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Page 1: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Medieval Europe

Page 2: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Meso.

Egypt

Greece

India

China

Islam

Western Europe

Indus Valley

Vedic Jaina Gutpas Kerala

Sumeria AkkadiaBablyon

AssyriaPersia

Old Kingdom

Middle Kingdom

New Kingdom

Minoan Mycenaean ClassicalHellenistic

3000 BC 2000 BC 1000 BC 0 1000 AD 2000 AD

ArchaicByzantine

Roman

Shang ZhouQinHan9 Chapt.

WarringStates

3K,JinN/S DynSui, Tang

Yuan MingQing

Song

House ofWisdom

Omar

Al Tusi

Ptolemies

Hello! Rest of Course

Ancient Middle Modern

Page 3: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Medieval Times

• Early Middle Ages – Dark ages (c.450–750): – Medieval Europe was a large geographical region divided into smaller and culturally diverse political units that were never totally dominated by any one authority.

– Feudalism– No traveling – No new math to get excited about– Gregorian Chants!

Page 4: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Boethius (480 – 524)

• Boethius became an orphan when he was seven years old.

• He was extremely well educated. 

• Boethius was a philosopher, poet, mathematician, statesman, and (perhaps) martyr.

Page 5: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Boethius (480 – 524)

• He is best known as a translator of and commentator on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus).

• His mathematics texts were the best available and were used for many centuries at a time when mathematical achievement in Europe was at a low point. 

• Boethius’ Arithmetic taught medieval scholars about Pythagorean number theory.

Page 6: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Boethius (480 – 524)

• His writings and translations were the main works on logic in Europe becoming known collectively as Logica vetus.

• One of the first musical works to be printed was Boethius's De institutione musica, written in the early sixth century.

• It was for medieval authors, from around the ninth century on, the authoritative document on Greek music‐theoretical thought and systems. 

Page 7: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Boethius (480 – 524)

• One of the first musical works to be printed was Boethius's De institutione musica, written in the early sixth century.

• It was for medieval authors, from around the ninth century on, the authoritative document on Greek music‐theoretical thought and systems. 

• For example, Franchino Gaffurio in Theorica musica(1492) acknowledged Boethius as the authoritative source on music theory.

Page 8: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Medieval Times

• (Middle) Middle Ages (750 ‐ 1000 AD)• The Church became the standard bearer of civilization and education

• The Papacy became the most important secular power.

• Monasteries became places where ancient learning was preserved. 

• Carolingian Empire (Charlemagne)

Page 9: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Names from Carolingian Empire

• Pippin III• Carloman• Charles the Great – Charlemagne

– Alcuin

• Louis the Pious• Charles the Bald• Charles the Fat

Page 10: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Medieval Times

• High Middle Ages (1000‐ 1300 AD)• The Church was the unifying institution• The Crusades• Church developed universities

– Universities of Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge were founded

• Scholasticism (Thomas Aquinas)

Page 11: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Medieval Times

• Crusades – Brought Europe into contact with the Arabic world and the Greek writings which had been preserved, as well as the work of the Arabic mathematicians and astronomers.

• Scholasticism – incorporated the Greek philosophies into the Church.   Thomas Aquinas particularly liked Aristotle. 

Page 12: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1272)• St. Thomas Aquinas was 

an Italian philosopher and theologian, Doctor of the Church, known as the Angelic Doctor.

• He is the greatest figure of scholasticism ‐philosophical study as practiced by Christian thinkers in medieval universities.

Page 13: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1272)

• He is one of the principal saints of the Roman Catholic Church, and founder of the system declared by Pope Leo XIII to be the official Catholic philosophy.

• St. Thomas Aquinas held that reason and faith constitute two harmonious realms in which the truths of faith complement those of reason; both are gifts of God, but reason has an autonomy of its own.

Page 14: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Leonardo of Pisa (1170‐1250)• Also known as Fibbonaci

(from filius Bonaccia, “son of Bonnaccio”) 

• The greatest mathematician of the middle ages.  

• He traveled widely in the Mediterranean with his father while young. 

• Studied under a Muslim teacher.

Page 15: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Fibonacci

• Published Liber abaci (Book of the abacus) in 1202.  But it isn’t about abaci.  

• Summarizes Arabic arithmetic knowledge, and explains the merits of the “Hindu‐Arabic” number system, the “nine Indian figures” together with a 0, or zephirum*, in Arabic.  

* Root of both zero and cipher.

Page 16: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• After summarizing arithmetic knowledge, lays out a series of problems, including commercial transactions, exchanges of currency, etc.

• Uses fractions, but curiously does not use decimal fractions.  Instead, he uses common fractions, sexagesimal fractions, and unit fractions, particularly sums of unit fractions in the Egyptian style.  

Page 17: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• Has tables to convert common fractions to unit fractions, e.g. ,  (the +’s are implied by juxtaposition here).  

• He also used another strange notation for fractions:  

∙ ∙ ∙.

• This led to the following kinds of headache‐inducing reading:

Page 18: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• If  of a rotulus is worth  of a bizantium, 

then 

of a bizantium is worth 

of a rotulus.  

• I hope that clears up the rotulus – bizantiumquestion.  

Page 19: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• There were some interesting problems included as well:– Seven old women went to Rome; each woman had seven mules; each mule carried seven sacks; each sack contained seven loaves; and with each loaf there were seven knives; each knife was put up in seven sheathes. . . .  

– Ahmes would have been proud.  

Page 20: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• The most famous problem in the book:– A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month on becomes productive?

• The solution gives rise to the celebrated Fibonacci sequence, some properties of which we will explore later.

Page 21: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci• Other types of problems in the third section of Liber abaci include:– A spider climbs so many feet up a wall each day and slips back a fixed number each night; how many days does it take him to climb the wall?

– A hound whose speed increases arithmetically chases a hare whose speed also increases arithmetically. How far do they travel before the hound catches the hare?

– Calculate the amount of money two people have after a certain amount changes hands and the proportional increase and decrease are given. 

Page 22: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber abaci

• There are also problems involving perfect numbers, the Chinese remainder theorem and problems involving the summing arithmetic and geometric series. 

• In the fourth section, he deals with irrational numbers both with rational approximations and with geometric constructions. 

Page 23: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Fibonacci

• Also wrote other books, including • Practica geometriae, • Flos, and • Liber quadratorum.

Page 24: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Practica geometriae• Contains a large collection of geometry problems arranged into eight chapters with theorems based on Euclid's Elements and On Divisions.

• Includes practical information for surveyors, including a chapter on how to calculate the height of tall objects using similar triangles. 

• Included is the calculation of the sides of the pentagon and the decagon from the diameter of circumscribed and inscribed circles, as well as the inverse calculation. 

Page 25: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Flos

• Johannes of Palermo, a member of the Holy Roman emperor Frederick II's court, presented a number of problems as challenges to Fibonacci. 

• Fibonacci solved three of them and put his solutions in Flos.

Page 26: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Flos

• One of these problems Johannes of Palermo took from Omar Khayyam's algebra book where it is solved by means of the intersection a circle and a hyperbola. 

• It is to give an accurate approximation to a root of 10x + 2x2+ x3= 20.

• Fibonacci proves that the root of the equation is neither an integer nor a fraction, nor the square root of a fraction. 

Page 27: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Flos

• Without explaining his methods, Fibonacci then gives the approximate solution in sexagesimal notation as 1;22,7,42,33,4,40.

• This converts to the decimal 1.3688081075 which is correct to nine decimal places, a remarkable achievement. 

Page 28: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber Quadratorum

• Liber quadratorum, written in 1225, is Fibonacci's most impressive piece of work, although not the work for which he is most famous. 

• The book's name means the book of squares and it is a number theory book which, among other things, examines methods to find Pythogorean triples.

Page 29: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber Quadratorum

• In Liber Quadratorum Fibonacci also gave examples of cubic equations whose solutions could not be rational numbers.  

Page 30: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber Quadratorum

• Example:  Find rational numbers x, u, vsatisfying:  .

• Fibonacci’s solution involved finding three squares that form an arithmetic sequence, say  

so d is the 

common difference. Then let  .

• One example would be Then  .

Page 31: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber Quadratorum

• Finally, Fibonacci proved that all Pythagorean triples a, b, c with  can be obtained by letting 

, for s and tpositive integers.

• It was known in Euclid’s time that this method would always general Pythagorean triples; Fibonacci showed that it in fact produced allPythagorean triples.  

Page 32: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Liber Quadratorum

• You can now create Pythagorean Triples to amaze your friends and confuse your enemies:

Page 33: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

s t a b c1 2 4 3 51 4 8 15 171 5 10 24 261 6 12 35 372 3 12 5 132 4 16 12 202 5 20 21 292 6 24 32 403 4 24 7 253 5 30 16 343 6 36 27 453 7 42 40 584 5 40 9 414 6 48 20 52

18 174 6264 29952 30600

Page 34: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Fibonacci Sequence

• Although Fibonacci is justifiably famous for this sequence, his Liber abaci was not its first appearance.  The earliest known appearance of this sequence was in the work of the Sanskrit grammarian Pingala, sometime between 450 and 200 BC.

• He was studying the number of meters of a given overall length could be made with the Long (L) and short (S) vowels used in syllables (with the long vowel twice as long as the short).

Page 35: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Pingala

• To get a meter of length n, you could add a short syllable S to a meter of length n‐1, or a long syllable L to a meter of length n‐2.  Adding these two gave you the total meters of length n¸ and since it started out with:

SSS, L

SSS, LS, SL,it is easy to see that the recurrence relations produced what we know as the Fibonacci sequence.  

Page 36: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• Born near Königsberg in Lower Franconia in 1436.

• Johann Müller• Johannes Germanus• Johannes Francus• Johann von Kunsperk• Regio Monte (“royal 

mountain”)• Regiomontanus• Johannes de Monte Regio

Page 37: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• Studied under Peurbach, who was writing a corrected translation of Ptolemy’s Almagest.When Peurbach died young, Johann took over this task.  

• Became friends with Cretan, George of Trebizond, a Ptolemaic scholar, whom he later criticized for errors in interpretation, as “the most impudently perverse blabber‐mouth.”  

Page 38: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• Traveled extensively.• Was asked in 1467 to be librarian to the Royal Library of Hungary (the king had just returned triumphant from a war with the Turks, brought back a number of rare books).  

• Cast the horoscope of the King, predicting that he would not die, and when it turned out that way, was lavishly bestowed with gifts.  

Page 39: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• Returned home in 1471.  He settled in Nürnberg, which had a printing press.  

• First publisher of mathematical and astronomical books for commercial use.  Also published some very popular calendars.

• Was asked by Pope Sixtus IV to come to Rome and help revise the old Julian calendar, which was out of tune with the seasons.  

• He died there on July 6, 1476.  

Page 40: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• We don’t know cause of death, but one tradition is  that he was poisoned by the sons of Trebizond, the “most impudently perverse blabber‐mouth.” 

• Another tradition is that it was a passing comet.  Or a plague.  Take your pick. 

Page 41: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Regiomontanus

• Wrote De trangulusomnimodis, or On triangles of every kind.  It had five parts or books, and was modeled, of course, on the Elements.  

• Finished in 1464, but not published until 1533.  

Page 42: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Book 1:  Basic definitions of quantity, ratio, equality, circle, arc, chord.  

• “When the arc and its chord are bisected, we call that half‐chord the right sine of the half‐arc.”  

• A list of axioms, followed by 56 theorems, most geometrical, solving plane triangles.  Theorem 20 uses the sine to solve a right triangle.  

Page 43: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Book 2:  The Law of Sines, stated literally rather than with symbols.  Used to solve SAA and SSA cases (thus dealing with the “ambiguous” case).  

• Area of triangle in terms of two sides and included angle:  

• Used sines, cosines (= sine of complement), and versines (1 – cosine).

Page 44: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Sines and cosines were still defined not in terms of right angles, but in terms of line segments associated with a given arc in a circle of fixed radius.  

• The fixed radius was usually a power of 10, or 6 times a power of 10, with the powers getting larger in later books so as to avoid decimal fractions.  

Page 45: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

On Triangles of Every Kind

• Books 3‐5 deal with spherical geometry and trigonometry, as a prerequisite to astronomy.

• “You, who wish to study great and wondrous things, who wonder about the movements of the stars, must read these theorems about triangles. . . . For no one can bypass the science of triangles and reach a satisfying knowledge of the stars. . . . A new student should neither be frightened nor despair. . . . And where a theorem may present some problem, he may always look down to the numerical examples for help.”

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Ephemerides

• Regiomontanus published his Ephemerides in 1474.

• It contained tables listing the position of the sun, moon, and planets for each day from 1474 to 1506.  

• Columbus took it with him on his fourth voyage, and famously used it to predict the lunar eclipse of February 29, 1504, to the amazement of the hostile natives.  

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Fra Luca Pacioli

• 1447‐1517• Local education, then became a Franciscan Friar.

• The “Father of Accounting.”  

• Introduced  for più and meno, or plus and minus.  

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Fra Luca Pacioli

• Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalita (1494)

• Shamelessly borrowed from earlier authors.  It laid out the boundaries of contemporary mathematical knowledge.  

• Ended with the prediction that the solution (by radicals) of the cubic equation was impossible (like the quadrature of the circle).

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Which leads us to our transitional character, Scipione del Ferro.

• Born 1465, but did his important work with the cubic between 1500 and 1515.  

• Didn’t publish, but closely guarded his work.

Page 50: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Depressed Cubic

• By making the substitution  for an appropriate value of c, any cubic can be reduced to a cubic without a second degree term.  Thus it will be of the form:

• , with b and c  rational numbers.  

• But in 1500, we only liked positive rational numbers, so there were actually several forms of this “depressed” cubic.

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Depressed Cubic

••••

• del Ferro solved this depressed cubic in at least one, possibly all, of its forms.  

Page 52: Medieval Europe - Brigham Young Universitywilliams/Classes/300Su2011/PPTs... · 2011-07-26 · on Greek writings on logic and mathematics (Plato, Aristotle, Nichomachus). • His

Scipione del Ferro

• When he died, his papers containing this solution were left to his son‐in‐law Annibaledella Nave, and to one of del Ferro’s students, Antonio Maria Fiore.

• Fiore intended to use it.<cue ominous music>