Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

1

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) in the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo

Abstract

Nitrates are an essential source of nitrogen (N) for plants. When nitrogen fertilizers are used to enrich soils,

nitrates may be carried by rain, irrigation and other surface waters through the soil into ground water.

Human and animal wastes can also contribute to nitrate contamination of ground water. Although any well

can become contaminated by nitrates, shallow, poorly constructed, or improperly located wells are more

susceptible to contamination. Nitrate levels in drinking water can also be an indicator of overall water

quality. Elevated N-NH4 (Ammonium Nitrite) levels may suggest the possible presence of other

contaminants such as disease-causing organisms, pesticides, or other inorganic and organic compounds that

could cause health problemsi.

This project aims at representing Data on N-NH4 presence in three rivers of North Eastern Kosovo; the

Ibar, the Sitnica and the Llapi. Data was collected by Kosovo Environmental Agency and opened through

Open Data Kosovo Foundation. These data were complemented with data on land use and different ethnic

populations in the area. I expect to find a relation between water pollution levels, locally produced food and

amount of population for each district.

The hypothesis behind this research is that social factors can determine access to clean water, and therefore

to a better health. Pollution in the rivers of Kosovo could be affecting certain minorities more than others

while contaminating one of their main sources of food, like crops. It is my goal to raise awareness on these

issues across the international community in Kosovo in order to address such an important issue.

Further GIS development could correlate data on income, urban development or causes of death. For the

aim of this project these data sets were not considered, as this is an exploratory study on the matter that

aims at triggering further debate on the base of new reliable data.

Introduction

The nitrate concentration in surface water is normally low (0–18 mg/l) but can reach high levels as a result

of agricultural runoff, refuse dump runoff or contamination with human or animal wastes. The

concentration often fluctuates with the season and may increase when the river is fed by nitrate-rich

aquifers. Nitrate concentrations have gradually increased in many European countries in the last few

decades and have sometimes doubled over the past 20 years. In the United Kingdom, for example, an

average annual increase of 0.7 mg/l has been observed in some riversii.

In the United States of America (USA), 0.3 mg/l for nitrite (USEPA, 1987). For example, according to the

World Health Organization (WHO)iii;

“Concentrations of up to 1500 mg/l were found in groundwater in an agricultural area of

India. The increasing use of artificial fertilizers, the disposal of wastes (particularly from animal

farming) and changes in land use are the main factors responsible for the progressive increase in

nitrate levels in groundwater supplies over the last 20 years. In Denmark and the Netherlands, for

example, nitrate concentrations are increasing by 0.2–1.3 mg/l per year in some areas. In most

countries, nitrate levels in drinking-water derived from surface water do not exceed 10 mg/l. In

some areas, however, concentrations are higher as a result of runoff and the discharge of sewage

effluent and certain industrial wastes.”

For some individuals and communities where vegetables with particularly high nitrate levels are consumed

or where well water contains elevated concentrations of nitrate, consumption may be significantly higher.

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

2

Inequalities in health imply a difference or a disparity either in access to health-promoting opportunities

and health services or in the distribution of disease burden (including morbidity, disability and mortality)

and positive health in the context of well-being. Health inequities are found across countries and between

different groups of people in the same country. Evidence shows that factors driving health inequities are

systematic and not distributed randomly. The WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health (CSDH)

defines health equity as;

“The absence of unfair and avoidable or remediable differences in health among

population groups defined socially, economically, demographically or geographically”.iv

Numerous studies summarized by WHO conclude that some of the variations in health across countries or

within populations can be identified as health inequities. A proportion of these differences – from 25% to

75% depending on the condition – is due not only to physical health factors but also increasingly to social

factors that are amenable to policy. The WHOv agrees that health inequities mostly point to policy failure,

reflecting unfair or unjust disparities in daily living conditions and in access to power, resources and

participation in society. The underlying causes of health inequities are complex. Moreover, inequalities

often reflect systematic social, political, historical, economic and environmental factors; these interface

with biological factors that are accumulated during a lifetime and often transferred across multiple

generations.

The term “social determinants” is often used as shorthand for all these factors, which are also known as the

“causes of the causes” to indicate their fundamental influence on disease causation and distribution of health

within a population or across countries. Moreover, the health system itself is a social determinant of health,

as it can either improve or exacerbate existing health inequities. The concept encompasses the full set of

social conditions in which people live and work, and has been summarized as “the social characteristics

within which living takes place”. In this context, health inequities are an important priority in the European

Region. They continue to increase and take many forms, from lack of access to health services to excess

premature mortality, hampering social development and well-being. Prerequisites for tackling health

inequities include being appropriately informed about their magnitude and distribution, both absolute and

relative, and understanding how pathways from social determinants, other intermediary factors and health

systems affect the disease burden, health and well-being

The environment represents an important health determinant, and the underlying issues are similar to the

social determinants of health. Recent assessments on the contribution of environmental factors to health

have estimated that they may be responsible for between 13% and 20% of the burden of disease in Europe,

depending on their mortality pattern classification, such as population-specific levels of child and adult

mortality stratavi. The availability of water in human living spaces, for both consumption and hygiene, is

essential.

This is an exploratory research seeks to shed light on some of the most pressing issues in Kosovo like the

access to clean water, the improvement of urban planning and the protections of food sources for local

people. This is not a descriptive and exhaustive study on the relation between access to water, pollution and

social conditions, it is rather, a first step in the design of new frameworks and entry-points for addressing

these multidimensional issues.

Data Synopsis

Sources:

European Commission of Statistics

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

3

Natural Earth

Open Data Kosovo

Kosovo Agency of Statistics

Kosovo Environmental Protection Agency

Google Maps

DivaGIS

UNEP

For this project, I needed basic administrative boundaries, such as the country which I obtained from

DivaGIS and district borders, which I obtained from Natural Earth. Sampling points with coordinates can

be found at Open Data Kosovo’s Website. Population data was obtained from Kosovo’s Statistical Agency

in .pdf format and converted to csv.

This project required also extensive table work as the tables obtained from Open Data Kosovo were not

translated into English. Moreover, Albanian was not the only challenge, some of the data as the name of

rivers (which I obtained from Hydro sheds were in Serbian). “Cleaning” tables, in order to represent only

one variables was difficult as translations had to be consistent with the coordinates of the sampling points.

The “Farmland” shapefiles were provided by Professor Stephen Metts. Tables with population data were

assembled manually, given the reduced number of municipalities and the language barrier, much of the

tables were constructed in this fashion.

Finally, ethnic population data was retrieved form Kosovos’ Statistical Agency and from the European

Commission of Statistics.

Methodology & Analysis

Maps 1, 2 and 3: This map represents Kosovo in the Balkan regions. This map resulted from joining

previously geo-referenced sampling points with the N-NH4 data. The source layer are polygons

representing the different districts and municipalities. Additionally this map represents the amount of

population per municipality, in a scale with graduated colors. This was possible by joining the source layer

“Municipalities” with a table on population data. Those municipalities considered for this paper were

highlighted in color red, by selecting by attributes and changing the outline. Unfortunately, Kosovo is a

small country and points would overlap consistently, therefore I saw the need to generate another two maps,

as Zoomed areas, in order to identify clearly the sampling points.

Map 4: Represents sampling points, rivers of Kosovo and Farmland areas. The aim of this map is to

discover of there is a relation between farmland and the presence of rivers. For this map, I placed a shapefile

called “Farmland” of top of other two files, “Municipalities” and “Kosovo”. Then I selected and exported

only the selected municipalities (Produjevo, Mitrovice, Viticrn, Obilic, Kosovo Polje, Lipljan and Smilje).

I placed this export on top of Kosovo and added towns, sampling points and rivers.

Map5: This maps shows the crop areas than are potentially served by rivers in Northern Eastern Kosovo. I

buffered the “Rivers” layer at 800 mts. (half mile) to determine whether or not, this fields and town could

have been making use of these water sources.

Map6: This map shows ethnic minorities in the different municipalities. I used a dot density system to

classify four minorities (Serbians, Albanians, Ashkalis and Romas). I joined a table with ethnic population

obtained from the European Commission of Statistics. This is in order to identify the presence of certain

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

4

ethnicities in polluted areas. Dot density was established as 1 dot = 1 percent of the population of the

municipality.

Map7: This map shows the two water companies in charge of providing clean water. The map was

complemented with two graphs of relative percentages and total amount of population with no access to

water. Municipalities were clipped out of the “Municipalities” source layer and places on top of a base map

of Kosovo. Then I added “Rivers” and “Sampling Points”. I avoided including levels of pollutions as I

understand this was clearly represented in the previous maps.

Results

Data on access to water (the population connected to a water supply system) and sanitation (the population

connected to a sewage system or a septic tank or with other means of hygienic sewage disposal) in urban

and rural settings were analyzed by WHOvii for changes, between 1990, and 2008. Overall, the share of the

population with access to water in the Region in 2008 was 96% in urban areas, but 75% in rural areas.

Differences between countries range from nearly 100% access in both urban and rural areas to some larger

gaps between areas in eastern countries in the Region. Inadequate management of human excreta disposal

may lead to increased disease risk. In the European Region, 97% of the urban population has improved

sanitary excreta disposal, in contrast to 89% in rural areas.viii

The lack of these services in some parts of the Region has led increased exposure to pathogens, some

causing diseases with high epidemic potential, such as cholera, shigellosis, hemolytic uraemicsyndrome,

cryptosporidiosis and giardiasisix. These infectious diseases have taken their toll, with increased numbers

of cases, including some requiring hospitalization, resulting in direct and indirect economic loss.

Various socioeconomic, demographic and geographical conditions determine environmental exposures and

produce important health inequalitiesx, many of which can be considered to be inequities. The WHO

Regional Office for Europe recently assessed the impact of environmental factors on health inequalities in

the European Region. Key factors include the availability of water and sanitation, housing conditions and

the broader environment, including outdoor and indoor air quality and noisexi.

Maps 1, 2 and 3: Levels of pollution seems to increase as the water stream gets closer to cities. The case

of Kosovo Polje is interesting. If we look at the map without considering distances might seem like Kosovo

Polje has a huge problem of polluted rivers. Though this might be true, given the high levels of informal

construction in the municipality it is important to highlight that Civil Society organizations in Kosovoxii

like Ec Ma Ndryshe, have denounced to the authorities a significant number of illegal construction sites in

Pristina and therefore we need to consider this before drawing any conclusions. There is less than five miles

between downtown Pristina and Kosovo Polje, therefore, further research should be conducted on this issue

because the cause of this pollution might well be illegal construction sites in Pristina dumping their water

into the rivers.

Map 4 and 5: This maps confirms our initial assumption. Indeed, crop areas overlay perfectly with rivers

and sampling points. Moreover, once the rivers were buffered there was no “Farmland” area outside the

buffer. Farmlands areas are evidently contained within a close area to this rivers, and more importantly, to

some of the most polluted places such as Kosovo Polje, Obilic and Viticrn, but also in more heavily

populated areas such as Lipljan.

Map 6: This map shows a prevalence of Ashkali and Roma population around the most polluted sample

sites. Specifically, in Kosovo Polje, were the Ashkali community represents an important part of the

population. The Ashkali community has been historically and structurally, driven to inhabit in the peripheral

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

5

areas of the main cities. An important portion of this population base their livelihood system on recycling

trash and collecting waste. This is an important finding giving the special vulnerability of this group.

Map 7: This map shows the different percentages of people who still lacks of access to clean water. For

more information on Public Services in Kosovo and Water Supply please refer to:

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTKOSOVO/Resources/Report_SCE_WSCK.pdf

Conclusion

The Government of Kosovo adopted the Kosovo Environmental Strategy (KES) in July 2004xiii. This has

been an important step of Kosovo towards improving the environment and establishing strategies for

achieving sustainable development. The formulation of the strategies, also incorporate seven priority

problems, such as, climate changes, acidification, biological diversity, trans boundary issuesxiv, water, urban

environment, coastal areas and waste. However, Kosovo is dealing with pollution and with the fact that

there is a “limited water reserves which in the future will be a limiting factor for the economic and social

development of the country”xv

Kosovo is facing difficulties with the lack of drinking water. It is estimated that “more than 80

municipalities in Kosovo have not enough drinking water”. According the UN and OSCE representatives,

Kosovo has a real problem with drinking water to such extend that in the future may have to import it.

Another factor is that the water is not equally distributed. According to the statistics “only 44-50% of the

Kosovo’s population has access to water supply systems, which are managed by 32 municipal companies

(now coordinated by 7 regional water companies).”xvi

Protection of water resources, further investment in public services and good planning of urbanization of

the population will help to address access limitations.

References:

i http://ede.grid.unep.ch/

ii http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/nitratenitrite2ndadd.pdf

iii Ibid Idem.

iv Carrascar, Alvaro http://www.cancer.org/cancer/news/expertvoices/post/2012/07/24/health-

equity-health-disparities-whats-the-story.aspx

v Water Security for Central Kosovo The Kosovo - Ibër River Basin and Ibër Lepenc Water

System Water resources, water demands, Water balance assessment, And programme of

measures MARCH 2011 Edited March 2012. OSCE.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTKOSOVO/Resources/Report_SCE_WSCK.pdf

vi http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/nitratenitrite2ndadd.pdf

vii Nitrate and nitrite in drinking-water Background document for development of WHO

Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. WHO. 2011.

viii http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/197113/EHR2012-Eng.pdf?ua=1

Measuring Nitrogen (N-NH4) In the rivers of North Eastern Kosovo – Nicolas Rodriguez – GIS – GPIA – 2014.

6

ix Annual epidemiological report on communicable diseases in Europe 2010.

http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/Pages/home.aspx

x KOSOVO MOSAIC 2012 Overview of perceptions on public services and local authorities.

USAID and UNDP.

xi The European health report 2012 Charting the way to well-being. World Health Organization

Europe. 2012 ISBN (ebook) 978 92 890 1428 1

xii

http://www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/civil_society_organisations_in_kosovo_call_for_

investigation_into_corruptio xiii Tumbovska, Katerina. Water Resources Management in the Western Balkan Region (Case

study of Macedonia, Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro) Geneva, 2011

xiv The discharge point of main water flows in Kosovo to neighbor countries is available in:

Ruzhdi P, Vahdet P, Arsim E, Valbon Bytyqi. 2010. Water Resources Challenges in Kosovo and

their Trans-boundary Impacts. Pristina, Kosovo. [Online].

http://balwois.com/balwois/administration/full_paper/ffp-2042.pdf p.3

xv

http://www.giweh.ch/documents/GIWEH%20reports/9%20_Water%20Resources%20Managem

ent%20in%20the%20Western%20Balkan%20Region%20(Case%20study%20of%20Macedonia,

%20Albania,%20Kosovo%20and%20Montenegro)_%20Katerina%20Tumbovska.pdf

xvi Ibid. Idem

Pec

Prizren

Istok

Klina

Pristina

Podujevo

Gora

GnjilaneDjakovica

Srbica

Lipljan

Leposavic

Decani

Vitina

Vucitrn

Suva RekaOrahovac

Urosevac

Strpce Kacanik

Glogovac

Zubin Potok

Stimlje

Kosovska Kamenica

Obilic

ZvecanKosovska Mitrovica

Novo BrdoKosovo Polje

SERBIA

MACEDONIAALBANIA

MONTENEGRO

Water Pollution by N-NH4 in North Eastern Kosovo

¯

30Miles

Podujevo

Vucitrn

ZvecanKosovska Mitrovica

Levels of Pollution by N-NH4 mg./lMedian_

0.033454 - 0.0373440.545767 - 0.7702201.077530 - 1.2441522.030094 - 3.355281

4.395467 - 4.706278

5.796392 - 6.236559

RiverZoom AreaTotalPop

0 - 25.00025.000 - 50.00050.000 - 75.00075.000 - 88.499

¯

Pristina

Vucitrn

Obilic

Kosovo Polje

RiverN-NH4Median_

0.033454 - 0.0373440.545767 - 0.7702201.077530 - 1.2441522.030094 - 3.3552814.395467 - 4.706278

5.796392 - 6.236559

Zoom Area TotalPop

0 - 50,00050,000- 100,000100,000 - 150,000150,000 - 200,000

¯

Pristina

Podujevo

Lipljan

Vucitrn

Stimlje

Obilic

Kosovska Mitrovica

Kosovo PoljeKosovo

Serbia

¯

10Miles

RiversFarmland AreasMunicipalities TownsSample Points for N-NH4Districts

TotalPop2154921550 - 3482734828 - 5760557606 - 8849988500 - 198897Kosovo

Farmlands in Eastern Kosovo

Pristina

Podujevo

Lipljan

Vucitrn

Stimlje

Obilic

Kosovska Mitrovica

Kosovo Polje

Kosovo

Serbia

¯

10Miles

Sample Points for N-NH4RiversArea within 1/2 mile from riversMunicipalities and Farmland Areas

N-NH4 detected in Sampling Sites (mg./L)MeanPollution_byMunicip1.csv.Mean

0.0 - 0.20.2 - 1.21.2 - 2.2 2.2 - 3.2 3.2 - 4.24.2 - 5.2 Kosovo

Farmland Areas Served by Rivers in Eastern Kosovo

Kosovo Serbia

¯

10Miles

sample_points% Roma, Egyptians, Serbians and Ashkali.

1 Dot = 1Rom_PercEgyp_PercSerb_PercAsh_PercRiverKosovo

Ethnic Minorities in Eastern Kosovo

73017

156022

People with no access to Water by Water Companies

Kosovska MitrovicaPristina

52.3

35.4

Percentage of people with no access to water by Water Companies

Kosovska MitrovicaPristina

10Miles

Kosovska Mitrovica Water CompanyPristina Water CompanySample Points for N-NH4

N-NH4 detected in Sampling Sites (mg./L)1 Dot = 0.105430524Mean

Municipalities by PopulationTotalPop

20.000 - 35.00035.000 - 75.00075.000 - 100.000100.000 - 150.000150.000 - 200.000Districts

Clean Water Supply in Eastern Kosovo

¯