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Page 1: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN

Agronomija - UNI

Page 2: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

DUŠIK

PRIVZEM: NH4+ (pasiven)

NO3- (aktiven, H-kotransport)

fiksacija N2

TRANSPORT:- dobro mobilen v rastlini- transportne oblike amida glutamin (2N/5C)in asparagin (2N/4C), aminokislina arginin (4N/6C), ureida alantoin in alantoinska kislina (4N/4C)

FUNKCIJE: sestavni del aminokislin, amidov, proteinov, nukleinskihkislin, nukleotidov, koencimov, heksoaminov, itd.

POMANJKANJE: - pogosto- kloroze predvsem na starih listih- listi postanejo popolnoma rumeni in odmrejo- zaradi tvorbe antocianov lahko purpurna barvastebel in spodnjih strani listov (paradižnik, koruza)

Page 3: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

ATP

ADP + PiH+

2-3 H+

NO3-

redukcija nitrata

NO3- + 8e- + 8H+ → NH3 + 2H2O + OH-

alkalinizacija

OH-

Rizosfera / Apoplast Plazmalema Citosol

NO3- prehrana (sprejem anionov > sprejem kationov)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 4: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

ATP

ADP + PiH+

NH4+

acidifikacija –zakisanje

Rizosfera / Apoplast Plazmalema Citosol

NH4+ prehrana (sprejem kationov > sprejem anionov)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 5: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

NO3-

NH4+

(N2)

aminokislineamidi

peptidiaminiureidi

proteini

nukleinske kisline

drugokoencimisek. produkti...

Agronomija - UNI

Dušik se v rastlini vgrajuje v enostavne in kompleksnejše organske molekule

Page 6: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Pomanjkanje dušika

Slaba rastKloroze in senescenca, ki napreduje od starejših listov po rastlini navzgorAntociani

Agronomija - UNI

Page 7: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

nitrifikacijadenitrifikacija

nebi

ološ

ka o

ksid

acija

asim

ilatorna redukcija nitrata

organski N

deam

inac

ija

asimil acija am

onija

fiksacija dušika

Kroženje dušika

Agronomija - UNI

Page 8: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

= REDUKCIJA DUŠIKA (NO3- → NH4

+ ) IN NJEGOVA VGRADNJA V ORGANSKE MOLEKULE

Asimilatorna redukcija nitrata

redukcija poteka v dveh stopnjah prva NO3- (nitrat) → NO2- (nitrit) poteka v citosoludruga NO2- (nitrit) → NH4+ (amonij) poteka v citosolu

je energetsko zahtevna: poraba 12 ATP

je zahtevna s stališča porabe reducentov

energijo in reducente zagotavlja proces fotosinteze (fotosintetska redukcija nitrata)

lahko poteka v koreninah ali listih

Agronomija - UNI

Page 9: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

transporter nitrata

plazmalema

vakuola

nitrat reduktaza

nitrit reduktaza

glutamin sintaza / glutamat sintaza

glutamin plastid

Asimilatorna redukcija nitrata

Agronomija - UNI

Page 10: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

NO3-

NO3- + NAD(P)H + H+ + 2e- → NO2

- + NAD(P)+ + H2O

mesto reakcije: citosolencim: nitrat reduktaza,

MoCo encim, regulira ga nivo nitrata, svetloba, ogljikovi hidratiaktivacija z defosforilacijo

Asimilatorna redukcija nitrata

1) nitrat → nitrit

NO2- + 6 Fd red + 8H+ + 6e- → NH4

+ + 6 Fd oks + 2H2O

mesto reakcije: plastidi, kloroplastencim: nitrit reduktaza

2) nitrit → amonij

Agronomija - UNI

Page 11: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

svetloba

svetlob. reakcijefotosinteze

feredoksin(reduciran)

feredoksin(oksidiran)

(Fe4S4) → heme-

nitrit reduktaza

Agronomija - UNI

Page 12: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

0 6 12 18 24

0

2

4

6

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

oo

oo

o

Vse

bnos

t top

nih

ogljik

ovih

hid

rato

v[ %

v s

uhi s

novi

]

-----A

ktivnost nitrat reduktaze[ μg N

O2 -(g sveže m

ase) -1h-1]

Čas [ ure ]

Dnevni hod aktivnosti nitrat reduktaze

Agronomija - UNI

Page 13: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

nitrat reduktaza - protein

nitrat reduktaza - geni

transkripcija

translacija

+

+

+

NO3-

ogljikovi hidrati

svetloba

citokinini

_

glutamin

ABA_

+

Aktivnost nitrat reduktaze uravnavajo različni dejavniki

Agronomija - UNI

Page 14: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Asimilacija nitrata in njegovo kopičenje

Page 15: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Rastline, ki jih vzgajamo pri nizkih svetlobnih jakostih (npr. v rastlinjakih pozimi oz. zgodaj spomladi) vsebujejo precej več nitrata kot rastline, ki rastejo ob močnejši svetlobi.

Vzroki:primanjkljaj reducetnovprimanjkljaj ogljikovih skeletovnegativna povratna regulacija – v rastlini se kopičijo aminokisline, ki jih rastlina ne porablja za rast

Nitrat je škodljiv za človeka -pretvorba v NO2

-

→ motnje funkcije hemoglobina (methemoglobinemija)→ kancerogeni nitrozamini

Page 16: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO3

- as a result of an excess of uptake over reduction. Different approaches, which are used to reduce leaf nitrate, often result in a yield loss. A computerized aeroponic system, which supplies different nitrate concentrations in accordance with the changeable light conditions (dynamic light dependent application of nitrate), was used to reduce nitrate accumulation in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) var. Capitata cv. Vanity. Under unfavorable light conditions nitrate was supplied at limited rates (slight-, medium-and strong reduction) to the plants. In response to given light conditions the nitrate supply was reduced close to one-half or one-fourth of the full nutrient solution (8 mmol NO3

- L-1). Controlled nutrition resulted in efficient reduction in leaf nitrate. In the early-spring experiment the average nitrate content in outer leaves was decreased by 9%, 63% and 92% and in the late-spring experiment the decrease was 23%, 58% and 76% compared to control. At the same time the controlled, light dependent nitrate deprivation, did not result in a loss of a lettuce yield (except in the treatment with strong nitrate reduction) and had limited effects on photosynthesis (PN -Ci measurements) and photosynthetic pigments.

DEMŠAR Jernej, OSVALD Jože and VODNIK Dominik (2004)The Effect of Light Dependent Application of Nitrate on the Growth of Aeroponically Grown Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.).Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 2004

Page 17: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Računalnik

Aeroponski sistem

Hranilna raztopina

Črpalka

Svetlobni senzor

Krmilna enota

konc. 1 konc. 3 konc. 2 konc. 4

Solati sorte ‘Vanity’ smo v aeroponskem poskusu kontrolirano omejevali dobavo nitrata upoštevajoč svetlobne razmere.

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glutamat + NH4+ + ATP → glutamin + ADP + Pi

(glutamin sintaza)

glutamin + 2-oksoglutarat + NADH + H+ → 2 glutamat + NAD+

(glutamat sintaza)

Amonij NH4+

Vgradnja amonijevega iona

1)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 19: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

GLUTAMIN SINTAZA

GLUTAMAT SINTAZA

Page 20: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

2-oksoglutarat + NH4+ + NAD(P)H ←→ glutamat + H2O + NAD(P)+

(glutamat dehidrogenaza)

glutamat + NH4+ + ATP → glutamin + ADP + Pi

(glutamin sintaza)

glutamin + 2-oksoglutarat + NADH + H+ → 2 glutamat + NAD+

(glutamat sintaza)

Amonij NH4+

1)

2)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 21: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Glutamat dehidrogenaza

amonij

glutamat2-oksoglutarat

Agronomija - UNI

Page 22: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

transaminacije - sinteza aminokislin, amidov

mesto: citoplazma, kloroplast, mitohondrij, glioksisomi in peroksisomiencimi: aminotransferaze, sintetaze amino kislin

glutamat oksalacetat α-ketoglutarat aspartat

Aspartatna aminotransferaza

Prenos amino skupine ...

Agronomija - UNI

Page 23: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as
Page 24: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

DUŠIK

BIOLOŠKA (SIMBIOTSKA) FIKSACIJA DUŠIKA

Agronomija - UNI

Page 25: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

biološka fiksacija dušika → 139-170 x 106 ton N leto-1

gnojenje → 65 x 106 ton N leto-1

Haber-Bosch: N2 + 3H2 → 2 NH3 (↑ tlak, ↑ temperatura)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 26: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

N2 + 8e- + 8H+ + 16 MgATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16 MgATP + 16Pi

encim: nitrogenaza

Reakcijo so sposobni vršiti samo nekateri prokarioti:

simbiotske bakterije

rizosferne bakterije

prostoživeče bakterije

Biološka fiksacija dušika

Page 27: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

tip N-fiksirajoči rod

modrozelene cepljivke (Cyanophyta) Anabaena, Nostoc, Calothrix, Gloeotheca

aerobne bakterije Azotobacter, Azotospirillum, Derxia,Beijerinckia, Bacillus, Klebsiella

anaerobne bakteriije Clostridium, Methanococcus

anaerobne fotoavtotrofne bakterije Chromatium, Rhodospirillum

Prostoživeči fiksatorji dušika

Agronomija - UNI

Page 28: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

fiksiran N

ogljikovihidrati

SIMBIOTSKA FIKSACIJA DUŠIKA

Simbioza = sožitje, oba partnerja imata od zveze korist

Page 29: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

karikatura Dirk Redecker

Agronomija - UNI

Page 30: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

gostiteljska rastlina N-fiksirajoči prokariont

metuljnice AzorhizobiumBradyrhizobiumPhotorhyzobiumRhizobiumSinorhizobium

aktinorizne rastline Alnus (jelša), Ceanothus, Casuarina, Datisca

Frankia

Gunnera Nostoc

Azzola Anabaena

Simbiotski fiksatorji dušika

Agronomija - UNI

Page 31: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Razvoj simbioze z dušik fiksirajočimi bakterijami

izmenjava signalov med simbiontoma (Nod-geni gostitelja(nodulin)- in nod-geni bakterije (nodulation)migracija bakterij h koreninam (kemotaksija - bekterijeprivlačijo isoflavonoidi in betaini, ki jih izloča rastlinainterakcije oligosaharidov (nod faktor) bakterije in lektinov napovršini koreninskih laskovkodranje koreninskih laskov, vstop bakterij skozi celičnosteno laska in razvoj infekcijske niti, invaginacije plazmaleme, po kateri potujejo bakterije in se delijorazvoj primordija nodula, delitve celic v korteksuko infekcijska nit doseže primordij nodula, se bakterije ovite v fragmente gostiteljeve plazmaleme sprostijo v celiceprimordijadelitev bakterijskih celic, rast, diferenciacija v bakterioide

Agronomija - UNI

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koreninski eksudat

kolonijaizražanje nod genov

receptorji za lektine

pritrditev bakterij, bakterije izločajo signale za kodranje kor. laskov

kodranje kor. laskov

bakterijski signali ali sekund. rastli. signali

razgraditev cel.stene

razvoj infekcijskega

vlakna

vzpodbuditev celičnih delitev v

skorjimeristem nodula

zgodnji razvoj nodula / gomoljčka

flavonoidi in lektini

Bakterije po infekcijskem vlaknu pripotujejo do namnoženih celic skorje,

se v njih sprostijo, so bakterioidi

Page 33: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

RIZOBIJ

INFEKCIJSKA NIT

ZVIJANJE KORENINSKIHLASKOV

BAKTERIOID

Golgi

Page 34: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Glycine max / Rhizobium japonicum.

Koreninski gomoljček (nodul) je tvorba, ki predstavlja zaščiteno okolje, v katerem lahko bakterija (bakterioid) vrši nitrogenazno aktivnost.

Page 35: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

N2 + 16 ATP + 8e- + 2H+ → NH3 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi + H2

NITROGENAZA

energetsko zahtevenproces redukcija

Fiksacija N2

nfix geni

Agronomija - UNI

Page 36: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

feredoksin(oks.)

feredoksin(red.)

2 NH3, H2

N2, 8H+

NITROGENAZA

Nitrogenaza – encim, odgovoren za fiksacijo N2

Agronomija - UNI

Page 37: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

- Mopodobna slika ob pomanjkanju Co

Mo in Co sta nujno potrebna za normalno delovanje nitrogenaze

Ob pomanjkanju teh dveh mikroelementov rastlina kaže znake pomanjkanja dušika.

Agronomija - UNI

Page 38: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

N2 - substrat

nitrogenaza

amoniak

+ 2H + 2H + 2H

Nitrogenaza ni 100 % specifična

Substrati, ki jih je nitrogenaza sposobna reducirati

Agronomija - UNI

Page 39: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

nitrogenaza je encim, ki je občutljiv na O2

fiksatorji dušika so aktivni v anaerobnih pogojih(zunanjih), ali pa fiksacija dušika poteka v mikroanaerobnih pogojih znotraj samega organizma. Prisimbiotskih fiksatorjih je takšno okolje zagotovljeno z izgradnjo koreninskega gomoljčka

Nitrogenaza je občutljiva na visoke parcialne tlake O2

Agronomija - UNI

Page 40: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Vzdrževanje majhne koncentracije O2 v nodulih -mehanizmi

debela stena nodula - majhna propustnost za plinesuberin v celični steniprepojitev celičnih sten celic nodula z vodo - vodna oviraza difuzijointenzivna respiracija (dihanje), t.j. poraba kisikavezava O2 na leghemoglobinhem-protein prisoten v citoplazmi inficiranih celic nodula, rožnata barva nodulov, gostitelj proizvaja globin, bakterijapa hem

Agronomija - UNI

Page 41: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Nitrogenaza: N2 → NH3

zaradi toksičnosti amonijevega iona se ta že v nodulih vgradi v organske molekule, ki služijo za transport v nadzemne dele

Transport fiksiranega dušika iz nodulov

amidi (asparagin, glutamin)

Pisum, Trifolium, Vicia, Lensnoduli imajo nezaključeno rast, nedeterminantni noduli (podolgovati)

Transportne oblike N se razlikujejo v dveh glavnih tipih gomoljčkov

ureidi (alantoin, alantoinska kislina, citrulin)

Glycine, Phaseolus, Arachis, Vignanoduli imajo zaključeno rast, determinantni noduli, okrogli

Page 42: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Cianobakterije (modrozelene cepljivke) kotfiksatorji dušika

nitrogenaza je aktivna v posebnih celicah, ki jih imenujemoheterociste (celice brez PSII - fotosintetske produkcije O2, z debelimi stenami.

cianobakterije brez heterocist lahko fiksirajo dušik le v anaerobnih pogojih (poplavljenost, riževa polja)

simbiotske povezave cianobakterij in rastlin = sincianoze

Agronomija - UNI

Page 43: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Heterocista v nitasti cianobakteriji Anabaena. Debela celična stena heterociste predtavlja, poleg nekaterih drugih biokemičnih prilagoditev, mehanizem, s katerim je omogočeno delovanje nitrogenaze. (Taiz & Zeiger, 2002)

Heterocista

Vegetativne celice

Azzola caroliniana s cianobakterijo (Anabaena – A) v votlinici lista (H)

Cianobakterije kot fiksatorji dušika

Agronomija - UNI

Page 44: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Azolla (vodna praprot) - Anabaena azollae (m.-z. cepljivka)

0.5 kg N ha-1 dan-1

Page 45: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

vrsta mejnevrednosti

povprečnevrednosti

detelja (Trifolium sp.) 45-670 250

grah (Pisum sativum) 50-500 150

lucerna (Medicago sativa) 90-340 250

bob (Vicia faba) 140-200 150

soja (Glycine max) 60-300 100

arašidi (Arachis hypogaea) 50-150 100

leča (Lens culinaris) 50-150 80

fižol (Phaseolus vulgaris) 100-300 200

Fiksacija dušika pri različnih vrstah ( kg N ha-1 leto-1 )

Page 46: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

PRIVZEM: SO42- (aktiven, H-kotransport)

SO2 (skozi listne reže)

ŽVEPLO

Page 47: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

ŽVEPLO

PRIVZEM: SO42- (aktiven, H-kotransport)

SO2 (skozi listne reže)

TRANSPORT:- srednje do težko mobilen element- transport iz korenin v nadzemne dele po ksilemu kot SO4

2-, - po asimilaciji v listih je tranportna oblika za druge dele rastline glutation(tripeptid: glutamat-cistein-glicin), ki se prenaša po floemu

FUNKCIJE: sestavni del aminokislin (cistein, metionin), proteinov, vitaminov (tiamin, biotin), v koencimu A, glutationu itd.

Page 48: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Spojine, ki vsebujejo žveplo

Page 49: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

Pomanjkanje žvepla

redkosplošne kloroze, na mladih listih, vidne tudi na žilah (t.j po celem listu)

Agronomija - UNI

Page 50: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

= REDUKCIJA SULFATA (SO42- → S2-) IN NJEGOVA VGRADNJA V

ORGANSKE MOLEKULE

Asimilatorna redukcija sulfata

redukcija poteka v dveh stopnjah je energetsko zahtevna: poraba 14 ATP

je zahtevna s stališča porabe reducentov

energijo in reducente zagotavlja proces fotosinteze (fotosintetska redukcija sulfata)

lahko poteka v koreninah ali listih

Agronomija - UNI

Page 51: MINERALNA PREHRANA RASTLIN - University of …...With a high nitrate supply, and most frequently under low light conditions, lettuce accumulates relatively large amounts of NO 3-as

NO3- → NH4

+

npr. glutamat

energija

reducent

NO3-

SO42- → S2-

npr. cistein

SO42- organske S spojine

+ ogljikov skelet

organske N spojine

Agronomija - UNI

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koreninska celica

celica mezofila

Redulcija sulfata v sulfid poteka v plastidih korenin ali nadzemnega dela.

Nereducirani sulfat se lahko shranjuje v vakuolo.

APS = adenozin-P-sulfatPAPS = P-adenozin-P-sulfat

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Aktivacija: pred redukcijo in vgradnjo je potrebna aktivacija sulfata

SO42- + ATP → APS (adenozin-5’fosfosulfat) + PPi

ATP (adenozin-trifosfat)

sulfat

pirofosfat

APS (adenozin-5'-fosfosulfat)

ATP sulfurilaza

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(1) APS + 2GSH → SO32-

(sulfit) + 2H+ + GSSG + AMP

Agronomija - UNI

Redukcija sulfata

je večstopenjski proces, ki poteka v plastidih

APS reduktaza

reduciran glutation

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reduciranglutation

oksidiranglutation

glutationreduktaza

Glutation

Agronomija - UNI

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(1) APS + 2GSH → SO32-

(sulfit) + 2H+ + GSSG + AMP

(2) SO32-

(sulfit) + 6 Fdred → S2-(sulfid) + 6 Fdox

Agronomija - UNI

Redukcija sulfata

je večstopenjski proces, ki poteka v plastidih

APS reduktaza

reduciran glutation

sulfit reduktaza

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O-acetilserin + S2- → cistein + acetat

Nastanek cisteina in prenos SH- skupine ...

Agronomija - UNI

cistein + O-fosfohomoserin →→→ metionin

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Agronomija - UNI

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FOSFOR

PRIVZEM: H2PO4- (aktiven, H-kotransport)

HPO42- (aktiven, H-kotransport), manj mobilen

pH < 7 pH > 7H2PO4

- HPO42-

TRANSPORT:- dobro mobilen element, - skladiščenje v obliki polifosfata (linearno vezani Pi), fitinska kislina

FUNKCIJE: fosfati sladkorjev, nukleinske kisline, nukleotidi, koencimi, fosfolipidi, fitat, ključna vloga pri ATP

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Pomanjkanje fosforja

pogosto

listi majhni, temno zeleni

pojav rdeče in škrlatne barve(antociani)

stebla nizka in vitka

Agronomija - UNI

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Fosfor se v rastlini ne reducira

Nahaja se v obliki fosfata ali vezan (zaestren) v organskih spojinah

Pi

C - O - P, C - P - C

fitinska kislina = mioinozitol + 6 P

Agronomija - UNI

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encim - Pencim

X − P X

Pi H2O

KINAZA

FOSFATAZA

kalmodulin

X = npr. ATP

(Ca 2+ )

S fosforilacijo (defosforilacijo) je uravnavana aktivnost encimov

Agronomija - UNI

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MIKORIZA

FOSFOR

Agronomija - UNI

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karikatura Dirk Redecker

Agronomija - UNI

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ogljikovihidrati

fosfor in drugamineral. hranila

Mikoriza

Agronomija - UNI

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EKTOTROFNA ENDOTROFNA

• EKTOMIKORIZA • ARBUSKULARNA MIKORIZA• ERIKOIDNA MIKORIZA• ORHIDEJSKA MIKORIZA

EKTENDOTROFNA MIKORIZA• ARBUTOIDNA MIKORIZA• MONOTROPOIDNA MIKORIZA• EKENDOMIKORIZA

MIKORIZA

Agronomija - UNI

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TIPI MIKORIZE

• ENDOTROFNA MIKORIZA - gliva vstopa v celice• EKTOTROFNA MIKORIZA - gliva se nahaja zunaj celice

tip AM ECM Ektendo- Arbutoidna

Mono-tropoidna

Erikoidna Orhidejska

septirane hife - (+) + - + - + + + +hife v celicah + - + + + + +zvitki hif + - - - - - + +arbuskuli + - - - - - -hifni plašč - + (-) + (-) + + - -Hartigova mreža - + + + + - -vezikli + - - - - - - -

Rastline vaskularnerastline

golosemenke inkritosemenke.

Ericales Mono-tropaceae

Ericales Orchid-aceae

klorofil + + + + - - + + -

Glive Zygo-Glomales

Basidio –, Asco-Zygomycetes,

Asco-Basidio-mycetes

Basidio-mycets

arbuskularna ektomikoriza

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Prevladujoča oblika dušika Organski N NH4

+ NO3-NH4

+ + NO3-

Karakteristični tip mikorize Erikoidna Ektomikoriza

Arbuskularnamikoriza

Ekto- + arbuskularna

mikoriza

Deficitarno hranilo N N ali P P

Porast nadmorske višine ali zemljepisne širine

Količina in lastnosti

vegetativnega micelija gliv

Fine posamezne hife poleg

površja korenin, biomasa mala

Ekstenzivni micelij, združevanje hif v

snope, velika biomasa

Posamezne hifevečjega premera,

biomasa velika tik ob koreninah

Količina organske snovi

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Smith and Read, 1997

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ektomikorizni gostitelji14 družin, 62 rodov

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EKTOMIKORIZA - prerez korenine

Hartigova mreža

hifni plašč

Agronomija - UNI

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ekstramatrikalni micelij

skorja = korteks

centralni cilinder

tla

korenina

Arbuskularna mikoriza

spora

arbuskulvezikel

Agronomija - UNI

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Arbuskularna mikoriza - ARBUSKULI

Agronomija - UNI

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Klasifikacija AM gliv

GLOMALES

GIGASPORINAEGigasporaceae

GigasporaScutellospora

GLOMINEAEGlomaceae

GlomusSclerocystis

AcaulosporaceaeAcaulosporaEntrophospora

(Morton & Benny 1990)

Agronomija - UNI

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Prednosti mikoriznih rastlin

izboljšana mineralna prehranapovečan volumen tal, v katerem lahko rastlina izkoriščahranilapovečana razpoložljivost hranil zaradi glive(mobilizacija), shranjevanje

izboljšana preskrba z vodo

povečana odpornost na abiotski stres (suša, težkekovine, organski toksini)

povečana odpornost na patogene in herbivore (npr. nematodi)

Agronomija - UNI

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Mikoriza in absorpcija hranil in vode

Agronomija - UNI

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Biotehnološka uporaba mikorize

izolacija glivpridobivanje glivnega inokulumainokulacijafiziološki odgovor inokuliranih rastlin (rast, pridelek)selekcijaprenos v prakso

Agronomija - UNI

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MAGNEZIJ

PRIVZEM: Mg2+

↓ ← K+, NH4+, Ca2+, Mn2+

TRANSPORT: dobro mobilen

FUNKCIJE:

sestavni del klorofilaaktivacija encimov udeleženih v respiraciji in fotosintezi ter sintezi DNA in RNAMg-ATPskupaj s Ca2+ stabilizira strukture v ribosomihpektati v osrednji lameli...

klorofil a

Agronomija - UNI

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Pomanjkanje Mg pri paradižniku

Pomanjkanje Mg

najprej kloroze starejših listovnajpogosteje kloroze med žilamilahko predčasno odpadanje listov

Agronomija - UNI

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KALCIJ

PRIVZEM: Ca2+

TRANSPORT: zelo slabo mobilen v ksilemu in floemu

NAHAJANJE: veliko Ca v apoplastu (za razliko od drugih elementov)zelo majhna koncentracija Ca2+ v citosolu (0.1-0.2 μM), velike koncentracije v vakuoli in endoplazmatskemuretikulumu

membrana je nepropustna za Ca2+ ,potreben je aktiven transport, velika potreba po energijiCa2+ črpalke

Agronomija - UNI

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celična stena

osrednja lamela

plazmalema

citoplazma

vakuola

endoplazmatskiretikulum

Razporeditev Ca v celici in celični steni

Ioni Ca2+ so prikazani s črnimi krožci

Agronomija - UNI

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Celični transport Ca2+

Agronomija - UNI

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Ca2+ kot sekundarni sporočevalec

Prikaz vdora kalcijevih ionov skozi kanalčke v celico, kot posledica zaznave signala na plazmalemi.

Posledica je lokalno povečana koncentracija Ca2+ v citosolu, ki pomeni za celico informacijo, ki proži odgovor.

citosol

plazmalema

celična stena

R receptor

SIGNAL

+

Agronomija - UNI

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svetloba, temperaturahormoniranitevdrugo

signal

celična stena(apoplast)

plazmalema

citoplazma

inozitol 1,4,5trifosfat

vakuola

proteinkinaza

(akt.)fosforilacijaproteinov fiziološki odgovor

1,4 glukansintaza

1,3 glukansintaza

kalmodulin

celuloza kaloza

Ca2+ kot sekundarni sporočevalec

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stabilizacija celične stenestabilizacija membrane - povezovanjefosfatnih in karboksilnih skupin v fosfolipidihrast celicsekrecija, eksocitozaravnotežje kationi: anioniosmoregulacijasekundarni sporočevalec - prenos signala v celici…

Funkcije kalcija

Agronomija - UNI

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poškodbe meristematskih tkivnagubani roboviob robovih navzgor zavihani listikloroze in nekroze najmlajšihlistov in vršičkov

Pomanjkanje kalcija

Agronomija - UNI

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KALIJ

PRIVZEM: K+ (aktiven, pasiven)

kation z največjo koncentracijo v citoplazmi (100-200 mM), podobnakoncentracija K+ je v kloroplastu

ASIMILACIJA: tvori šibke komplekse,iz katerih se z lahkoto izmenjuje

TRANSPORT: je dobro mobilen (celica, tkivo, cela rastlina)

Agronomija - UNI

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nevtralizacija topnih in netopnih anionov in stabilizacija pH (med (7.0 in 8.0), vzdrževanje ravnotežja med kationi in anioniaktivacija encimov (optimalen hidratacijski ovoj - aktivnost)aktivacija H+-ATPaze na plazmalemipomemben pri sintezi proteinovfotosinteza - vzdrževanje protonskega gradienta na tilakoidnimembraniosmoregulacijacelična rast (sodeluje pri spremembah turgorja = potencialatlaka)pomemben pri rastlinskih gibanjihpomemben pri polnjenju floema

Funkcije kalija

Agronomija - UNI

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mehanizem odpiranja/zapiranja je sprememba Ψs (črpanje K+ v celico) in posledično sprememba Ψp v celicah zapiralkah)

Kalij je pomemben pri regulaciji transpiracije

↑[K+] v celici → ↓Ψs→ ↑ΨP→ odprtje reže ↓[K+] v celici → ↑Ψs→ ↓ΨP→ zaprtje reže

Agronomija - UNI

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Pomanjkanje K

nekroze na listnih konicah in robovih

Agronomija - UNI

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Privzem: helati Fe3+ , Fe2+

ŽELEZO

Agronomija - UNI

Transport

Fe(II)-helat, Fe(II) citratmobilnost v rastlini je slabanajveč železa se nahaja v kloroplastih hitro rastočih listovfitoferitin - skladiščna oblika železa

Funkcije železa

redoks funkcija Fe(III) + e- ↔ Fe(II)citokrom (redoks reakcije v kloroplastih in mitohondrijih) železovo žveploviproteini (feredoksin) in drugi Fe-proteininujno za sintezo klorofila in razvoj kloroplastov

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Pomanjkanje Fe

problematično predvsem na karbonatnih tlehrumenenje oz. bledenje mladih listovprezgodnje odpadanje listov

Agronomija - UNI

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Dostopnost železa v raztopini je pogostokrat majhna zaradiprecipitacije (tvorba železovega hidroksida ob prisotnosti sulfatov in nitratov, tvorba železovega fosfata)

Helatorji: organske snovi, kitvorijo z Fe komplekse in gasprostijo v raztopino (citrat, EDTA, DTPA)

Slika: DTPA (dietilentriaminpentaocetna kislina)

Agronomija - UNI

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Ob pomanjkanju železaje inducirano delovanjereduktaze, ki reduciraFe(III) helate, sproščenoFe(II) se transportirapreko plazmaleme s prenašalnim proteinomvisoke afinitete. Hkrati jeintenzivnejšo tudidelovanje H+-ATPaze, kizakisa rizosfero in poveča topnost železa.

Privzem železa - strategija I (dvokaličnice in enokaličnice - razen trav)

Agronomija - UNI

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Ob pomanjkanju železa je indukcije Fe(III)-reduktaze in prenašalca za Fe(II) vzpodbujeno tudi delovanje protoinske črpalke (H+-ATPaze), ki zakisarizosfero (rumen oz. rdeč indikator na slikah B in D).

Privzem železa - strategija I (dvokaličnice in enokaličnice - razen trav)

Agronomija - UNI

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1 -sinteza fitosiderofor; 2, 3- membranski transportni proteini, katerih delovanjeje ob pomanjkanju železa inducirano

Privzem železa - strategija II (trave)sinteza in sproščanje siderofor - neproteinogenih aminokislin, ki so helatorji Fe

Agronomija - UNI

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Siderofori

mugineinska kislina

Neproteinogene aminokisline, ki helirajo železo

Agronomija - UNI

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PRIVZEM: helati Fe3+ , Fe2+

mehanizem 1 (dvokaličnice in enokaličnice, brez trav)

povečana aktivnost protonske črpalke na plazmalemiprotoni stimulirajo reduktazo, encim na zunanji strani plazmalemehelatorji vežejo Fe(III), ga prinesejo do reduktaze, ki železo reducira v Fe(II)transportni protein prenese Fe(II) v celicoanatomske spremembe rizodermalnih celic

mehanizem 2 (trave)

povečano izločanje neproteinogenih aminokislin FITOSIDEROFORfitosiderofore helirajo železo Fe(III)helirano Fe(III) se s posebnim transportni proteinom prenese v celico

ŽELEZO

Agronomija - UNI

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PRIVZEM: B(OH)3

pH < 7 B(OH)3

pH > 7 B(OH)4-

FUNKCIJE: - kompleksi z organskimi spojinami- celična stena- rast korenin- metabolizem nukleinskih kislin- metabolizem ogljikovih hidratov in proteinov

TRANSPORT: - ksilem, transpiracijski tok- mobilnost slaba -

BOR

Agronomija - UNI

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kompleksi bora z organskimi spojinami

Agronomija - UNI

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Pomanjkanje bora pri cvetači

Pomanjkanje bora pri detelji

Pomanjkanje B

pogostokloroze in odmiranje najmlajšihlistov in terminalnih brstovkrajši internodijidebelejši peclji in stebla –pokanje“black heart”

Agronomija - UNI

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PRIVZEM: Zn2+

ZnOH+ (visok pH)

FUNKCIJE:- kompleksi z organskimi spojinami (z N-, O- in S-ligandi)- katalitična in strukturna vloga v encimih (npr. alkoholna dehidrogenaza, karbonska anhidraza, superoksid dismutaza, idr.)- struktura proteinov- metabolizem nukleinskih kislin- metabolizem ogljikovih hidratov (aldolaza, fruktoze 1,6-bifosfataza)- sinteza avksinov- ...

TRANSPORT: - ksilem, transpiracijski tok, cink vezan na organske molekule- floem

CINK

Agronomija - UNI

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karbonatna tlarozetavost, krajši internodiji (↓ avksin)kloroze nekroze (sek. znaki)

Pomanjkanje Zn

Agronomija - UNI

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Mangan

- Mn2+ je aktivator encimov npr. encimov Krebsovega cikla(dekarboksilaze, dehidrogenaze)- sodeluje v fotolizi vode (sproščanje O2 v procesu fotosinteze)Pomanjkanje se kaže v obliki medžilni kloroz in pegastih nekroz

Baker

- Cu2+ ↔ Cu+

- udeležen v redoks reakcijah - prenosu elektrona (npr. platocianin-svetlobne reakcije fotosinteze)Pomanjkanje se kaže v obliki točkastih nekroz na konicah listov, listiso temno zeleni

Agronomija - UNI

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Molibden

- Mo4+, Mo6+

- sestavni del več encimov (nitrat reduktaza, nitrogenaza)Pomanjkanje se kaže kot splošna kloroza in nekroza starejših listov, listiso lahko deformirani

Natrij

- pomemben v metabolizmu C4 in CAM rastlin, regeneracija- kot osmotik lahko delno nadomesti kalij

Klor

- Cl-, fotoliza vode, celične delitve

Nikelj

- v encimu ureaza

Agronomija - UNI