K Everitt 2007

PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING

K Everitt 2007

• -         Fitness Training• -         Physiological Factors • -         Psychological Factors• -         Acquisition of Skill • -         Technological Developments • - Safety and Risk Assessment.

K Everitt 2007

Fitness TrainingWARM UP AND COOL DOWN

Warming up and cooling down are vital to every training session.

WARM UP• Gradually gets your body ready for exercise• Increases the body temperature and blood flow to the muscles• Stretches the muscles, mobilises the joints and increases range of movement• Concentrates the mind on training

COOL DOWN• Gets your body back to normal state• Helps replace the O2 debt in the muscles, getting rid of any lactic acid, which could

cause muscle stiffness later on• Gets rid of extra blood in your muscles to prevent pooling in your veins. This can

make you feel dizzy and weak if exercise is stopped suddenly

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TRAINING PRINCIPLESThere are 4 training principles:SPECIFICITYEvery person will need a different training programme because we are all different.The correct part of the body needs to be trained – there is no point making a weightlifter

run 5 miles a day, as this will not improve his strength.Train to the correct level – if someone is unfit, do not start them with a 5 mile run.PROGRESSIONGradually increase the amount of training that’s done when the body has got used to the

previous training.OVERLOADTo improve, you must make your body work harder than it usually would, so you need to

push yourself beyond the threshold. You can do this by increasing frequency, intensity and duration of training.

REVERSABILITYIf you stop training, your fitness levels will drop. It takes much longer to gain fitness than

it does to lose it.

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TRAINING PROGRAMMES

A training programme must suit the person it is for.

Many programmes are used using FITT

Frequency – how often you should exercise.

Intensity – how hard you exercise.

Time – how long you should exercise.

Type – what exercise you should use.

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WEIGHT TRAININGThis improves muscle strength and tone.There are two types of weight training:Isometric - muscles contract but there is no

movement. Sit with your back to the wall and your knees bent at 45* and hold it.

Advantages - develops static strength, its quick, cheap and easy to do

Disadvantages – no good if you have a heart problem, as blood flow is reduced to the muscles.

Isotonic – muscles contract and shorten to produce a movement. Pull ups

Advantages – easily adaptable to most sports, strengthens the muscle throughout the range of movement

Disadvantages – muscle can become sore due to the stress

To overload, use heavier weights, or lift more times.

CIRCUIT TRAININGThis uses lots of different exercises. There

can be between 8-15 stations, and at each one you do a specific activity for a set amount of time.

Advantages – less boring due to the variety of exercises, easily adaptable, can include weight and aerobic training

Disadvantages – can take time to set up, can get overcrowded if too busy

To overload, do more repetitions at each station, complete the circuit quicker, rest less between stations, or repeat the circuit

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CONTINUOUS TRAININGInvolves exercising at a constant rate, like

running or cycling. It usually means working at 60-90% VO2 max for an hour.

Advantages – needs only small amount or no equipment, good for aerobic fitness and using up body fat

Disadvantages – can be boring, does not improve sprinting, so not ideal for games.

To overload, increase duration, distance, speed or frequency.

FARTLEK TRAININGThis can be made as easy or as hard as

needed. It involves changing the intensity and type of exercise without stopping. Part of a fartlek run could be to sprint for 10 seconds, jog for 20 seconds, repeated 4 times.

Advantages – good for sports that need different paces like football and hockey, easily changed to suit an individual.

Disadvantages – difficult to see how hard the person is training, too easy to skip the hard bits.

To overload, increase times or speeds of each bit, or make the terrain more difficult (running uphill)

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INTERVAL TRAINING

Fixed patterns of fast and slow exercise are used in interval training. Each repetition of the pattern is called a rep, and you must finish a set before you can rest.

Advantages – can mix aerobic and anaerobic exercise, its easy to see when athlete isn’t trying.

Disadvantages – hard to keep going, can be a bit boring.

To overload, increase reps or sets, or spend less time resting between sets.

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FITNESS TESTSIf you have a high aerobic fitness level, then it means that compared to others your heart rate will be

lower when resting and exercising, you can exercise for longer without feeling tired, and you can use up more O2 when you exercise.

To measure you heart rate, place you first two fingers on one of you pulse points:1. Carotid artery – this is on you neck, to the one side2. Radial artery – this is on your wrist, by the base of your thumbCount the beats over 15 seconds, then multiply that number by 4 to get beats per minute. That’s your

heart rate.

There are 3 main tests for aerobic fitness:HARVARD STEP TEST30 step-ups a minute for 5 minutes. Rest for 1 minute, then take your pulse to calculate your heart rate12-MINUTE RUN Run around a track as many times as you can for 12 minutes. The further you run, the fitter you are.MULTISTAGE FITNESS TESTRun shuttles between 2 lines 20m apart.Start on the first bleep. The time between the bleeps gets shorter, so you have to run faster. When you drop out, your level and number of completed shuttles are recorded.

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Endurance tests

This can test the endurance of different muscles, seeing how many times you can do an exercise. Sit ups or press ups.

Strength tests

A dynamometer measures hand and forearm strength.

Speed tests

30m sprint test measures your speed over a certain distance

Flexibility test

Sit and reach test measure flexibility in the hamstrings and back

Power test

Vertical jump and standing long jump measures your power in your legs

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Physiological FactorsAGE

StrengthYou do not reach your maximum strength until you are

around 20-that’s when you are fully grownIn your 20s and 30s it is still easy to build muscle. After

this, protein levels and muscle mass falls, and strength declines, so its harder to build muscle.

O2 capacityThis falls as you get older, so less O2 can be taken to

the musclesInjury and diseaseOlder people are more prone to injury, and it takes them

longer to recover from oneOlder people generally suffer from more diseasesReaction timeThese get slower as you get olderFlexibilityYou are most flexible in your teensExperienceThis is a vital factor in sportAs you get older, you become more experienced

This is why there are age divisions in competitions. It would be unfair to expect a 50 year old to compete against a 25 year old.

GENDERCompetitions usually split men and women,

along with young and old. Men and women have different bodies• Men have longer, heavier bone structure• Women have a wider, fatter pelvis (better

for child birth)• Women generally have more body fat than

men• The menstrual cycle can affect performanceGirls mature earlier than boys• Girls reach physical maturity at 16 or 17,

whereas boys mature at around 20Men are generally stronger• Men have bigger muscles, due to higher

testosterone levelsWomen are generally more flexible• This is partly due to them having less

muscle.

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SOMATOTYPES

Somatotype means the shape of your body. This can affect your suitability for certain sports.

There are 3 basic somatotypes:

ECTOMORPH

Narrow shoulders, hips and chest

Not much fat or muscle

Long, thin arms and legs THIN - high jump, long distance running

Thin face, high forehead

ENDOMORPH

Wide hips, but narrow shoulders

Lot of fat on body, arms and legs DUMPY – wrestling, shot putting

Ankles and wrists slim

MESOMORPH

Wide shoulders, narrow hips

Muscular body MUSCULAR – swimming, gymnastics

Strong arms and thighs

Not much body fat

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DRUGS

ALCOHOL• Affects coordination, speech and

judgment• Slows reactions• Makes muscles tired more quickly• Eventually damages liver, kidneys,

heart, muscles, brain and the digestive and immune system

DRUGS

SMOKING• Causes nose, throat and chest

irritations• Makes you short of breath• Increases the risk of developing heart

disease, lung cancer, bronchitis.• Every single cigarette damages your

body

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PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS

These are banned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC)

STIMULANTS

• Speed up your reactions

• Increase aggression

• Make you feel less pain, which can make you train too hard

• Lead to high blood pressure, heart and liver failure and strokes

• They are addictive

ANABOLIC AGENTS (STERIODS)

• Increase muscle size

• Allow you to train harder

• Cause high blood pressure, heart disease, infertility and cancer

• Women may grow facial and body hair, and their voices may deepen

PERFORMANCE ENHANCING DRUGS

NARCOTIC ANALGESICS

• Kill pain so injury and fatigue don’t interfere with performance, and make you train too hard

• They are addictive, with unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

• Lead to constipation and low blood pressure

PEPTIDE HORMONES

• Most have similar effects as steroids

• Cause strokes, and abnormal growth

DIURETICS

• Make you urinate, causing weight loss

• Mask traces of other drugs in your system

• Cause cramp and dehydration

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The use of the following drugs are restricted by IOC:

BETA BLOCKERS• Medicine that lowers heart rate, steadys shaking hands, and reduces anxiety• Banned in sports where they may give an advantage, such as shooting, snooker

ALCOHOL• Sometimes used in snooker or shooting to calm nerves

LOCAL ANAESTHETICS• Reduce pain, but may be allowed for medical reasons

MARIJUNA• Similar effect to alcohol

CORTICOSTERIODS• Reduce pain and inflammation from injury• Serious side effects, including diabetes, depression and weakening of the bones

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DOPE TESTING

Can be done at any time.

Urine samples are spilt into 2 bottles A and B

A sample is tested. If drugs are found, B sample is tested to double check

Refusing to give a sample is as serious as failing a test

If an athlete is found guilty of taking banned drugs, they are banned from competing, sometimes forever.

BLOOD DOPING

This is used to simulate high altitude training, without going to high altitudes.

Red blood cells are taken out of the athlete, so their body makes more to replace them

Before a competition, the red blood cells are injected back into the athlete, so that more O2 can be carried around their body.

This is banned by IOC

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Psychological FactorsPERSONALITY

People with different personalities prefer different sports. You can use the words introverted and extroverted to describe people’s personalities.

INTROVERTED – tend to choose more of these things for their sport

• Tend to get more nervous• Individual performances• Concentration• Precision• Less pain• Calm• Self-motivation• Thinking• Intricate skills• Less arousal

PERSONALITYEXTROVERT – tend to choose more of these

things• Excitement• Activity• Team involvement• Arousal• Speed• More pain• Simple skills• Less concentration• Less thinking

AGGRESSION can have good and bad effects. It must be controlled.

There are 2 types:INDIRECT – hitting objects (tennis balls)DIRECT – actual physical contact (rugby)

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MENTAL PREPARATION

You need to be mentally fit to perform well at most sports.

MOTIVATION is how keen you are to do something, the force that drives you on, your desire to succeed. It can be INTRINSIC or EXTRINSIC.

INTRINSIC – this comes from inside you. You play the sport because you want to do well at it and you enjoy it.

EXTRINSIC – this comes from outside. You may want to do well for a reward, such as money or publicity.

AROUSAL is about being excited, keen, and mentally ready to perform a task. If your arousal level is too low, you will not perform at your best because you probably aren’t that excited. If your arousal level is too high, you become anxious and nervous, so you won’t be able to give your best performance. If your arousal level is just right, you will be determined and ready, so should perform well.

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SKILLS

A skill is something you learn to do, you can’t be born with it.

Skills can be either basic or complex

BASIC• Running, jumping, throwing• Can be transferable across many activities• Tend to be learnt at an early age

COMPLEX• More specific to certain sport, like taking a penalty in football• Take more practice to master, and have more room for improvement

Skills can also be open or closed

OPEN - these are affected by external factors, such as where the ball is, where the goal is

CLOSED – these are hardly affected by the environment, as the same movements are usually made, like in darts the same movement is made.

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FEEDBACK

This is the most important part of the learning process. Your brain looks at the result of the output, and registers the information to enable you to do better next time.

There are 3 main ways of getting feedback:

Intrinsic – you can feel how you kicked the ball

Extrinsic – you get verbal feedback off a coach, teacher or friend

You can see the output. How successful was it? Did it go where I aimed it?

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SafetyThere are many ways of staying safe whilst taking part in sport. Its important to

make sure you are using the correct technique, wearing the correct types of clothing, have warmed up and cooled down, and are playing by the rules.

Many sport have protective clothing that should be worn when playing. In football, shin pads are expected to be worn, mouth guards in hockey and rugby.

There are also many rules in the sports that are there purely for health and safety reasons. No two-footed tackling in football, no tackling above the neck in rugby, no contact in netball.

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SPORTING INJURIES

There are 2 different types of injury you can get from sport:

CHRONIC• Caused by continuous stress on a certain body part

over a long period of time by overuse• Tennis players can develop tennis elbow – an

inflammation of the tendons in the elbow due to overuse of certain arm muscles

• Long distance runners can develop shin splints – a bone injury in the front of the leg

• Risks of this type of injury can be training too hard, not enough rest, poor footwear or bad technique

ACUTE• Caused by sudden stress on a body part, such as a

fracture, pulled muscle or concussion• Can occur by colliding with an opponent, being hit

by something or falling from a height or with speed.

INJURY PREVENTION

1. Take off any jewellery

2. Use the right equipment

3. Be aware of possible dangers

4. Use correct technique

5. Warm up before activity

6. Know and follow the rules

7. Wear suitable footwear

8. Use protective equipment if necessary

9. Use officials to ensure fair play

10. Cool down after activity

11. Give yourself time to recover before playing again.

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SOFT TISSUE INJURIES

Open injuries occur when the skin is broken, usually allowing blood to escape

Closed injuries happen under the skin

1. Bruising – damage to blood vessels

2. Strained (pulled) muscles – tears in tissues, caused by overstretching

3. Sprains – joint injuries, where the ligament has been stretched or torn

4. Dislocation – joint injuries, where the bone is pulled out of its usual position

5. Cartilage – can be torn by violent impact such as twisting

HARD TISSUE INJURIES

Fractures are either cracks in the bone or an actual break. These can be open or closed. In an open fracture, the bone breaks the skin; in a closed fracture, it happens under the skin.

Fractures are usually accompanied by bruising and swelling around the injured area, because the blood vessels are damaged there

They are also painful because of the damaged nerves inside the bone.

A stress fracture is a crack along the length of the bone, which is caused by continuous stress over a long period of time.

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TYPES AND TREATMENTS

HYPERTHERMIA

Symptoms – temperature increases, weak pulse, results from over exercising and dehydration

Treatment – lie patient in cool place, give them liquids

HYPOTHERMIA

Symptoms – temperature falls too low, muscles go rigid, irregular heart beat

Treatment – raise temperature, wrap in warm, dry clothing, hot drinks

CRAMP

Symptoms – involuntary contraction of muscles, caused by lack of salt in the blood, or lack of blood flowing to the muscle

Treatment – stretch the muscle, massaging it gently

TYPES AND TREATMENTS

WINDING

Symptoms – difficulty in breathing, pain in the abdomen

Treatment – lean forward, rub affected area

SHOCK

Symptoms – pale, clammy skin, fast, weak pulse, feel dizzy, thirsty, or sick

Treatment – call ambulance

CONCUSSION

Symptoms – unconsciousness, memory loss, sick

Treatment – call ambulance

STITCH

Symptoms – sharp pain in abdomen

Treatment – stop exercising, take deep breaths, breath out slowly

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RICE

This is a good treatment for all soft tissue injuries. It reduces pain, swelling and bruising.

R – rest. Stop straight away. If you carry on it will make the injury worse

I – ice. Apply ice to the injury. This makes the blood vessels contract to reduce the bleeding and swelling

C – compression. Wrapping the injury will also help to reduce the swelling, but don’t make it so tight that the blood is prevented from circulating

E – elevation. Support the injury at a raised level (above the heart), so the flow of blood is reduced because it has to flow against gravity