 19th century; all ofthem based on oppositions:them based on oppositions:

1.1. the concept of liberty/freedomthe concept of liberty/freedomancient Greece,ancient Greece,5th c. B.C.5th c. B.C.

2. Christendom2. Christendom15th c. AD15th c. AD

3. Civilization3. Civilization18th c. Enlightenment18th c. Enlightenment

After 1945After 1945 -- INSTUTIONALIZATIONINSTUTIONALIZATION -- the dreamsthe dreamsand attempts are finally and gradually beingand attempts are finally and gradually beingimplemented.implemented.


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LEGEND OF EUROPA IN GREEKLEGEND OF EUROPA IN GREEK

MYTHOLOGYMYTHOLOGY

Legend of Europa is attributed to:Legend of Europa is attributed to:

Moschus of SyracuseMoschus of Syracuse c. 150 B.C.c. 150 B.C. OvidOvidss (43 B.C.(43 B.C.17 A.D.)17 A.D.)MetamorphosesMetamorphoses(2(28 A.D)8 A.D)

Europa was aEuropa was aPhoenicianPhoenicianprincess, daughter of Agenor King ofprincess, daughter of Agenor King ofTyre. She was seduced by Zeus, disguised as a snowTyre. She was seduced by Zeus, disguised as a snow--white bull, andwhite bull, and

swam with her on his back from her homeland in what is nowswam with her on his back from her homeland in what is now

Lebanon to Crete, when she later married the King of Crete. SheLebanon to Crete, when she later married the King of Crete. She

gave birth later to gave birth later to MinosMinos , becoming the progenitrix of the most , becoming the progenitrix of the mostancient branch of Mediterranean civilization.ancient branch of Mediterranean civilization.


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Legend of EuropaLegend of Europa

connotationsconnotations

EuropaEuropas ride wass ride was from the east to the west, i.e.from the east to the west, i.e. from thefrom thesunrise to the sunsetsunrise to the sunset

European culture was transplanted from earlier centers ofEuropean culture was transplanted from earlier centers ofcivilizations of the eastcivilizations of the east

EuropaEuropas ride is a mythical link between Ancient Egypt ands ride is a mythical link between Ancient Egypt and

Ancient GreeceAncient Greece N. Davies (Phoenicia was in the spheres ofN. Davies (Phoenicia was in the spheres ofEgyptian pharaohs)Egyptian pharaohs)

CadmusCadmus, brother of Europa, founded Thebes and introduced, brother of Europa, founded Thebes and introducedGreek alphabet from Phoenicia: the oldest European writingGreek alphabet from Phoenicia: the oldest European writing

systems are in Crete: Linear A and Bsystems are in Crete: Linear A and B European civilization, in fact, sprang out of theEuropean civilization, in fact, sprang out of the MinoanMinoan

civilizationcivilization in Cretein Crete


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EUROPEEUROPE -- EtymologyEtymology

Greek words meaningGreek words meaningbroadbroad ((euryseurys) and) and faceface ((opsops).).

Semitic wordSemitic wordgharoobgharoobwhich meanswhich means "sunset"."sunset". From aFrom aMiddle Eastern viewpoint, the sun sets over Europe,Middle Eastern viewpoint, the sun sets over Europe,c.f. Phoenicianc.f. Phoenician 'ereb'ereb"evening; west" and Arabic"evening; west" and ArabicMaghrebMaghreb,, HebrewHebrewma'ariv, Mount Erebusma'ariv, Mount Erebus

Pheonicians were definitely predecessors of GreekPheonicians were definitely predecessors of Greekcivilization and formed a model for Greeks:civilization and formed a model for Greeks:

coloniescoloniesmostly in the same areasmostly in the same areas moneymoney

political institutionspolitical institutions

writing systemswriting systemsPhenician alphabet was adopted by GreeksPhenician alphabet was adopted by Greeks


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Ancient views of EuropeAncient views of Europe

Homer (8th c. BC)Homer (8th c. BC)

ForFor HomerHomer (8th c. B.C.),(8th c. B.C.), EuropaEuropa (Greek:(Greek: ) was a) was a

mythological queen of Crete, not a geographicalmythological queen of Crete, not a geographicaldesignation.designation.

LaterLater EuropaEuropastood for mainland Greece and by 500 B.C.stood for mainland Greece and by 500 B.C.

its meaning was extended to lands to the north.its meaning was extended to lands to the north.


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Classical Greece (5thClassical Greece (5th--4th c. B.C.)4th c. B.C.)

Identification with freedom (5th c. BC)Identification with freedom (5th c. BC)

Starting with the Persian Wars in the 5th century; facing the thStarting with the Persian Wars in the 5th century; facing the threat fromreat from

Persia the Greeks start to think about their distinct identityPersia the Greeks start to think about their distinct identityEurope isEurope isbeginning to be definedbeginning to be defined in opposition to Asia.in opposition to Asia.

The Greek cityThe Greek city--states facing the Persian invasion begin to see themselves asstates facing the Persian invasion begin to see themselves asdifferent in terms of:different in terms of: language vs. barbarianslanguage vs. barbarians

customscustoms languagelanguage

religionreligion

andand PRIMARILYPRIMARILYpolitical systempolitical system

IDENTIFICATIONS:IDENTIFICATIONS: GreeceGreece--EuropeEuropeembodiment of freedom and democracyembodiment of freedom and democracyrespect for anrespect for an

individualindividual

Persia/AsiaPersia/Asiaembodiment of despotism and absolute ruleembodiment of despotism and absolute ruleno respect forno respect for

an individualan individual


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Herodotus (5th c. B.C.)Herodotus (5th c. B.C.)

HerodotusHerodotusfather of historiographyfather of historiographywrote, he didwrote, he did

not know why the world had been considered to benot know why the world had been considered to bedivided intodivided into threethree parts, bearingparts, bearingfemininefeminine names:names:

EuropeEuropemost civilized and the strongestmost civilized and the strongest

AsiaAsiacivilized but politically and militarily weakcivilized but politically and militarily weak

AfricaAfrica

uncivilized, with the exception of Egyptuncivilized, with the exception of Egypt


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Hippocrates (5thHippocrates (5th--4th c. B.C.)4th c. B.C.)

Defined Europe in opposition to Asia in terms ofDefined Europe in opposition to Asia in terms ofCLIMATECLIMATE

changes in climate were to make people more flexible and activechanges in climate were to make people more flexible and active Climate was to affect political systems and behaviorsClimate was to affect political systems and behaviors

AsiansAsiansmore tamed, less passionate, due to more stable climatemore tamed, less passionate, due to more stable climatefighting to glorify the ruler.fighting to glorify the ruler.

EuropeansEuropeansmore brave, warlike, courageousmore brave, warlike, courageousfighting tofighting to

glorify themselves and fighting for freedomglorify themselves and fighting for freedom


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Aristotle (4th c. B.C.)Aristotle (4th c. B.C.) AristotleAristotle lived in Greece under Macedonian occupation, whichlived in Greece under Macedonian occupation, which

had an impact on his views of Europe, being generallyhad an impact on his views of Europe, being generallymodification of Hippocratesmodification of Hippocrates..

AsiansAsianswise, skilful but lacked courage, strength of will andwise, skilful but lacked courage, strength of will andremained servantsremained servants

EuropeansEuropeansbarbarians product of cold climate, courageousbarbarians product of cold climate, courageousnot very wise or skillful, independentnot very wise or skillful, independent

GreeksGreekscombined the best features of Asians and Europeanscombined the best features of Asians and Europeans intermediate geographic positionintermediate geographic position

free and courageousfree and courageous

best political institutionsbest political institutions able to rule other peopleable to rule other people


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Strabo (1st c. B.C.)Strabo (1st c. B.C.)

Greek geographer under Roman ruleGreek geographer under Roman rule

Points for the first timePoints for the first time to theto the diversitydiversity andand

wealth of the continentwealth of the continentcombination ofcombination ofpeacepeace--loving and warlike nations.loving and warlike nations.

Europe is a continent free from foreign rule.Europe is a continent free from foreign rule.


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Europe and the Biblical commentaryEurope and the Biblical commentary

The term EUROPE does not appear in the BibleThe term EUROPE does not appear in the Bible

Indirectly, it appears as a place of identification withIndirectly, it appears as a place of identification with

Christianity (New Testament)Christianity (New Testament)

Europe appears in a number ofEurope appears in a number ofBiblical commentariesBiblical commentaries

andand Christian teachingsChristian teachings


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Noah and his three sonsNoah and his three sons

The Greek tripartite division of the world corresponds to theThe Greek tripartite division of the world corresponds to the

Biblical story of Noah and his three sons, who after the floodBiblical story of Noah and his three sons, who after the floodbecome ancestors of the entire human race:become ancestors of the entire human race:

ShemShem -- SemitesSemites

HamHam -- HamitesHamites

JaphethJaphethJaphethitesJaphethites


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Josephus FlaviusJosephus Flavius,, a Jewish scholar and historian (1sta Jewish scholar and historian (1st

c. AD) (first nonc. AD) (first non--Christian mentioning of Jesus Christ)Christian mentioning of Jesus Christ)locates the descendants of Noahlocates the descendants of Noahs sons in threes sons in three

continents:continents:

ShemShemAsiaAsia SemitesSemites --AsiansAsians

HamHamAfricaAfrica (cursed by Noah)(cursed by Noah) HamitesHamitesAfricansAfricans

JaphethJaphethEuropeEurope JaphethitesJaphethites -- EuropeansEuropeans


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St. Augustine (4thSt. Augustine (4th--5th A.D.)5th A.D.)

With development of the Christian Church this divisionWith development of the Christian Church this division

is further refined, with prophetic implications of theis further refined, with prophetic implications of thenames, bynames, bySt Augustine (4St Augustine (4--5th c A.D.)5th c A.D.)

ShemShemthe named/blessed one (Israel)the named/blessed one (Israel)the place forthe place forJesus to be bornJesus to be born

HamHamhot climate and heresies; his offspring (Canaan)hot climate and heresies; his offspring (Canaan)to be slave to Shem and Japhethto be slave to Shem and Japheth

JaphethJaphethextension of Christianityextension of Christianity


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T and O maps of the worldT and O maps of the world

((orbis terraeorbis terraecircle of the earth)circle of the earth)Most popular world maps of the world in the Middle AgesMost popular world maps of the world in the Middle Ages

referred to the ancientreferred to the ancient triparite division of the worldtriparite division of the world

The world was circularThe world was circular The shapeThe shapeTT signified the Mediterranean Seasignified the Mediterranean Sea

The shapeThe shape OO signified the encirling Oceansignified the encirling Ocean

TheThe center of the world wascenter of the world wasJerusalemJerusalem AsiaAsiaoccupied half of the known worldoccupied half of the known world --Africa and EuropeAfrica and Europe

togethertogether -- the restthe rest

BoundariesBoundaries inin antiquityantiquity

Europe/AsiaEurope/AsiaDon/AzovDon/Azov

Asia/AfricaAsia/Africathe Nilethe Nile Europe/AfricaEurope/Africathe Mediterraneanthe Mediterranean


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Europe and the Roman EmpireEurope and the Roman Empire

(3rd c. B.C.(3rd c. B.C.5th c. A.D.)5th c. A.D.)

For the first timeFor the first time a substantial part of Europea substantial part of Europe isis

brought underbrought under a common system of governmenta common system of government,,although not exclusively European, but centered on thealthough not exclusively European, but centered on theMediterranean with parts in North Africa.Mediterranean with parts in North Africa.

The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empirewas notwas not a region with commona region with commonidentityidentity

If there was any identity it wasIf there was any identity it was ROMANROMAN rather thanrather thanEUROPEANEUROPEAN


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Christianity becoming an identification with EuropeChristianity becoming an identification with Europe

313313 -- Edict of MilanEdict of Milana letter issued bya letter issued by

Constantine the Great proclaiming religiousConstantine the Great proclaiming religioustolerance in the Roman Empiretolerance in the Roman Empire

380380Christianity becomes the official religion ofChristianity becomes the official religion ofthe Roman Empirethe Roman Empire

Rome = Christianity = EuropeRome = Christianity = Europe


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The Roman EmpireThe Roman Empire

Historical divisionsHistorical divisions

10541054Great SchismGreat Schismdivision into Western Catholicism anddivision into Western Catholicism and

Eastern OrthodoxyEastern Orthodoxy

The most durable religious, linguistic, geographical,The most durable religious, linguistic, geographical,

political and cultural division line in Europepolitical and cultural division line in Europe

The East never experienced:The East never experienced:

ReformationReformation CounterCounter--ReformationReformation

RenaissanceRenaissance


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Common European legacyCommon European legacy

LATINLATINlanguage of religion, education and diplomacy until the 17thlanguage of religion, education and diplomacy until the 17thcenturycentury

Roman lawRoman lawthe basis and terminology of todaythe basis and terminology of todays legal systems ins legal systems inEuropeEurope

Institutions of administrationInstitutions of administration

Networks of roadsNetworks of roads across the continentacross the continent

Relative toleranceRelative tolerance

Rome although destroyed,Rome although destroyed, stillstill recognized asrecognized as spiritual capitalspiritual capital ofofEuropeEurope


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Perceptions of Europe in the Middle AgesPerceptions of Europe in the Middle Ages

Europe becomes perceived as a unity ONLY in the faceEurope becomes perceived as a unity ONLY in the face

of different invasions from the outside, e.g.of different invasions from the outside, e.g.

8th8thArabsArabs

10th10thMagyarsMagyars

1111thth-- (until the 17th century)(until the 17th century)Saracens and TurksSaracens and Turks


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Arabs and EuropeArabs and Europe8th century8th century

8th century8th century-- Europe finds itself under the threat of ArabEurope finds itself under the threat of Arab

invasions; the Iberian Peninsula will remain occupied by theinvasions; the Iberian Peninsula will remain occupied by the

Arabs until 1492.Arabs until 1492.

732732 the Battle of Tours (Poitiers)the Battle of Tours (Poitiers) the Arab army isthe Arab army isdefeated by European knights underdefeated by European knights under Charles the MartelCharles the Martel, after, after

crossing the Pyrenees into Francecrossing the Pyrenees into France -- the Arab expansion intothe Arab expansion intoEurope is stoppedEurope is stoppedturning point in European historyturning point in European history

Dominant position of Christianity in Europe is ensuredDominant position of Christianity in Europe is ensured

Chronicles of the battle talk only aboutChronicles of the battle talk only about European knightsEuropean knights

without a division into subjects of particular kings.without a division into subjects of particular kings.


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Charlemagne and the Holy Roman EmpireCharlemagne and the Holy Roman Empire

800800the pope places Rome under protection of one rulerthe pope places Rome under protection of one rulerCHARLEMAGNECHARLEMAGNEwho becomes crowned as the king of thewho becomes crowned as the king of theFrankish Kingdom but also as the firstFrankish Kingdom but also as the first Holy Roman EmperorHoly Roman Emperor

HOLY ROMAN EMPIREHOLY ROMAN EMPIRE as a continuation of the Romanas a continuation of the Romanlegacy (legacy (title kept by the German kings untiltitle kept by the German kings until18061806))

Voltaire,Voltaire, neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empireneither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire

Charlemagne described in poems as:Charlemagne described in poems as: Rex Pater EuropaeRex Pater Europae(king father of Europe)(king father of Europe)

Europae Veneranda ApexEuropae Veneranda Apex(venerable crown of Europe)(venerable crown of Europe)

EUROPE in the times of Charlemagne seems to indicateEUROPE in the times of Charlemagne seems to indicateonly the sphere of power.only the sphere of power.


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The CrusadesThe Crusadesa peculiar union of Europeansa peculiar union of Europeans

11th century11th centurydue to attacks by Turks against Byzantinedue to attacks by Turks against ByzantineEmpire and the Holy LandEmpire and the Holy Landthe Emperor calls for help.the Emperor calls for help.

Pope Urban IIPope Urban II issues theissues the first crusadefirst crusade at theat the Council ofCouncil ofClermontClermont10951095.. 1099 Jerusalem is captured and small1099 Jerusalem is captured and small

Christian princedoms are established in the East.Christian princedoms are established in the East.

In his speech Urban II refers toIn his speech Urban II refers tothe tripartite division ofthe tripartite division of

the world.the world.

CRUSADESCRUSADES -- although wrong, help to unite Europeansalthough wrong, help to unite Europeans

behind the single causebehind the single cause


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Pierre Dubois (1250Pierre Dubois (1250--1312)1312)

a vision of united Europea vision of united Europe

A French publicist and lawyerA French publicist and lawyer

13061306De recuperatione terrae sanctaeDe recuperatione terrae sanctaea work advocating aa work advocating aEuropean league of nations led by FranceEuropean league of nations led by France

princes and cities of Europe should formprinces and cities of Europe should forma confederala confederal Christian RepublicChristian Republic

it should be overseen by a permanent assemblyit should be overseen by a permanent assembly a panel of judges with the Pope acting as the final court ofa panel of judges with the Pope acting as the final court of

appealappeal

Disputes settled by artbitration, NOT warDisputes settled by artbitration, NOT war

Universal educationUniversal education


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Two identifications of Europe in the 15th centuryTwo identifications of Europe in the 15th century

I. RES PUBLICA CHRISTIANAI. RES PUBLICA CHRISTIANA

Pope Pius II at the time tries to unite Europe against thePope Pius II at the time tries to unite Europe against the

Turks, made an officialTurks, made an official equation between Europe andequation between Europe and

community of Christianscommunity of Christians, based on the same faith., based on the same faith.

The concept disappears as theThe concept disappears as the 16th century brings16th century brings

REFORMATIONREFORMATION and split of Christianity in Europe.and split of Christianity in Europe.The time of religious warsThe time of religious wars -- the era of single Europeanthe era of single European

ChristendomChristendom is gone.is gone.


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Two identifications of Europe in the 15th centuryTwo identifications of Europe in the 15th century

II. RES PUBLICA LITTERARIAII. RES PUBLICA LITTERARIA

Due to development ofDue to development of humanismhumanism in Europe,in Europe,

people come back to the classics, read thepeople come back to the classics, read the samesame

written works of common heritagewritten works of common heritage and form anand form anintellectual bond throughout the continent.intellectual bond throughout the continent.


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Jiri z Podebrad (George of Podebrady) (1458Jiri z Podebrad (George of Podebrady) (1458--71)71)

The idea ofThe idea ofConfederation of EuropeConfederation of Europeoror ChristianChristian

LeagueLeague

Hussite King of Bohemia opposed to Catholic Habsburgs andHussite King of Bohemia opposed to Catholic Habsburgs and

the Pope.the Pope.

Suggested aSuggested a panpan--European Christian leagueEuropean Christian league to oppose theto oppose the

growing Ottoman threatgrowing Ottoman threat, based on loyalty to the state rather, based on loyalty to the state ratherthan to the Church.than to the Church.

Sent an envoy on a tour of European courts to promote thisSent an envoy on a tour of European courts to promote thisideaidea

Commonly considered to beCommonly considered to be the earliest proponent of thethe earliest proponent of theEuropean UnionEuropean Union


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Jiri z Podebrad(George of Podebrady)Jiri z Podebrad(George of Podebrady)

The idea ofThe idea ofConfederation of EuropeConfederation of Europeoror ChristianChristian

LeagueLeague

a plan remarkably similar to the EU:a plan remarkably similar to the EU:

assemblyassembly meeting regularly and moving its seat every fivemeeting regularly and moving its seat every fiveyears (years (like the European Parliamentlike the European Parliament))

college of permanent memberscollege of permanent members using majority vote (using majority vote (like thelike theEuropean CommissionEuropean Commission))

council of kings and princescouncil of kings and princes ((like the European Councillike the European Council))

a court to adjudicate disputesa court to adjudicate disputes ((like the European Court oflike the European Court ofJusticeJustice))

BALANCE OF POWER


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BALANCE OF POWERBALANCE OF POWER16th16th--19th century19th century

One of theOne of the oldestoldest European doctrinesEuropean doctrines

A doctrine assuming A doctrine assumingjust equilibriumjust equilibrium between nationsbetween nationsintended to prevent any one nation from becomingintended to prevent any one nation from becomingsufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its willsufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce its will

upon the rest.upon the rest.

AA guiding motiveguiding motive for visions of Europe until the 19thfor visions of Europe until the 19th

century, expressed by various thinkers.century, expressed by various thinkers.

19th century19th centurythe balance of power is obscured due tothe balance of power is obscured due tonational uprisings and ultimately leads to World Warnational uprisings and ultimately leads to World War

OneOne


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Peace of Westphalia 1648Peace of Westphalia 1648

First treaty betweenFirst treaty between sovereign independent European statessovereign independent European states

recognition of states based onrecognition of states based on territorial sovereigntyterritorial sovereignty

tremendous fragmentation of Germanytremendous fragmentation of Germany rise of France as the dominant European powerrise of France as the dominant European power

concept ofconcept ofreasons of statereasons of state

religious freedom and tolerationreligious freedom and toleration confirmation of the earlierconfirmation of the earlierPeace of AugsburgPeace of Augsburgcuius regio, eius religiocuius regio, eius religio

Regarded asRegarded as thethe beginning of the modern system ofbeginning of the modern system ofinternational relationsinternational relations secular concept of internationalsecular concept of internationalrelationsrelations replacing for ever the medieval idea of a religiousreplacing for ever the medieval idea of a religiousauthority acting as a final arbiter of Christendomauthority acting as a final arbiter of Christendom -- in the 19thin the 19thand 20th century the Westphalia system became a global oneand 20th century the Westphalia system became a global one


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Maximilien de BMaximilien de Bthune, Duc de Sully (1560thune, Duc de Sully (1560--1641)1641)

a visionary of European unificationa visionary of European unification

French minister suggesting the Grand Design of aFrench minister suggesting the Grand Design of a

confederacy of 15 equal European Christian republicsconfederacy of 15 equal European Christian republicsafter defeat of Habsburg Austria and Spainafter defeat of Habsburg Austria and Spain MemoirsMemoirs(1638)(1638)

Very Christian Council of EuropeVery Christian Council of Europe charged withcharged withresolving differences and disposing of a common armyresolving differences and disposing of a common army

The CouncilThe Councilwas to consist of 66 members, serving 3was to consist of 66 members, serving 3--year termyear term

CHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEUCHARLES LOUIS MONTESQUIEU


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Persian LettersPersian Letters(1721)(1721)

An epistolary novelAn epistolary novela fictional travel log of two Persian travelers toa fictional travel log of two Persian travelers toParisParisa satirical view of Louis XIVa satirical view of Louis XIVs France and Europe in generals France and Europe in general

one of the first objective images of Europe using a rhetorical mone of the first objective images of Europe using a rhetorical means of aeans of adiary of someone else, reflecting many Enlightenment views:diary of someone else, reflecting many Enlightenment views: Criticism of social classesCriticism of social classes

Comparison of Christianity and IslamComparison of Christianity and Islam

Criticism of Roman CatholicismCriticism of Roman Catholicism

Europe is seen as a source of constant surprises to the PersiansEurope is seen as a source of constant surprises to the Persians

Montesquieu offers a CULTURAL definition of Europe:Montesquieu offers a CULTURAL definition of Europe: quicker pace of lifequicker pace of life

dynamismdynamism

capitalismcapitalism

mobilitymobility

different mentalitiesdifferent mentalities


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The Spirit of LawsThe Spirit of Laws(1748)(1748)

I.I. Classification of governmentsClassification of governments on the basis ofon the basis of

the government manner of conducting policythe government manner of conducting policy

republicanrepublicanbased on virtuebased on virtue monarchicalmonarchicalbased on honorbased on honor

despoticdespoticbased on fearbased on fear


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II.II. Separation of powersSeparation of powersthree branches of power,three branches of power,

each independent:each independent:

LegislativeLegislative

ExecutiveExecutive

JudicialJudicial

Different variations in moden EuropeDifferent variations in moden Europethe most clearthe most clear--

cut implementation in the United Statescut implementation in the United States


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III. Political influence of climateIII. Political influence of climateclimate is besidesclimate is besides

laws, government maxims, and religion, an important factorlaws, government maxims, and religion, an important factorinfluencing the outlook of societyinfluencing the outlook of society

France has the ideal climateFrance has the ideal climate

In Europe there is an extensive temperate zone,In Europe there is an extensive temperate zone,

climate influences formation of stronger statesclimate influences formation of stronger states thatthatcan regain freedom more easily (unlike in Asiacan regain freedom more easily (unlike in Asiahothotclimate leads to laziness prone to despotism)climate leads to laziness prone to despotism)

Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th centuryVisions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century


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By the end of the 18th century, Europe as a common idea is takenBy the end of the 18th century, Europe as a common idea is taken forforgranted.granted.

Christianity is still important butChristianity is still important but no longerno longer synonymous withsynonymous with EuropeEurope --the idea isthe idea is CIVILIZATIONCIVILIZATION-- understood as all achievements ofunderstood as all achievements ofEuropeans.Europeans.

Association betweenAssociation between Europe and civilizationEurope and civilizationwas based on:was based on:

ideas ofideas ofthe Enlightenmentthe Enlightenment and progressand progress: Europeans have: Europeans havereached an ideal state.reached an ideal state.

belief that natives in colonies may no longer be converted tobelief that natives in colonies may no longer be converted toChristianity BUT ALSO to European civilization (to be fullyChristianity BUT ALSO to European civilization (to be fullydeveloped in the 19th century, e.g. Rudyard Kipling)developed in the 19th century, e.g. Rudyard Kipling)

belief that CIVILIZATION can ONLY be EUROPEANbelief that CIVILIZATION can ONLY be EUROPEAN


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18th century also saw emergence of18th century also saw emergence ofphilosophersphilosophers andand thinkersthinkers often perceived asoften perceived as

distant fathers of the League of Nations and thedistant fathers of the League of Nations and the

UN. Many of their ideas were later incorporatedUN. Many of their ideas were later incorporated

in practice.in practice.

Vi i f E i h 1 h d 18 h


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Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:Visions of Europe in the 17th and 18th century:

William Penn (1644William Penn (1644--1718)1718)

The founder ofThe founder ofPennsylvaniaPennsylvania (1681) and author of(1681) and author ofthethe Frame of GovernmentFrame of Government(1682)(1682)

advocated universal tolerance (being a Quaker)advocated universal tolerance (being a Quaker)

An Essay Towards the Present Peace in EuropeAn Essay Towards the Present Peace in Europe(1693)(1693)advocating the idea ofadvocating the idea ofEuropean Parliament:European Parliament:

threethree--fourth majorityfourth majorityvote in caser of disputes (similar tovote in caser of disputes (similar toqualified majority votingqualified majority votingsystem of todaysystem of todays EU institutions)s EU institutions)

votes weighed according to the countriesvotes weighed according to the countries economic power:economic power:

Germany 12, France 10, England 6, etc.Germany 12, France 10, England 6, etc.



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CharlesCharles--IrIrnne Castel, Abbe de Sainte Castel, Abbe de Saint--Pierre (1658Pierre (1658--1743)1743)

French influential writer and radicalFrench influential writer and radical

Projet de paix perpProjet de paix perptuelletuelle(1713)(1713)proposition of anproposition of aninternational organization for maintaining peace in Europeinternational organization for maintaining peace in Europe -- aaconfederation with a permanent arbitration council.confederation with a permanent arbitration council.

Suggested establishment ofSuggested establishment offree tradefree trade andand European SenateEuropean Senate

His ideas were later to inspire Frederich Schiller to writeHis ideas were later to inspire Frederich Schiller to writeOde to JoyOde to Joywhichwhichsung to Beethovensung to Beethovens Ninth Symphonys Ninth Symphonyhas become the European anthem.has become the European anthem.


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The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen(1789)(1789)


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gg ( )( )

Sources and inspirations:Sources and inspirations:

Magna CartaMagna CartaLibertatum (Libertatum (1215)1215)

Habeas Corpus ActHabeas Corpus Act(1679)(1679) John LockeJohn Lockenatural rightsnatural rights

Charles Louis MontesquieuCharles Louis Montesquieuseparation of powersseparation of powers

J.J. RousseauJ.J. Rousseausocial contractsocial contract

The Declaration of Independence of the United StatesThe Declaration of Independence of the United States(1776)(1776)

The Virginia Declaration of RightsThe Virginia Declaration of Rights(1776)(1776)

U.S. Bill of RightsU.S. Bill of Rightsadopted at the same timeadopted at the same time (1789)(1789)

The Declaration is aThe Declaration is a codificationcodification of earlier ideas common toof earlier ideas common to

Europeans.Europeans.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the CitizenThe Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen(1789)(1789)


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gg ( )( )

COMMENTARYCOMMENTARY

initially representedinitially represented mostly the interests of the middle clasmostly the interests of the middle classs

Failure to:Failure to:

Mention womenMention womens rightss rights

Revoke the institution of slaveryRevoke the institution of slavery

Ideas reflected in:Ideas reflected in:

all European constitutionsall European constitutions

The Universal Declaration of Human RightsThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights(1948)(1948)United NationsUnited Nations The European Convention of Human RightsThe European Convention of Human Rights(1950)(1950)Council ofCouncil of

EuropeEurope

The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European UnionThe Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2000)(2000)European UnionEuropean Union

L f h F h R l iL f th F h R l ti


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Legacy of the French RevolutionLegacy of the French Revolution

PropagandaPropaganda

Revolutionary propaganda makes reference to theRevolutionary propaganda makes reference to the

concept of Europe:concept of Europe:

For supporters:For supporters:

Europe equals citizenship and the rights of manEurope equals citizenship and the rights of man

For opponents:For opponents:

Europe was the previous status quo before theEurope was the previous status quo before therevolutionrevolutiona community larger than a state.a community larger than a state.


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Europe and Napoleon BonaparteEurope and Napoleon Bonaparte


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p p pp p p

LegacyLegacy

French institutions and laws introduced all over the continentFrench institutions and laws introduced all over the continent

thethe Napoleonic CodeNapoleonic Code still being the basis for continentalstill being the basis for continental

legal systemslegal systemscoherence of law and administrationcoherence of law and administration

Rise of nationalist feelingsRise of nationalist feelings (to be seen in force in the 19th(to be seen in force in the 19th

century), either:century), either:

in support of Napoleon, e.g.in support of Napoleon, e.g. PolandPoland

in opposition to Napoleon, e.g.in opposition to Napoleon, e.g. GermanyGermany

Concert of Europe or the Congress SystemConcert of Europe or the Congress System


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p g yp g y

The concept ofThe concept ofconference diplomacyconference diplomacya system ofa system ofinternational conferences to be held at time of crises by the Fiinternational conferences to be held at time of crises by the FiveveGreat Powers, i.e. United Kingdom, France, Austria, Prussia andGreat Powers, i.e. United Kingdom, France, Austria, Prussia andRussiaRussia (elements still used today)(elements still used today)

diplomatic protocol establisheddiplomatic protocol established

the Concert came to an end duringthe Concert came to an end duringthethe Crimean War (1853Crimean War (1853--56)56)

often seen today as theoften seen today as the first world security orderfirst world security order

IntroducedIntroduced great powers stabilitygreat powers stability (visible later in the League of(visible later in the League ofNations and the UN)Nations and the UN)

MaintainedMaintained only the status quoonly the status quonot a vehicle for reformnot a vehicle for reform

Holy AllianceHoly Alliance


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y

inspired byinspired byTsar Alexander ITsar Alexander I, signed by, signed byAustria, Prussia and RussiaAustria, Prussia and Russia

An alliance based on Christian principles by all European rulersAn alliance based on Christian principles by all European rulers, except, except

for:for: the United Kingdom, Turkey and the Pope.the United Kingdom, Turkey and the Pope.

Reactionary, antiReactionary, anti--liberal, very loose association to ensure the old order inliberal, very loose association to ensure the old order inEuropeEurope

Prevention of nationalism, liberalism, democracy and secularismPrevention of nationalism, liberalism, democracy and secularismand, if necessary, military intervention in other countries (e.and, if necessary, military intervention in other countries (e.g.g.November Uprising, Spring of NationsNovember Uprising, Spring of Nations))for the fear of the Holyfor the fear of the Holy

Alliance MonroeAlliance Monroes Doctrine was formulated in America.s Doctrine was formulated in America.

In the rhetoric of the Holy Alliance the concept ofIn the rhetoric of the Holy Alliance the concept ofEUROPAEUROPACHRISTIANACHRISTIANAreappears as a new ideal attempted to be destroyed byreappears as a new ideal attempted to be destroyed by

atheism and the French Revolution.atheism and the French Revolution.

Spring of Nations 1848Spring of Nations 1848


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Wave of revolutions and demands of change across theWave of revolutions and demands of change across thecontinent affecting all countries apart fromcontinent affecting all countries apart fromRussiaRussiaThe Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman EmpireThe United KingdomThe United KingdomThe NetherlandsThe Netherlands

Idealistic withIdealistic with a multitude of aims:a multitude of aims: social, economic, liberalsocial, economic, liberaland nationaland national

aimed at democratization in the interest of particular smalleraimed at democratization in the interest of particular smallernations within larger empiresnations within larger empires

All upheavals brutally supressedAll upheavals brutally supressed

We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned,We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned, disarmeddisarmedandand gagged. The fate of European democracy has slipped from ourgagged. The fate of European democracy has slipped from ourhands.hands.

Pierre Joseph ProudhonPierre Joseph Proudhon(1809(1809--1865)1865)anarchist ideologueanarchist ideologue

Spring of NationsSpring of Nations


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Spring of NationsSpring of Nations

Victor Hugo (1802Victor Hugo (1802--85)85)

In the rhetoric of the Spring of Nations,In the rhetoric of the Spring of Nations, the concept of Europethe concept of Europebecomes present in pronouncements, manifestations, leaflets.becomes present in pronouncements, manifestations, leaflets.

In 1849, speaking at the Paris International Peace Conference,In 1849, speaking at the Paris International Peace Conference,Victor HugoVictor Hugo favoured:favoured:

A supreme sovereign senate, which will be to Europe whatA supreme sovereign senate, which will be to Europe whatParliament is to EnglandParliament is to England

The nations of Europe, without losing their distinctiveThe nations of Europe, without losing their distinctive

qualities orqualities orglorious individuality, will merge closely into aglorious individuality, will merge closely into ahigher unity and will form the fraternity of Europehigher unity and will form the fraternity of Europe Two hugeTwo huge

groups will be seen,groups will be seen, the United States of Americathe United States of AmericaandandthetheUnited States of Europe,United States of Europe, holding out hands to one anotherholding out hands to one another

across the ocean.across the ocean.

Perceptions of European integration afterPerceptions of European integration after


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Perceptions of European integration afterPerceptions of European integration after

WWIWWI A lesson learntA lesson learnt is to prevent Great War fromis to prevent Great War from

happening again,happening again, institutionalizationinstitutionalization of Europeanof European

unity not only SHOULD but MUST be placed inunity not only SHOULD but MUST be placed inpractice.practice.

Discussion about European unity starts involvingDiscussion about European unity starts involvingnotnotonly intellectuals but also politicians.only intellectuals but also politicians. Europeans areEuropeans aremore receptive to the ideas of unity because theymore receptive to the ideas of unity because theyremember the horrors of WWI.remember the horrors of WWI.

Interwar period brings new and hopeful internationalInterwar period brings new and hopeful international

projects, flood of publications, all of them fail, butprojects, flood of publications, all of them fail, butpoint to the need of institutionalization to be fullypoint to the need of institutionalization to be fullyimplemented after 1945.implemented after 1945.

N (1860N (1860 1919)1919) G li i l d i l h i hi b kG li i l d i l h i hi b k


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Naumann (1860Naumann (1860--1919)1919)German political and social theorist, his bookGerman political and social theorist, his book

MitteleuropaMitteleuropa

(1915) (BESTSELLER) provided the vision of a postwar German(1915) (BESTSELLER) provided the vision of a postwar German

cultural and economic imperium in central Europe, providing Germcultural and economic imperium in central Europe, providing Germany wins.any wins. positive view of Germanypositive view of Germanys winning the wars winning the war justification of Germanyjustification of Germanys war aimss war aims need to transform the link between Austria and Germany into a cuneed to transform the link between Austria and Germany into a cultural,ltural,

economic and political neareconomic and political near--unificationunificationa global power in Europea global power in Europe assumption that France and Russia would pose no threat in the fuassumption that France and Russia would pose no threat in the futureture MITTELEUROPAMITTELEUROPA Basically, hegemonic plan of creation of an overstate (OberstadtBasically, hegemonic plan of creation of an overstate (Oberstadt) which will) which will

guarantee a common market and good defence, around the core of Gguarantee a common market and good defence, around the core of Germanyermany--

Austria. Loose confederation.Austria. Loose confederation. Membership:Membership: Germany (in the shape in 1915, incl. Belgium, Poland, Courland aGermany (in the shape in 1915, incl. Belgium, Poland, Courland and northernnd northern

France)France)featuring precision and harmonyfeaturing precision and harmony AustriaAustria--Hungary (in the shape in 1915, incl. Ukraine)Hungary (in the shape in 1915, incl. Ukraine)good taste andgood taste and

harmonyharmony Balkan states (natural joining)Balkan states (natural joining) Italy (possibly?, natural joining)Italy (possibly?, natural joining)

MASARYK TomasMASARYK Tomas Czech philosopher and politician; afterCzech philosopher and politician; after


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MASARYK, TomasMASARYK, TomasCzech philosopher and politician; afterCzech philosopher and politician; after

1918 became the first President of Czechoslovakia.1918 became the first President of Czechoslovakia. For the duration of WWI he was in Britain and USA (advisingFor the duration of WWI he was in Britain and USA (advising

and inspiring Thomas Woodrow Wilson); the condition forand inspiring Thomas Woodrow Wilson); the condition forcreation of democratic states in Europecreation of democratic states in Europedismemberment of thedismemberment of theAustrian empire.Austrian empire.

In Britain he published an influential magazine calledIn Britain he published an influential magazine called The NewThe NewEuropeEurope,, in 1918 published in a book form.in 1918 published in a book form.

For Masaryk, new European democratic states (incl.For Masaryk, new European democratic states (incl.Czechoslovakia) would serve as a buffer, insulation betweenCzechoslovakia) would serve as a buffer, insulation between

Germany and Russia (not democratic in MasarykGermany and Russia (not democratic in Masaryks view)s view)futurefuturein small European states.in small European states.

Democratic states must function on two levels:Democratic states must function on two levels: individualindividualfreedom of individual citizens (not guaranteed byfreedom of individual citizens (not guaranteed by

Russia, Germany or Austria)Russia, Germany or Austria) collectivecollectivenation states must interact democratically.nation states must interact democratically. Also, minorities should be protected under the internationalAlso, minorities should be protected under the international

rule.rule.

MasrykMasryks models included: France, Britain, USAs models included: France, Britain, USA


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MasarykMasaryks and Naumanns and Naumanns ideas seemed verys ideas seemed very

different, showing two different understandingsdifferent, showing two different understandingsof European unity:of European unity:

NaumannNaumanncentralization (Oberstadt)centralization (Oberstadt)

MasarykMasarykincreased autonomyincreased autonomy

Both were very SINCERE in their proposals,Both were very SINCERE in their proposals,

but neglected the possibility of war emergingbut neglected the possibility of war emergingfrom these two visions.from these two visions.


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Count Richard CoudenhoveCount Richard Coudenhove--KalergiKalergiss

I.I.The PanThe Pan--European Union (1922)European Union (1922)a pressure group fora pressure group for

tangible solutions of international agreements. The aim was totangible solutions of international agreements. The aim was tocreate a supranational, federal Europecreate a supranational, federal Europe -- UNITED STATES OFUNITED STATES OFEUROPEEUROPE

After WWII, it was continued by theAfter WWII, it was continued by the European MovementEuropean Movement

(formal association took place in 1952)(formal association took place in 1952) European MovementEuropean Movementinternational organization a pressureinternational organization a pressure

group with its own institution: International Councilgroup with its own institution: International Council

Present at many congresses in history of European integrationPresent at many congresses in history of European integrationespecially Paneuropean Congress in 1926especially Paneuropean Congress in 1926

It achieved however merely a fringe group statusIt achieved however merely a fringe group status


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Arms race among European states = permanent state of crisis, toArms race among European states = permanent state of crisis, toid iid i


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avoid it:avoid it: Proposal of a fourProposal of a four--stage process to achieve European union:stage process to achieve European union: a conference of representatives from 26 European statesa conference of representatives from 26 European states the agreement of treaties for the settlement of European disputethe agreement of treaties for the settlement of European disputess development of a customs uniondevelopment of a customs union drafting of a federal European constitutiondrafting of a federal European constitution English becoming the common second language for EuropeEnglish becoming the common second language for Europe

(observing its growing dominant role in the world).(observing its growing dominant role in the world). PANEUROPA functions:PANEUROPA functions: common defensecommon defensePaneuropean alliancePaneuropean alliance European courtsEuropean courtslegal institutions to introduce obligatorylegal institutions to introduce obligatory

arbitrationarbitration Common European marketCommon European marketabolishment of trade and customsabolishment of trade and customs

barriersbarriers Creation of SMALL nation statesCreation of SMALL nation stateseach nation should be able toeach nation should be able to

create its own nation statecreate its own nation state Common European Magna Carta of ToleranceCommon European Magna Carta of Tolerancefor protectionfor protection

of national minorities in Europe.of national minorities in Europe.

The Briand Memorandum 1930The Briand Memorandum 1930

Memorandum on the Organisation of a System ofMemorandum on the Organisation of a System of


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Memorandum on the Organisation of a System ofMemorandum on the Organisation of a System of

European Federal UnionEuropean Federal Union

Document calling for a EuropeanDocument calling for a EuropeanFEDERATION WITHINFEDERATION WITHIN the League ofthe League ofNations, on behalf of France, based on:Nations, on behalf of France, based on:

a permanent regime ofa permanent regime ofsolidaritysolidaritybased on internationalbased on internationalagreements for the rational organization of Europeagreements for the rational organization of Europe

moral union of Europemoral union of Europe

the general subordination of the economic problem to thethe general subordination of the economic problem to the

political onepolitical one



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first usage of terms:first usage of terms: common marketcommon marketandand EuropeanEuropeanUnionUnion

Listing specific policy needs, e.g. transListing specific policy needs, e.g. trans--EuropeanEuropeantransporttransport

Creation of two bodies:Creation of two bodies:

1.1. Permanent Political CommitteePermanent Political Committee for executivefor executivedecisionsdecisions

2.2. European ConferenceEuropean Conference for debatefor debate

Europe and World War TwoEurope and World War Two


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During the warDuring the warvisions ofvisions ofFEDERALFEDERAL EuropeanEuropeanunity are present to prevent or end the conflictunity are present to prevent or end the conflict

the war was a boost to European federalismthe war was a boost to European federalism

Attention is paid to Britain, as the only EuropeanAttention is paid to Britain, as the only European

power to fight Germanypower to fight Germany

19391939Labour leaderLabour leader Clement AttleeClement Attlee (1883(1883--

1967):1967):

Europe must federate or perishEurope must federate or perish

The Federal UnionThe Federal Union


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A BRITISH intellectual group founded in 1938 toA BRITISH intellectual group founded in 1938 to

campaign for European unity as the last hopecampaign for European unity as the last hope

Still lobbying for European federationStill lobbying for European federation

During the war Federal Union publications helpedDuring the war Federal Union publications helped

unite antiunite anti--fascists all over Europefascists all over Europe

The Ventontene Manifesto (1941)The Ventontene Manifesto (1941)


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Towards a Free and United EuropeTowards a Free and United Europe One of the first federalist programs for afterwar Europe draftedOne of the first federalist programs for afterwar Europe drafted byby

Altiero SpinelliAltiero Spinelli andand Ernesto RossiErnesto Rossileaders of resistance againstleaders of resistance againstMussolini based on the British federalist ideas:Mussolini based on the British federalist ideas:

the clean precise thinking of the English federaliststhe clean precise thinking of the English federalists

If a post war order is established in which each state retains iIf a post war order is established in which each state retains itstscomplete national sovereignty, the basis for a Third World Warcomplete national sovereignty, the basis for a Third World Warwould still exist even after the Nazi attempt to establish thewould still exist even after the Nazi attempt to establish thedomination of the German race in Europe has been frustrateddomination of the German race in Europe has been frustrated

Called for a secret grouping of Resistance leaders from eight coCalled for a secret grouping of Resistance leaders from eight countries,untries,including Germanyincluding Germanylater gave rise to the European Union oflater gave rise to the European Union of

FederalistsFederalists

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII Europe


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INSTITUTIONALIZATIONINSTITUTIONALIZATION to prevent anotherto prevent anotherwarwarcomplex and painful until todaycomplex and painful until today

WWII leaves the continent in ruinWWII leaves the continent in ruinINTEGRATIONINTEGRATIONis the most creative answer to what become of Europeis the most creative answer to what become of Europe

Emergence ofEmergence oftwo new superpowerstwo new superpowersEuropeans inEuropeans inthe middle, uncertain about their own security.the middle, uncertain about their own security.

Postwar reconstruction effort is a STRONG NEWPostwar reconstruction effort is a STRONG NEWARGUMENT for unification of the continent.ARGUMENT for unification of the continent.


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SovietSoviet--ledled integrationintegration of Eastern and Centralof Eastern and CentralEuropeEurope


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EuropeEurope

The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955The Warsaw Pact or Warsaw Treaty Organization (1955--1991)1991)

Set against potential NATO threatSet against potential NATO threatin fact beingin fact beinga nuclear threat to Europe during the Cold Wara nuclear threat to Europe during the Cold War

Immediate causeImmediate causeadmission (admission (remilitarizationremilitarization))of West Germany into NATO in 1955of West Germany into NATO in 1955

Treaty signed in the Presidential Palace inTreaty signed in the Presidential Palace inWarsawWarsaw

The Warsaw PactThe Warsaw Pact


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The Supreme Command was always SovietThe Supreme Command was always Soviet

Activities:Activities:

19561956Hungarian RevolutionHungarian Revolution 19681968Prague SpringPrague Spring

Interventions justified by theInterventions justified by the Brezhnev DoctrineBrezhnev Doctrine (1968)(1968)::

"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the devel"When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of someopment of somesocialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a probsocialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of thelem of thecountry concerned, but a common problem and concern of all sociacountry concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialistlist

countries."countries."

The Warsaw PactThe Warsaw Pactdisintegrationdisintegration


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19881988Gorbachev'sGorbachev'sSinatra DoctrineSinatra Doctrine

19891989the Autumn ofthe Autumn ofNationsNations

19911991formalformaldissolutiondissolution

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeYugoslaviaYugoslavia


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YugoslaviaYugoslavia

Remaining independentRemaining independentleader of the nonleader of the non--alignedalignedmovementmovement

Bloody disintegration and ethnic cleansing in the 1990sBloody disintegration and ethnic cleansing in the 1990s

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeFranceFrance


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it had gone to war with Germany, three times in less thanit had gone to war with Germany, three times in less thana century!!!a century!!!

destabilized after the war: both by war damage anddestabilized after the war: both by war damage andcollaboration (Vichy)collaboration (Vichy)

facing further blows at bloody decolonization (Indochinafacing further blows at bloody decolonization (Indochina1954, Suez 1956, Algeria 1960)1954, Suez 1956, Algeria 1960)

perceived as an initiator of many European projects,perceived as an initiator of many European projects,but not necessarily federalbut not necessarily federal



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GermanyGermany tremendous destruction,tremendous destruction,introversion and guiltintroversion and guilt

occupied by allied powersoccupied by allied powers((19491949West GermanyWest Germany andand

East GermanyEast Germany))

Reunification inReunification in 19901990

thanks to Konrad Adenauerthanks to Konrad AdenauerWest Germany is drivenWest Germany is driven

towards full integration intowards full integration in

many field withmany field withwestern allieswestern allies

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeAustriaAustria


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divided into Allied zones of occupation until 1955divided into Allied zones of occupation until 1955

relatively undamagedrelatively undamaged

in 1955 independence and declaration of neutralityin 1955 independence and declaration of neutrality-- economicallyeconomically

pulled towards the westpulled towards the west



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ItalyItaly

similar to Germany, tremendous destruction,similar to Germany, tremendous destruction,

introversion and guiltintroversion and guilt

Prime MinisterPrime MinisterAlcide de Gasperi'sAlcide de Gasperi's (1945(1945--53)53)propro--European policies lead to Italy's integrationEuropean policies lead to Italy's integration

with Europewith Europe



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the United Kingdomthe United Kingdom its resistance to Nazism strengthened the British sense ofits resistance to Nazism strengthened the British sense of

national identitynational identity

wealthier and more powerful than France and Germany,wealthier and more powerful than France and Germany,

however heavily destroyedhowever heavily destroyed

beginning of decolonization; however,beginning of decolonization; however, the Commonwealththe Commonwealth

remains more important to the British and Europeanremains more important to the British and Europeanmatters are initially sidelinedmatters are initially sidelined



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IrelandIreland

neutral during the warneutral during the war

economically tied to Britaineconomically tied to Britain



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Spain and PortugalSpain and Portugal

Both neutral during the warBoth neutral during the war

Emerged poor and politically marginalizedEmerged poor and politically marginalized

fascist governments:fascist governments:

SpainSpainFrancisco Franco since 1939Francisco Franco since 1939

PortugalPortugalAntonio Salazar since 1928.Antonio Salazar since 1928.


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Low CountriesLow Countries

all occupied by the Germansall occupied by the Germans

19441944the threethe threegovernmentsgovernments--inin--exile inexile inLondon agree to promoteLondon agree to promote

economic cooperation aftereconomic cooperation afterthe warthe war

after the war the threeafter the war the three

governments becomegovernments becomeconcerned about theirconcerned about theirinability to protectinability to protectthemselvesthemselves

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeBeneluxBenelux


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19481948Benelux CustomsBenelux CustomsUnionUnion

19581958 -- Benelux EconomicBenelux EconomicUnion signed (operative inUnion signed (operative in1960)1960)

Treaty of Rome (1957) explicitlyTreaty of Rome (1957) explicitlyprovided for the Benelux Unionprovided for the Benelux Unionwithin a wider communitywithin a wider community

20062006the Beneluxthe BeneluxOrganization of IntellectualOrganization of IntellectualPropertyProperty

PostPost--WWII EuropeWWII EuropeScandinaviaScandinavia

19461946 -- Committee onCommittee onLegislative CooperationLegislative Cooperation


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unification of national lawsunification of national lawsunified and encouraging aunified and encouraging acommon Nordic position in thecommon Nordic position in theworldworld

19521952NORDIC COUNCILNORDIC COUNCIL

signed bysigned byDenmark,Denmark, Sweden,Sweden,

IcelandIceland andand NorwayNorway

FinlandFinland joined in 1956joined in 1956

later dependent territorieslater dependent territorieswere admitted:were admitted: Greenland,Greenland,

Aland Islands, Faroe IslandsAland Islands, Faroe Islands


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STAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATIONSTAGES OF EUROPEAN INTEGRATION


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Stage I (1945Stage I (19451951)1951)::

the end of WWIIthe end of WWII -- foundation offoundation ofthe European Coal andthe European Coal andSteel CommunitySteel Community

Stage II (1951Stage II (1951 -- 1957)1957)::

formation of the ECSCformation of the ECSCTreaties of RomeTreaties of Rome (foundation of(foundation ofthe European Economic Communitythe European Economic Communityandand the Euratomthe Euratom))

Stage III (1958Stage III (19581967)1967)::coming into force of the Treaties of Romecoming into force of the Treaties of Romethe Mergerthe Merger

TreatyTreaty



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Stage IV (1967Stage IV (19671973):1973): the Merger Treatythe Merger Treatythe 1st enlargementthe 1st enlargement

Stage V (1973Stage V (1973 -- 1979):1979): the 1st enlargementthe 1st enlargementthe European Monetary Systemthe European Monetary System

(ecu)(ecu)

Stage VI (1979Stage VI (19791981):1981): EMS/ecuEMS/ecuthe 2nd enlargementthe 2nd enlargement



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Stage VII (1981Stage VII (1981 -- 1987):1987):

the 2nd enlargementthe 2nd enlargementthe Single European Actthe Single European Act

Stage VIII (1987Stage VIII (19871993):1993): he Single European Acthe Single European Actthe Treaty on European Unionthe Treaty on European Union

Stage IX (1993Stage IX (19931995):1995): the Treaty of European Unionthe Treaty of European Unionthe 4th enlargementthe 4th enlargement



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Stage X (1995Stage X (19951997):1997):

thethe 4th enlargement4th enlargementthe Treaty of Amsterdamthe Treaty of Amsterdam

Stage XI (1997Stage XI (19972002):2002):the Treaty of Amsterdamthe Treaty of Amsterdamthe European Councilthe European Council

Summit in CopenhagenSummit in CopenhagenStage XII (2002Stage XII (20022004):2004):the Copenhagen Summitthe Copenhagen Summitthe 5th enlargementthe 5th enlargement



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Stage XIII (2004Stage XIII (20042007):2007):

the 5th enlargementthe 5th enlargementthe 6th enlargementthe 6th enlargement

Stage XIV (December 13, 2007Stage XIV (December 13, 2007 -- ?):?):The European Union Reform TreatyThe European Union Reform Treaty-- ??????

Winston ChurchillWinston Churchill

The Sinews of Peace SpeechThe Sinews of Peace Speechoror Iron Curtain SpeechIron Curtain Speech


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Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of wNeither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of worldorldorganisation will be gained without what I have calledorganisation will be gained without what I have calledthe fraternalthe fraternalassociation of the Englishassociation of the English--speaking peoples. This means aspeaking peoples. This means aspecialspecialrelationshiprelationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire andbetween the British Commonwealth and Empire andthe United States.the United States.

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, anFrom Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an IRONIRONCURTAINCURTAINhas descended across the Continent. Behind that line,has descended across the Continent. Behind that line,lie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and easterlie all the capitals of the ancient states of central and eastern Europen Europe Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade,Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populationBucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populationssaround them lie in what I must callaround them lie in what I must call the Soviet spherethe Soviet sphere (...) This is(...) This isnot the liberated Europenot the liberated Europewhich we fought to build up.which we fought to build up.

Westminster College, Fulton, MissouriWestminster College, Fulton, MissouriMarch 5, 1946March 5, 1946

Winston ChurchillWinston ChurchillThe United States of Europe SpeechThe United States of Europe Speech

University of Zurich SwitzerlandUniversity of Zurich Switzerland September 19 1946September 19 1946


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University of Zurich, SwitzerlandUniversity of Zurich, SwitzerlandSeptember 19, 1946September 19, 1946

We must build a kind of United States of Europe. In this way only

will hundreds of millions of toilers be able to regain the simple

joys and hopes which make life worth living. The process is

simple. All that is needed is the resolve of hundreds of millions of

men and women to do right instead of wrong and to gain as their

reward blessing instead of cursing.

Much work, Ladies and Gentlemen, has been done upon this taskby the exertions of the Pan-European Union which owes so much

to Count Coudenhove-Kalergi and which commanded the services

of the famous French patriot and statesman Aristide Briand.

The Marshall Plan or European Recovery ProgramThe Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program

(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948 Dec 1951)Dec 1951)


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(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948(announced 1947; implemented Apr 1948-- Dec 1951)Dec 1951)

U.S.U.S.--sponsored program designed to rehabilitate thesponsored program designed to rehabilitate theeconomies ofeconomies of17 European17 European nations in order to createnations in order to create

stable conditions in which democratic institutions couldstable conditions in which democratic institutions couldsurvive.survive.

Background:Background:

great need in Europe for capital investmentgreat need in Europe for capital investmentTHETHEUSA: the readiest source of capitalUSA: the readiest source of capital

US point of view:US point of view:

reconstruction of Europe vital to its own economic interestsreconstruction of Europe vital to its own economic interests fear that postwar poverty, unemployment and dislocation mayfear that postwar poverty, unemployment and dislocation may

appeal to communist partiesappeal to communist parties

THE MARSHALL PLANTHE MARSHALL PLAN


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The U.S.S.R. early on withdrew from participation in the plan,The U.S.S.R. early on withdrew from participation in the plan,however, and was soon followed by the other eastern Europeanhowever, and was soon followed by the other eastern Europeannations under its influence.nations under its influence.

This left the following countries to participate in the plan:This left the following countries to participate in the plan:

Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,Italy,Italy,Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden,Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, West Germany.Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom, West Germany.


U.S. sideU.S. side


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ECONOMIC COOPERATION ADMINISTRATIONECONOMIC COOPERATION ADMINISTRATION(ECA)(ECA)

a specially created bureau, distributed over the next four yearsa specially created bureau, distributed over the next four yearssomesome $13 billion$13 billionworth of economic aid, helping to restoreworth of economic aid, helping to restoreindustrial and agricultural production, establish financialindustrial and agricultural production, establish financial

stability,stability,and expand trade.and expand trade.

oneone--fourth of funds earmarked for Britainfourth of funds earmarked for Britain

oneone--fifth of funds earmarked for Francefifth of funds earmarked for France


European sideEuropean side


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COMMITTEE OF EUROPEAN ECONOMICCOMMITTEE OF EUROPEAN ECONOMICCOOPERATIONCOOPERATION

later replaced bylater replaced by

Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)and then byand then by

Organization for Economic Cooperation andOrganization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD 1960)Development (OECD 1960)



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TheThe Marshall PlanMarshall Planwas very successful; the several westernwas very successful; the several westernEuropean countries experienced a rise in their gross nationalEuropean countries experienced a rise in their gross nationalproducts of 15 to 25 percentproducts of 15 to 25 percent

It has no peer in the history of enlightened selfIt has no peer in the history of enlightened self--interestinterest(N. Davies)(N. Davies)

Definite help to economic and political recovery in EuropeDefinite help to economic and political recovery in Europe

Binding closely economic and political interests between theBinding closely economic and political interests between theUSUS

and Europeand Europe

Very profitable investment for the USVery profitable investment for the US

It encouraged Europeans to work together:It encouraged Europeans to work together:

European integration will be based on the west.European integration will be based on the west.


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THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948

It called for:It called for:


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It called for:It called for:

recognition ofrecognition ofsupranationalitysupranationalityneed for states toneed for states tosurrendersurrender

part of their sovereignty in the interests of commonpart of their sovereignty in the interests of commoninstitutionsinstitutions

political and economic unionpolitical and economic union

European AssemblyEuropean Assembly

European Court of Human RightsEuropean Court of Human Rights

liaison committee to keep the aims of the Congress aliveliaison committee to keep the aims of the Congress alive

THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948THE HAGUE CONGRESS 1948

ConsequencesConsequences


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EUROPEAN MOVEMENT 1948EUROPEAN MOVEMENT 1948

COUNCIL OF EUROPECOUNCIL OF EUROPEMay 5, 1949May 5, 1949

COLLEGE OF EUROPE in Bruges (later secondCOLLEGE OF EUROPE in Bruges (later second

campus in Natolin)campus in Natolin) -- 19491949

Theories of integration in EuropeTheories of integration in Europe

THE HAGUE CONGRESS

1948


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Federalists Unionists

Unionists ConfederalistsConstitutionalists Functionalists

Neo-functionalists

1958

FEDERALISTSFEDERALISTS


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need to establish aneed to establish a suprantational organizationsuprantational organization

pooling of sovereigntypooling of sovereigntywith supranational institutionswith supranational institutions strong, federal executivestrong, federal executive

supranational parliament appointed from nationalsupranational parliament appointed from nationalassembliesassemblies

authority division into European (central), national,authority division into European (central), national,

regional, local(regional, local(todaytodays Committee of Regionss Committee of Regions))

FEDRALISTSFEDRALISTS

major basismajor basis:: ChurchillChurchills Zurich speech 1946s Zurich speech 1946


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major basismajor basis:: ChurchillChurchills Zurich speech 1946s Zurich speech 1946

idea followed byidea followed byItaly, West Germany, BeneluxItaly, West Germany, Benelux

idea opposed byidea opposed byFrance and BritainFrance and Britain (for different reasons though);(for different reasons though);e.g.e.g. federalistfederalistwas deleted from the Treaty of Maastricht due towas deleted from the Treaty of Maastricht due toBritish pressureBritish pressure

federalist ideas included in many treaties and institutionsfederalist ideas included in many treaties and institutions (EC,(EC,Council, Commission, ECJ)Council, Commission, ECJ)

SUPPORTERS:SUPPORTERS: Winston Churchill, Altiero Spinelli, KonradWinston Churchill, Altiero Spinelli, Konrad

Adenauer, Walter Hallstein, Paul H. Spaak, Duncan SandyAdenauer, Walter Hallstein, Paul H. Spaak, Duncan Sandy

UNIONISTSUNIONISTS

British ledBritish led


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European integration = cooperation of sovereignEuropean integration = cooperation of sovereignstatesstates

European Parliament should not be supranational but aEuropean Parliament should not be supranational but acoordinative body of European integrationcoordinative body of European integration

Institutions:Institutions:

European ConferenceEuropean Conferencemembers nominated bymembers nominated bynational governmentsnational governments Council of MinistersCouncil of Ministersadvisory bodyadvisory body NATONATOin charge of European defencein charge of European defence OECEOECEin charge of economic issuesin charge of economic issues

SUPPORTERS: Ernest Bevin, Clement AttleeSUPPORTERS: Ernest Bevin, Clement Attlee


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FUNCTIONALISTSFUNCTIONALISTS

S l i iS t l i t ti f l l if t l l ti


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Sectoral integrationSectoral integrationprocess of natural selectionprocess of natural selectionand evolutionand evolution

Primary objective:Primary objective: economy with benefits for alleconomy with benefits for all

ECONOMY BEFORE POLITICSECONOMY BEFORE POLITICS

Pooling of sovereignty should be gradual andPooling of sovereignty should be gradual andspontaneousspontaneousparticular functions of states willparticular functions of states will

be transferred to European institutions, ifbe transferred to European institutions, ifobjectively necessaryobjectively necessary-- INVISIBLE HANDINVISIBLE HAND ofofintegrationintegration

FUNCTIONALISTSFUNCTIONALISTS

E i ill h h t ill b b tt f iE i ill h h t ill b b tt f i


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Experience will show what will be better for economicExperience will show what will be better for economicintegrationintegration

Results of economic integration will NATURALLY leadResults of economic integration will NATURALLY leadto integration in all other areasto integration in all other areas

Main basis: David Mitrany's definition:Main basis: David Mitrany's definition: Functionalism isFunctionalism isan attempt to link authority to a specific activity, to break awan attempt to link authority to a specific activity, to break awayayfrom the traditional link between authority and a definite terrifrom the traditional link between authority and a definite territorytory

Third way between federalism and unionismThird way between federalism and unionism

SUPPORTERS:SUPPORTERS: de Gasperi, Monnet, Schumande Gasperi, Monnet, Schuman(Schuman's(Schuman'sDeclaration is of functionalist nature)Declaration is of functionalist nature)

NEOFUNCTIONALISTSNEOFUNCTIONALISTS

Criticism of the functionalists' division between politicsCriticism of the functionalists' division between politics

introduction to european studies lectures

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