notes on map reading

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NOTES

O N

MAP READING.

For Use in Army Schoo1~.

1915.

LONDONt1’BIN TI4J) IJNVIIR T11B AtYTIIO IIITY OP 1125 MA.INSTY ’S 8TA~T1ON14RYOP1~ICfl

Br IIARUISON ~xp SONS , 4 5 — 4 ? , Sr. MAwnr~’s~ WO.,

11rl~MIN OnDnrA1~r i’o HI~M~j~i’r.

To be purchased eitherdfrectly orthrough any i3o~k~etter,romW Y M A N A~SONS , L’rn,, 29 IinrA~Ertrmxaa, 1~i’rraLajiir, 34.0., md

54 , SD . MARr STRr~i’,OAIWII’r~orILM. STA’rIONIIIW OI1TXOII (Scc~rrtsflBRANCn) , 23 Foi~ruSritr~r,EoutnunaN ~or

1 1 . I ’ O N S O N I I Y , Li’D 116, OnArroN àTnEIrr ]MYBLIN;or from the Agencies intheBritish Colonies and bependenclea,

the United 5~ateaofAmerica end other~orefgn Confine, ofT. 1~1SIUiflUNWIN, LozcDozc, W.C.

Fr~T1~reepence .



MILITARY BOOKS

ubti~{je~~y ,~uthorith

LON1JUf,~

PI1INTIIB UNDER TIlE A1ITIIORITY OF IllS MAJESTY’S STATiONERY DF’FiCII

Br IIA]IIIFSON AN D SONS, 4 5 — 1 7 , Sr. MA1iTIN’s LANN, WI).,I’uuiN’Lria IN O R D I N A R Y TO IlLs MAJ1(STY.

Iobe pt~rrluasod,eitherdirectly orthrough auiv Bookseller, fromWYRAN AJW SONS , LiD,, 29 IJncAMs D U Z 1 J O N D S , Pcrrmt LANn , D.C., nut

51, Sr. MARY STiiuinT, CAnDler; or5I.M. STATIONERY Oi~i~ICIiSco~-isitBuAN cti), 23 Foorn SmeeT, l i l oNOURGR; O r

Ii. 1 ’ ONS ON I I Y , LTD., 115, GnAFroN STReeT, Doiul1N;or from the Agencies in the British ColoniesCii, Dependencies,the United States of Ameri ca end other Foreign Countr ies of

T. FISIII i II UNWIN. L O N D O N , WI).

(The prices inbrackets are those at which the books are obtainable, postfree, by Officers, Non-Conainissionod. Officers, and. Men, in the manlierprescribed by Appendix XXIII. of the King’s Regulations and Ordersfor the Army, 1912. Applications should be made on Army FormL. 1372, and addressed to the Secretary, War Office, S.W.)

ABYSSINIA. Expedition to. 2 vols. and maps. 1870. flail Mor., £5 Ss. Cloth, £4 4s.AFRICA. Continentof. Geology of. Notes on. 1900. 3s. (2s. 4d.)AMHARIC LANGUAGE. Short Manual ofthe. With Vocabulary. 1909. 5~(Is. Gd.)ANIMAL MANAGEMENT. 1908. Is. Gd, (Is. 4r1.)ARABIC GRAMMAR~ ‘l’wo parts. 1887. (Sold to Officers only). lOs. (los. Gd.)AEMOURERS. Instructions for, in the care, repair, browning, c. ,of Small AnIon,

Machine Guns, “Parapet “ Oarrieges, end for the caro of Bicycles. 1912. is. Gd.

(Is. 4d.) -

Ditto. Auneeclments. Aug. 1912; Aug. 1914. Each ld. (hi.)ARMY ACCOUNTS. (lc’eps’in?edji’om ToteAnn~REvIEW, Jan. 1914).3d. (itt.)ARMY CIRCULARS AND ARMY ORDERS issued beforeDec. 31, 1892, which

are still in force and required for reference. Reprint of. May 1896. 3d. (3d.)ARMY ORDERS. Monthly. Each 3d. (3d.)

ARMY ORDERS. Covcrs for. 3d. (Oil.)ARMY ENTRANCE Regulations

R.M. Academy. Admission to, from April 1, 1912. ld. (id.) (linde,. reris ier )EM. College. Ditto, Id. (tel.) (Under revision)Militia and Impei’ial Yeomanry. Officers of. 1007. lii. (Id.)Special Reserve of Officers, iho Malta Militia, theBermuda Militia, Channel Is1and~

Militia, and Territorial Force. Officers of the. 1912. ld. ld.University Candidates. 1912. ld. (it .)Military Forces of the Seif-govorning Dominions and Crown Colonies. Off icers

of the. 1912. Id. (It .) -

Warrant Officers and N.O.O. of the liegnlar Army. Combatant Commissions asSecond Lieutenants. 1914. Provisional. id (Id.)S ee also Commission; Medical Corps; Special Reserve ‘I’errit.orial Porce

Veterinnr~rCorps.ARMY LIST. the Quarterly not issued in October, 1014). Each us, (lOs. Pd.)

ARMY LIST. Monthly to April 1315, inc1u~ive. (1”or continuation see below).Each is. Gd. (is. 3d.) N~tissued in September, 1914).

PROMOTIONS, APPOINTMENTS, c., cluuu-ing August, 1914. [I’rinted in000sequwuuco of tim ternpoi’arv suspension of tim Monthly Army List.] Gd . Gd.)

Ditto, during September, 111-1. [Ditto.] i u l . (7d.)

ARMY LIST. Monthly. May 1915. is. G ’ l . (Is. 5~l.) (Ansi see next dent.)Dit(o. Sttpplemeiit containing Prontotions; Appointments, c. ,Gazetted, and

• Deaths of Officers Reported, during April 1915. Gd . (Gd.)ARMY PAY, Appointment, Promotion, and Non-Effective Pity. Royai Warrant,

1914. G u i . (7d.)

Cc 11371) Wt. 11439—934 3M 6/15 II S



JIlL17’A 111’ BOOKS, published by Authority—continued.

• (As to prices inbrackets, see top of page 2.

ARMY ALLOWANCES Regulations. 1914. Gd. Gd.)ARMY REVIEW. Quarterly. July 1911 toOct. 1914. is. (Up to July 1914, is.;

Oct. 1911, lid.) (I’sthllcation snspcnsled)

ARMY SERVICE CORPS ;—

Regimental Standiag Orders. 1911. Gd. (Gd.)~ Amendments. id. (It .);Memorandum No. 26. id. (it .)

Training. Part I 1909. (fleprinted~with Atneninonts, 1315). lid. (Or?.)

Ditto. i’art II. Supplies. 1909. (Reprinted, 1914, with new Appi’ndht XII.)is. 3d. (In. li.

Ditto. Part III. - Transport. (Reprinted, with Amendments to April 1915).3d. 3d.) In s e press)

Ditto. I’art IV. Mechanical Transport. (Out qfprint)Ditto. Amendments, .Tuly 1914, to Parts I. anti III. IL (Stl.)

ARTIFICERS. Military. Handbook. 9thedition. 1910. in. (lid.) (Untie;. rerisieuf)

Ditto. Amendments. 1912; May 1914. Each; it . (it .)ARTILLERY AT THE PIOARDY MAN~UVEES in 1010. Transiat~d

from the French. 2s. Gd. 28.

ARTILLERY. Royal:—

Offleers’Mess Management. (See Ordnance College.)Practice. Instructions

Garrison. Coast Defences. Seaward,. 1914—15. 3d. (3~l.)

Garrison. Siege and Movable Armament. 1914. 3d. (3d.)horse, Field, and Heavy. 1914. Cd. (5d.)

Standing Orders for:—

Brigade of Mounted Artillery. it . (1d.1Lleut.-Colonel’s Command. 1t.G.A. (Coast and Siege). Id. ld.

Training:—

Field. 1914, 3d. (Or .)Ditto. Exaoiples of Ranging (to supplement those given in Sec. 227). 2d.

Garrison—Vol. 1. 1914. Gd. (Gd.)Vol. 11. (Siege). 1911. (Reprinted with Ameiidn;euuts, 1914). Od. 3d.)Vol. 111. 1911. (Reprinted, with Amendments, 1314). J.t. (11’?.)

ARTILLERY COLLEGE. Reports upon the 14th to 18th Senior Classes.Each is. (3d.) See also Ordnance College).

ARTILLERY, FIELD. The Tactics of. (Von Sc/tell). Translated. 1900.is. (101.)

ARTILLERY INSI’RUItIENTS. Jiandboolr of. 11/14, Is. Gd. (Is. 4c1.)

Ditto. An;endinents. In fitspressDitto. Addendum to. 2./. In the press

ARTILLERY MUSEUM in the Rotunda, Wooluviclt. Official Catalogue. 1906.( ,id at the Retuntia. Is. Gd.)

~AB1~ILLBRY AND RIFLE RANGES ACT, 18S~, and MILITARYLANDS ACTS, 1892 to 1303. Byeiaws under:—

Aldeburgh, 1396; Ash (Aldershot Camp), 1887; Finborough, 1901; Ilytlme, 1894;Inchkeith Battery, 1896; Kinghornness, 1896~ Landguard, 1887; Lydd—Dungeness, 1895; Middlowick, 1890; illbrook, 1888; Orchard Portman, 1836;

Scarborough, 1902; Scraps Gate, 1886; Shoeburynoss, 1895; Soutlmwold, 1806;Strensueli, 1900; Wash, 1891; Whitehaven Battery (Ounibenland), 1896.Each it . (ld.)

Purfleet, 1911. is. (3d.)Salisbury Plain, 1900. 4d. (4d.)

ARTILLERY STORE ACCOtNTS AND THE SUPERVISION OF1i.G.A. SUB-DISTI1IOTS. Notes on. 1914. is. (lOd.)

ARTiLLERY STORE ACOOVNTS AND TIlE CARE AND

PRESERVATION OF EQUIPMENT OF ROYAL ARTILLERY, HORSE,FIELD, AND HEAVY BATTERIES. Notes on. Sept. 1014. Gd. (3d.)

BARRACKS. Care of. Instruction in. 1901, [Id. (7d.)BASHFORTH CHRONOGRAPR, Experiments wills, todetermine the resIstance

of the air to the motion of projectiles. Report on. 1870. is. (9t/.)BAYONET FIGHTING. Instruction with Service file and Bayonet, 1915. It . (it .)BAYONET FIGHTING FOR COMPETITIONS. Instruction in. it .’ (it .)

BERMUDA MILITARY ARTILLERY. Regulations. 1914. 9?. (7e1.)BICYCLES. Military. handbook on. 1911. (Reprinted, with Amendments, 1314.)

Id. (Id.)3



JIlL 7’ARF BOOKS, published by Auf/;ority—comitiuued

(As ~o prices in brackets, see top of page 2.

BRITISH MINOR EXPEDITIONS, 1746 to 1814. 1384. O s. Gd. (is. lid.)

CADET UNITS. See Territorial Force).

CAMEL CORPS TRAINING. Provisional. 1313. 8d. (7d.)CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. Reconnaissance Survey of the, 1903—lOll Report on

the, is. Gd. (is. It .)

CAVALERIE. Translated from the Prone); of Captain Loir, (In the press)CAVALRY OF THE LINE, PEACE ORGANIZATION -OF THE;

and Arrangements for Mobilization consequent on the eetahhishmiicnt of CavalryDepOts. (SpecialAG., July 19, 1909.) it . (it?.)

CAVALRY SCHOOL, NETHERAVON. Standing Orders. 1911. Oil. (2d.)

CAVALRY TRAINING. 1912. (Reprinted, will; Aineudimients, 1915.) 1 . (lit?.)CEREMONIAL. 1912. 3d. (4d.) ; l’rovisiomiai Aniendments, Juno 1914. it . (it?.)

CHEMISTRY. PRACTICAL. Quantitative a m i d Qualitative. A Course of.

Ss. (3t. 8d.)CHEMISTS OF THE RESEARCH DEPARTMENT. Rulesand Regulations.

it . (it?.)

CHIROPODY. Manual of. O r . (2d.)

CIVIL EMPLOYMENT FOR EX-SOLDIEBS. Guide-to. 1913. Oil. (it .)CIVIL EMPLOYMENT REGULATIONS. 1913. it . id

CIVIL POWER. DUTIES IN AID OP .TRE. Special A.O., Dec. 17, 1908.(Amendments to “King’s Regulations” and to “ Manual of Mmhitary Law “ .

it . • (id.lCLOTHING AND NECESSARIES (including Materials . Priced Vocabulary

of, 1913. 18, (lid.) - (Unde;. it tithe

Ditto. Amendments. July, Oct. 1913; Jan., April. July 1914. Each it . (id.)CLOTHING Regulations

J’art I. Regular Forces (excluding the Special Reserve). 1914. 1 W . (IlL)i’art II. Special Reserve. 1914. 3d. (3d.)I’art III. Mobilization, Field Service, and Demobilization. 190S . 31. (3d.)Amnendmnemmts to i’arts I., II., and III. Nov. 1009; April, Oct. 1910; March,

April, Sept:, Nov. 1911: Feb., iiiy, July, Sept. 1012; April, July 1913.Each it . (1. .)

COLCHESTER GARRISON. Standing Orders, 1913. 3d. (7d.)COMMAND. ALDERSHOT. Sknding Orders. 191-i. Os. 3d. (is. 1/t/.)

COMMAND. THE ART OF. ByDolonel von Spohn. Translated. id. (id.)COMMAND. WESTERN. Standing Orders Jan. 1910. (Reprinted, with; Amend-

mnents, 1911). Cd. (Or .)COMMANDS. Military, amid Stuff in the United Kingdom. Reorganization of. çSpecial

A.C,, Jsn. 6, 1905, with; alterations to date. Issued with Special A.O., 1~ov.11.1907). 3d. (It .)

COMMISSION IN H.Itt. REGULAR ARMY (from 1~t April, 1912).Shoit Outdo to the various ways of obtaining a; Icc. , Icc. Apr11 1912. O r . (Or? . )

(See tue. Army Entrance ; Medical Corps; Special Reserve; Territorial Force;Veterinary Cot-ps.)

COMPANY TRAINING. Notes on. For the. m i s c of the Sl-ciah Reserve ‘I’erri—tonal Free, anti newly—raised Units of ti.’Regular Armuty. S e.

1,t. 1 911. 1,/. (Id.)

CONVEYANCE OP TROOPS AND ISSUE OF TRAVELLINGWAI1RANTS. Instructions. 1910. 2t1. (Oil.)

COOKING. Military. Manual of. Gd. (Oil.)

COOKING AND DIETARY. Military. Manual of. Mobilization. 1915. Oil. (27.)COURSES OF INSTRUCTION, 1914-15. 2d. (Oil.)

Ditto, at Practice Camps, 1914. hi. (It .)CREW8 OF WAR DEPARTMENT VESSELS AND BOATS AT.HOME

STATIONS. Regulations for the Appointment, Pay, and Promotion of. loll.Oil. (Otl.)

CYCLIST TRAINING. I’rovisional, 1914. id. (3d.)DIVISION ORDERS. Extracts from, 1550. 2s. Gd . (Is. 9d.)DRAINAGE MANUAL. IOU’ . 2s, Gd. Os.)DRAWING PLATES. Military—

Attack of Dufor’s Counterininos or 2nd plate of Mines: Carnot’s 1”irst System;Detached Forts; Concealed Defences, 1, 2, 3, 4; Printing I’late, A, II, C, c.;

Detail Plate, No. i ; Do., No. 2; Neighbourhood of Woolwich; Village andSurrounding Ground. Each 2d. (2d.)

4



.IIILITARI’ BOOKS, published by utherity—co’ntinued.

(As to prices in brackets, see top of page 2.

Drawing Plates. M i li tary— com.tinm sed.Attack of Fortrcss—I’rehiminam’y Operations; Do., Distant Attack; Do., Close

Attack; Neighbourhood of Mets. Each3d. (3d.)Woods and Villages. 6 plates. Each. Gd . (Oil.)Neighbourhood ofWoolwichm. Southern Side. is. Gd. (is. Id.)

DRESS REGULATIONS. 1911. Os. Gd. (Os.); Amendments, March, Aug. 1312.Each. it . (It?.); Aug. 1913. 3d. (2d.)

DRUM AND FLUTE DUTY for the Infantry, with; Instructions for the TrainingofDrummers and Flautists. 1887. 25, (1... G m . )

DYNAMICS. ~otes on, See Ordnance College). -

EGYPT. BRITISH FORCE IN’. Standing Orders. 1912. Is. (lom?.)EGYPT. CAMPAIGN OF 1882 IN. Military history. With. Case of Maps.

Condensed Edition. 190~. Is. Gd . (2 s. 3d .)ELECTRICAL COMMUNI~ATIONS. FIXED. InstructiOns as to. 1912.

4,1. (4m?.)ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. Text hook for use of tl.~Cadets at the

11.M. Acmmmlemy. 1911. ‘ 2 g . lid. (Os.)ELEOTRICITI. Notes o m m . 1911. is. 3d. (Is. 3d.)ELECTRIC LIGHT APPARATUS. DEFENCE. I,mstrmmctions for the Womk-

i m m g of. 1911. id. (id.)ELECTRIC LiGHTING. Militsry Vol. I. is. (lId.); Vol.11. (Ileprinted,with

A m n e m m d m m m e m m t s , 1915 . J im t im e press); Vol. III. is. (lit .)ENCOUNTER. T E BATTLE OF. By I l n m m s you Kieshiog. Part I. Practical.

‘Pm’ammslated. is. Gd. (is. 3d.)ENGINEER SERVICES Regulations. l’eaee :—

Part I. 1910. Is. (lOt?.) (tTzm.lerrersiotm)

Part II. 11/li, Technical Treatises. 1 m i (7d.)ENGINEER TRAINING. 1912. (Reprinted, withm Amuendniemmts ,191 4). Gd . (Gd.)ENGINEERING. Field. Manual of, 1911. U? . (1/il.)ENGINEERING. Military:—

Part 1. Field Defences. 1908. Is. Gd. (Is. 3d.)- Part 11. Attack a r m u l Defence of Fortresses. 1910. P d . (8u/ .)

Part III~ Military llridging.—Oeneual l’rinciphes and Materials. 191)1. Is. lid.

D ittuu . Ditto.—Ditto. Index to. 01. (Id.) In thepress)Part 1110. Ditto.—Bridges. Ic. 3d. (Is. Oil.)Part IV. Mining antI Demohltiomms. 1910. 18 . (lId.) -

PartY. Miscellaneous. 1914. is. (lid.)

Part VI. Military Railways. 1898. (Out qf print)EQUIPMENT. INFANTRY. l’:mttern 1908 Web. 1913. 3d. (3d.)EQUIPMENT Rogmmlat ions :—

Part 1. 1912. (Reprinted, \S’ith, Amendments publi~h.eml iii Army Orders up toAug. :31, 1914). Is, (lid.)

Part ‘ 2 . Detsils

Section.I. imufentry. (Regumlam; Army). I

1913. Gd . (IL)In. Moummied Immfantm’y. 191’2.

lid. (3m?.)

II. Cavalry. (Regular Am’my.)1914. 3d. (3: .)

III. Army Service Oomps . (Regu-lar Army.) 1913. C u ’ . (Sm?.)

iv., IVm, and lVb. Army Ord-t m a r m c o Corps. Army PayCorps. Army Veterinary

Corps. (Regular Army.)1914. Ui. (3m?.)

V. Royal Army, Medical Corps.(Regular Army.) 1914.

3 m ? . (Oil.) -

VT-IN. R.ir. Academy; ll.Mand Staff Colleges; Garri-

son Staff amid Schoolsof Inst:”iction; Military

Xe.

Sectiomm,Prisons, Detention Bamm’acksand Military Provost Staff

Corps. (Ileguham’ Army.) 1914.2 d . (Oil.)

Engineer. General. Fortress,Survey, Railway, a m m u l DepOtUnits. Peace and War. (Regu-lar Army.) 1914. Oil. ( 3 m ? . )

Xb. Fiel,l Troop. (Regular Armuy.)

1912. 3d. (3m .)

Xc. Field Company. (Regular Army.)1914. 3d. (Oil.)

Xm l . Divisiom,al Signal Company

(Regular Army.) 1914. 2d.(‘lit.)

Xe. Signal Con.pan9’ (Wireless).(Regular Army.) 1912. 3d.

(3d.)



MILITARY BOOKS, published by Autherity—contiuued.

(As to prices in brackets, see top of page 2.)

Equipment Regulations—continued.

Section.Xj: Ileadqimartei’s Signal Units.

(Regular Army.) 1014.2d. (0,1.) -

Xg. Signal Compammy (Cable).(Regular Army.) 1312.

~ O i l . (Oil.)N h. Signal S q m m a m i m ’ o m m . (Regular

Army.) 1014. 3d. (3d.)Xj~ Signal 1’roo~pwith; Cavmulry

Brigade. (Regular Aemny.)1913. 3d. (3m?.)

Xfr . Signal Troop with;m a

CavalryBrigade not allotted to aCavalry Division. (Ilegu-lar Army.) 1914. ‘2d. (UI.)

Xl. Signal Comnpsmmy (SouthAInca). (Regmmhar Armny.)1912. U? . (Oil.)

Xmu . Bcidgimmg Traim;. (Regu0m’Army.) 1910. 3d. ,(Od.)

Xn, Field S quad romm. (RegmmlarArmy.) 1914. 3d. (Out.)

Nb. horse Artillery. Q.F. il-pr.

1913. Oil. (Si?.)Nib. Field Am’tillery. Q.P. 18-pr.(Regular Army.) 1914.

9d. (Sd.)Xlc. Ditto. .Q.F. 4’S-in, ilowitzer.

(Regular Army.) 1013.(Reprinted, with Amuu’nd—m,ments up to Aug. 1, 1914).3d. (3m?.)

Nil. Re~ervoBrigades witlm Q.P.18—pr. I’)qmmipment, ilorseanti Field Artillery, Staff

a m u t i DepOts, Riding Estab—lishmemit, S~h;ool of Quo—

Imory (hiom’se amid Field),amid Moum;teul Band. ( ilegu—

lar Am’mny.) 1914. C t ? , (Gd.)

Mountain Artillery with B. L.

2’75~imu.Equipouemmt. M o m m n — -

taiui Battery amid Amnmmn, i t ionColumn, Mule Transport.

Provisional. (Regulam. Ar—i m m y . ) 1914. Gd. (3d.)

XIIa. Royal Garrison Artillery.( R e g m m l a m ’ Army.) 1914.

2s, Gd . (iii. ill.

Xi1b. IloysI Garrison Artillery,Siege Artillery, MovableAi’mamuemmt, au th M aclm in eGuns in Armaments. 1913.1~. (lot .)

XIIc, Heavy Artillery. B.L. G O — p r .

- (Regular Arumsy.) 1918. 9d.(3d.)

XIV. Cavalry School, Nethueravomu,(I cgmmlar Arm.my.) 1914. Oil.

(U .)

XV. C a m m . e l Corps School, Egypt.(Ihigular Army.) 1314, 3m ,

(Oil.) -

XVI. Special Reserve. 1913. 4d.(-It?.)

XVII. Officers Traioimmg Cmrlis.1912. 3d . (3d . )

Practice Batteries and Drill Guns

(1’ixed Mountimigs) of t i m eRoyal Garrison Artillery.(Part 2, Sections XIIa. a m i d

XVI., a m i d Part 3.) 1909.is. 6tj. (is. 3 d . )

Section,XIe,

Part 3. Territorial Force. 1914. Cd . (Gd.)

Ditto. Details:—

Sec. IX. Artillery. 1912. Is. (1/ti.)

Ditto. Amnermdmuemmts, April 1912 ; Feb.1914. Lachm ld. (it .)Sec. N. Engineer. 1913. 3d. (3d.)

Amendments to I’art 2. Feb.,April, July (two issues), Aug. 1914. - Each. it . (ld.)Amendments to Parts 1, 2, a m i d 3. Nov. 1913. ld. id

Amendments to Parts 1, 2, and 3. Macohm, July 1013; April, Aug. 1914.- Each 3d. (3d.)

ESTABLISHMENTS:-~

I’aACE :— -

I’art II. Territorial Force, 1913-14. 4d. ~4~l.) (Usmdem’ remsuesi)Ditto. Changes in. Nov. i013. id (B?.) -

Part 111. Dspartmuentjj and Miscellaneous Regular Establislmmemmts and

Iustm-uctioxial rnstitntions. 1913-14. O t ? . (2d.)Pact IV. ileadguartem’s Establishments. Home, Colonies and India. 1913-14.

3d. (3d.) -

Part V. Establishment of Commnaimds Abroad and Summaries of the MilitaryForces of the Crown. 1913-14. 3d. (2d.)

6



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Establishments — cwdimmued .

Part I. Expeditionary Force. 1914. 8 m 1 . (Si?.) (Uniter rer1.siomm)

Part II. Territorial ~‘orce. 1911, 8d. (7d.)Part V. Reserve DepOt, and other Regimental Units mmmintalmmed at home

sftcm’ iuobihization. 1914. 4d. (4d.) U m m d e m ’ rerisitmn)

Part VI. Ihepartmnental and Miscellaneous Regular Est.abhlshiimient~aridInstructional Institutions nmaintaiued at Itommie after Mobilizatiom,. 11/14.‘it . (3d.)

New Armies. 101 . 3d. (3d.)

EUROPEAN WAR, 1914—15. Despatelmes (Naval soil Military) relating to

Ilpurmitions in the War. Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1914. With, List of Ifom;oimrs and

Rewards Com;ferrotl. With, Sketch Map. 3d. (3d.)

EXAMINATION PAPERS:.— -

Qualifying CertifIcates. Sept. 1905; March 1906; Sept. 1909; March, Sept. .1910;March, Sept. 1911 Marclm 1912. Eaclm Gd. (5tL) -

‘Em,trance: R.M. Aeadenmy , EM. College, Qimahilyimmg Tcet for Comumsisslomus.Supplementary First Appointnlents in the Royal Marimmos, June—July 19i2Is. (Ilt?.)

Emmtm’anco: JIM. Academy, R.M. College, Quali fyimmg Test for Oommissions~

Nov. 1912; Nov—Dec. 1913. Eacim is. lid.~ Euitm’amice: JI.M. Acadcmmiy, R.IuI. College, Qnahifyimmg Test for Oonmmmmissious. Sup

plementary First Ahipointments in the Royal Marines. Appoiuitmmmeimts in timeIndian Police Force. Appoirmtmnents in t i m e I’ohi~eForces of the Straits Settle-m m ; e m ; t s amid time Federated MalayStates. Cadetsl.ips in th;e Royal Navy (S

1

wciah

L. Entry). Jum.e—July 1914. Is. (lId.)~ Entrance: II.M. Academy, JhM. College. Nov.—Dec. 1914~ is. (hod.)~ Fm’eeh.and Drawimmg at th~A m ’ m m s y Entrance Exaummimiation of Nov. 1913. Slmecimeu

Papcm’ to illustm’ate time kind of questions that will beset in, Gd. (Sit.)

ThM. Acmmdenmy, Fourth. Class; 1 1 , 1 1 1 . College, Fourth, Tl;ird and Second flivisions.July, Dec. 1904; June 1905. Each, is.

B.M. Academy, Fourth Class; il.M. College, Senior DIvision. Dec. 1905;June, Dcc. 1906; July, Dee. 1907. Each: is.

~ Staff College. Admlssiom,. Aug. 1907 Aug. 11/09; July 1911;Jnne-July, 1912June—July 1313. Each, 1~. (Gd.)

~ Regular Forces, Canadiamm Pei’mmmanent Forces, Special Reserve of Officers,Territorial Force, and Colonial Military Forces. May, Nov. 1906; May, Nov

11/08. Each, is. (itt .)Ditto. May 1909. 1 / i l . (3d.)

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NOTES

O N

G.

For Use in Army Schools.



N O T E S O I ~ 1 M A P R E A D IN G F O R U S E I N

A R M Y S C H O O L S .

- INTRODUCTORY.

ThEsE notes are tobe used in army schools as the text-book onmap reading.

They are of ‘~very elementary character, and are framed asan introduction to the official text-book“Manual of M ap Readingand Field Sketching.”

GENERAL REMARKS.

In these days, when fighting extends over such vast areas of

country, it is necessary that not only officers, but non-commis-sioned officers end men as well, should receive suf f icient instructionin map reading to enable them to f ind their way in an unknowncountryby a map, and grasp the general features of the country towhich the map refers.

The maps withwhich we are concerned are of two kinds

1. The military map, which is the work of a trained surveyor.2. The field sketch, which any officer, or non-commissioned

officer of average attainments, ought tobe able tomake.

All officers and non-commissioned officers shou ld , however, beable to “ read” eitherkindwithease.

To enable this to be done, it is necessary to know and under-

Iltand certain things

(a ) The scale of the map.(b ) The diflerentways in which the bill features of the ground

may be shown.( c ) The position of the north point.(d ) The meaning of the various conventional Signs made use

of in militarymaps and sketches.

In the following pages an endeavour will be made to explain

the above in the simplest manner.

n 11371) Wt. 114 39—934 5~t 6/15 1 1 S P. 14/467(8)



3

LESSON I.

The Scale 0/tile Map.

A map (sketch or plan) is a representation of a portion of thesurface of the ground drawn toa f ixed sca le. The scale is used todenote the proportion that a distance between any two points ona map bears to the distance between the same two points on theground.

Thus if the distance between two farms on a map be inch,and the distance on the ground be 2 miles, the scale of the mapwill be inch to 2 miles,

t

fho scale of a plan is dependent upon the amount of detailwhich has to be shown; thus, in the preparation of the plans ofhouses, fortifications, c.,the scale will be a largeone, whereas inmilitary sk.ctches of routes, roads, positions, c., the scale will besmall.

Various Ways o/ Showing the S cale .

The scale may be shown on a plan in various ways :—

(a ) It may be stated on the plan that the scale is” so manyinches to the mile,”or” so manymiles to the inch.”(b) A representative fraction (R.F.) may be used, in which

• the numerator is always unit, and the denominator isexpressed in similar units ; the latter shows the lengthof a line on the ground which is represented by the formerin plan.

The unit may be an inch, a foot, a yard, a metre, or whatnot.

Thus if the R.F. is ~, it means that inch on the planrepresents 60 inches on the ground, and it also means that1 foot represents 60 feet, yard 60 yards, and, in fact,I unit represents 60 units,no matter what the unit maybe.

Similarly, if the R.F. of an English map, in which the unitsare inches, is ~ it means that inch in the maprepresents 63 ,360 inches on the ground, and as- 63 , 360

inches make mile, the scale is evidently one of” inchto a mile.”

It may here be noted that with us, as the inch is the unit bywhich the eye j u dges distances under foot, English scales aregenerally constructed to show a certain number of inches toa mile,or miles toan inch. The advantage of this is that the eye, havingonce been trained to recognise the length of an inch on paper, canreadily estimate the distance between any two points on a map

with considerable accuracy. Colonial and foreign maps are,however, generally constructed so that the denominator is amultiple of 10, thus, for example, the scale adopted for the military

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map of South Africa is ~ and the usual scales for the Germanmilitary maps are :—

For roads and rivers ~ which is rathermore than2~nches

to a mile. For positions ~ which is rather more than 5 inchesto a mile. For tracts of country ~ less than inch to amile.

It is evident that, the larger the denominator, the smaller thescale,

( c ) Or the scale may be shown by a line d iv ided into severalequal parts, and f igured thus : see Fig. I, Plato 1, inwhich a line 3 ~78 inches long has been d iv ided into

11 equal primary parts, each to show 100 yards, and theleft-hand primary part has again been subdivided into10 equal parts, each of which shows 10 yards on thatparticular scale. The position of the “ 0 “ at the innerend of the left-hand primary division is evidently aconvenient on e for the purposes of measurement, as weare enabled to take o f T both primary and secondarydivis ions of the scale at a g lance .

From this it must be understood that a distance on tile mapequivalent to the space between 0 and 100 on the scale represents

100 yards of the country designatedby the map, and a distance onthe map measuring on the scale from ~0 to 200 would represent250 yards of the country, and so on .

In all military sketches it is usual to g ive all threeways, and ascale, to be complete, should be drawn and ~gured thus. (SeeFig. II, Plate 1.)

C O N S T R U C T I O N O P SCALES.

It is apparent that a map is of very little value unless its scaleis expressed in on e of the above three ways, but if either of themethods adopted in (a) or (b) is g i ven , it is very easy toconstructa working scale similar to that given in (c), by which distances onthe map may be measured by simply taking off, on the edge of apiece of paper, or with a pair of dividers, the distance apart ofany two placeson the map and applying the same to tile scale. -

Unit o/ ,41’easure.

The measure of length which a scale is to show, whether feet,yards, or miles, is termed the unit 0/ measure , and scales areusually, though not necessarily, constructed of such a length asto represent a distancewhich is multiple of 10 such units : as 100feet, 50 yards, 80 miles.

A scale should usually be from 4 to 6 inches long (becauseany shorter length would be inconvenient for measuring longdistances), and to construct it the number of tens, hundreds, orthousands of the” unit of measure” which wou ld occupy such a

• length on paper should be estimated.

(n11371) A 3



C

When the length of the scale has been decided , a line shouldbe drawnand divided so as to show completeunits, tens, hundreds,or thousands, as the case may be.

Suppose, as in (a), that it is stated on the plan the scale is“4 inches to a mile,” and it is required to construct a scale tomeasure yards. Here it is clear that 1 m 7 0 0 yards are representedby 4 inches.

As has been stated above, the scale should be between 4 and6 inches long : we know that 4 inches equals 1,760 yards, so wemay take 2,000 yards as a convenient length to be representedby the scale, as it is a multiple of 10, and requires a line between4 and 6 inches long .

1,760 yards 2,000 yards : : 4 inches : x inches, whencep = 4.55 inches .

Take a line 4 ~55inches long from the protractor (see Plate 9).Divide itintofourequal parts, each will be 500 yards. Divide theleft part into f ive equal parts, each will be 100 yards (see Fig. III,Plate 1).

The representative fraction of the abovescale -~~- which

is derived as follows

HP 4inches 4 — 1~1rniIe~1760x3x12Th5840.

If the representative fraction is given as in (5), a suitable scalemay easily be constructed.

Suppose we have a’map in which HF. is ~ Here theR.F. shows that 100,000 inches, or roughly 1~miles, are representedby inch, therefore evidently 9 miles will require a line about6 inches long . The exact length is found in the usual way, thus:

100,000 inches : 9 x 1,760 < 3 x 12 : inch : x inches, whencex 5~7inches.

Take a line 5~7inches longand d iv i de itinto n ine equal parts;each will be mile. D i v i d e the left part into eight equal parts;each will be I furlong (see Pig. IV , P]ate 1).

It may be observed that if the representative fraction ismarked on a plan, the scale can be understood, and the plan,even though it be a foreign one, used by anyone. Without theH.P. it might be useless, unless the exact distance between anytwo points on the plan is known or can be established by actualmeasurement on the ground, in which case the distance measuredis represented by so many inches on the plan, whence the R.F.may be inferred and a suitable scale constructed.

Tim e sca les may be constructed in a similar manner. For

instance, the time taken to march a certain distance is kn~~vn,nda rough scale of time -for march i ng , to show intervals of f iveminutes is required.



The following is an example

The distance on the map measures 4~nches and has taken- 55 minutes tomarch.

55 minutes : 5 :: 4 •50 inches x inches,whence x = 0 ~41inches.

We require a scale about 5 inches long. W e know that 5minutes equals 0 ‘41 inches, so we may take 60 minutes as aconvenient time to be represented by the scale.

Then—5 minutes 60 minutes : : 0 ~41inches x inches,

whence x 4 ‘02 inches.

Take a litle 4 ‘92 inches in length. Divide it into six equaiparts; each will represent 10 minutes’ march. Divide the firstpart into two equal parts ; each will represent 5 minutes’ march.

- LESSON II.

Usual Scales appl ied to Military Maps.

The size of the scale generally used for field sketches dependsmainly on the object with which the sketch is made and theamount of information rega rd ing’ the features of the groundwhich is required to be given. Reconnaissance sketches of a roador river, or of a de fens ive or outpost position, arc usuallymade onscales ranging from to 4 inches to on e mile. Sketches whichmay be required for the de fence of a village or town, or for theselection of a camp or billeting area, are generally made on scalesranging from 4 inches to mile, and upward.

For manceuvres at home, when troops of more than on e armof the service take part, or when forces larger than a battery,regiment or battalion are e n g a g e d , maps on a scale of 2 milesto 1 inch should be used.

As the value of a scale depends in a great measure upon theaccuracy with which it is divided into equal parts, the followingmethod should be adopted :—

From one end of the scale-line tobe d iv ided drawan auxiliary

line making with it an angle of about 20°,set of f on this line,with the dividers, protractor, or other accurately d iv ided rule,equal parts to the number required, making them each, by estirna.Lion, nearlyequaltoon e of the required divis ions . Draw a gu i d i ngline joining the point on the auxiliary line marking the last.division with the end of the scale-line and through each of thepoints of division on the auxiliary lines draw lines parallel to theguiding line and cutting the scale l ine, which will then be dividedinto the required number of equal parts.

Thus, to d iv ide the line A 1 3 , 3~15nches long , into n i ne equalparts. (See Fig. V , Plate 2).

FromA drawAC of indefinite length, making an angle of about

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200 with AB. Set oil on AC nine equal parts, each nearly equal,by estimation to1/9 of AB. Construct a guiding line by joiningthe ninth point of division on AC at D to B; and then through

each point of division on AC draw lines parallel to DB to cut AB,which will thus be divided into nine equalparts.For the sake of conven ience it may occasionally be necessary

to construct a second scale for a map already provided with onein order to be able to use units of measure which cannot beobtained from the existing scale. Both these scales would havethe same R.F. Thus, a Swedish map may show a scale ofkilom etres, but to be generally useful to us, it would be necessaryto add to it a scale of miles with the samo 1 1 . 1 3 ’ . O r, when about

to make a military sketch, in order to avoid the trouble of fre-quently reducing paced measurements to yards, which is to bethe unit of measure of the map, a scale for paces is prepared andused for measuring in distances, its R.F. being , of course, identicalwith the R.F. of the scale of yards (see Plate 2).

The following examplesshould makethis clear :—Exarnp ie I.—

Construct, for sketching, a scaleof yardsand paces, R.F.

(Assume that a pace is equal to 3 0 inches.)First make a scale of yards.We know from the R.F. that inch on the map represents

15,840 inches of the country. Acting on the rule that a scaleshould be from 4 to 6 inches long , multiply 440 (the number ofyards in15,840 inches) by 5 ; result 2,200 yards.

Take 2J~00yards as a good length to show by the scale, thenfrom the following proportion

440 yards : 2,500 yards :: inch : x inches,

we get 568 inches as the lengthof line representing this distanceand a scale of yards would be drawn and figured as shown inFig. VI, Plate 2.

N ow for the scale of paces. We know from the previouscalculation that 2,500 yards require a scale a little under 6 incheslong , and as a pace is 6 inches shorter than a yard, if we take3 ,000 paces ~veshall produce a scale about the same length.

The following proportion will g iv e it exactly :-~-

15,840 inches 3,000 x 3 0 inches :: inch x inches.

From which x = 5~68inches, and the scale will be drawn andfigured as in Fig. VII, Plate 2.

If a foreign map is being made use of, so long as the R . 1 3 ’ . isgiven, a scale of English measure can be constructed as alreadyshown, but if the R.F. is not given it will be useful to rememberthat

I metro (used in France, Germany, Belg ium,and manyothercountr ios) 39~37inches.

1 Russian verst ... ... = 3,500 feet, or 1,167 yards.



10

It is also usefu l to remember the following :—T o f ind thenumber of English miles to the inch for any map that has a

R.F., d iv i de the denominator of the R.F. by 63,360; this gives

the numberrequired; - thus if R.F.

is ~j~i~io’then

thenumber of

miles to the inch = ~2663360

To f ind the number of inches to the mile, d i v i de 63 ,360 by the

denominator of t’ae R.F. ; thus ii the P b . 1 ? . is then the

63360

number of inches to the nule =~

= 010ENLAEOING OR Ru~uciuo MArs.

Enlarging or Reducing .

When it is required to enlarge or reduce a map, squares ofany convenient size may be drawn on the original, and the paperon which the n ew map is tobe made , ruled with squares whosesides bear the required ratio to the sides of the squares on theoriginal . The orig inal is then copied by eye, so that objects

occupy the same positions relatively to the squares as they didin the original .LESSON III.

The following forms and terms are here de f i ned . It will bebetter to explain the former at a later stage, illustrating them byexamples on a sketch, and the latter as they occur in the text

DEFIN1T1O~sS.

1. Topographica l Forms .Basin.—A term used todescribe (a ) a small area of level groundsurrounded ornearly surrounded by hills, and (b) a districtdrainedby a riverand its tributaries, as the” basin of the Thames.”

Col.-.---A depression between two adjacent mountains or hills,or a break in a ridge; or the neck of land which connects anoutlying feature with a range of mountains or hills, or with aspur.

Crest . - . - -The edgeof the top of a hill or mountain; the positionat which a gentle slope changes to an abrupt one, the top of abluf f or cliff.

Du n c . —A kill or ridge of sand formed by the winds near a seaor lake shore, along a riverbed or on a sandyplain.

De/ile.—Anynatural or artificialfeaturewhich causes a body oftroops to contract its normal front, during its passage through it,is a defile for that body. A mountain pass is the most commonsort of natural defile; a bridge or a raised causeway through a

marsh are examples of artificial defiles.Escarp rncn t .—An extended line of cliffs or bluf fs .Gorge .—A rugged and deep ravine. ,

Knoll.—A low detached hill.



ii -

Pass.—A depression in a mountain range through which a roador trail maypass; a track over a mountain range.

Plateau.—An elevated plain.

Re -en t ran t .—A “ re-entrant” occurs where the hill side iscurved inwards towards the main feature; it is always foundbetween two salients.

Saddle.—A col.Salient or Spur.—A projection from the side of a hill or moun-

tain running out of the main feature.Unde r ea tu re .—A minor feature; an offspring of a main

feature.Undulat ing Ground .—Ground which alternately rises and falls

gently.Watcr -course .—The line defining the lowest part of a valley,

whether occupied by a stream or not.Waters I L ed .— A ridge of high land separating two drainage

basins ; the summit of land from which water divides or flows intwo directions. A watershed does not necessarily include thehighestpoints of a chain of mountains or range of hills.

This list does not profess to be exhaustive; there are many

terms in common use such as hill, mountain, river, slope, island,cliff, ravine, c.,which’ it does not appear necessary to def ine.

2. Techn ica l T e rm s .

Angle .—Back angle: the direction or bearing in a traverse of

a station which has been passed .Forward angle: the forward direction or bearing of one station

in a traverse to the next in succession.

Base or Base Line.—A carefully chosen and accuratelymeasured line upon which the accuracy of a sketch made by

triangulation depends .Bear ing .—T rue bearing is the angle a line makes with the true

north line.Magnet ic bearing is the angle a line makes with the magnetic

north line.Con tour .—A contour is an imaginary line running along the

surface of the ground at the same height above mean sea-levelthroughoutits length. Contours may also be definedas the plansof the lines at which a water surface (o f the ocean, for instance)would intersect the surface of the earth were it raised successivelyby equal amounts.

Datum or Datum Leve l.—A a assumed level to which altitudesare referred.

Fall of a River.—Its slope, usually measured in inches (or feet)per mile, thus 0 inches per mile.

Form L ine .—An approximate contour; a sketch contour.Grad i en t .—A slope expressed by a fraction. Thus ~ ropresents

a rise or fall of foot in3 0 feet.



12

Jlachures .—Vert ical hachuring is a conventional method ofrepresenting hill features by shading in short disconnected linesdrawndirectly down the slopes in the direction of the flow of wateron the slopes.

Horizontal Equivalent.._Sonsetimcswritten H.E. is the distancein plan between two adjacentcontours measured in yards.

Local Magnet ic Attraction.—Is the deviation of the magneticneedle of a compass from its mean position, owing to the presence -

of masses of magnetic iron ore or of iron in the ne ighbourhood .Magnetic Variation.*_,~Theangle between the true and the

magnetic meridians.It is called E. or W. variation, according as the magnetic N. is

E. or W . of the trueN. (See pp. 22 and 23 . )Meridian or Merid ian -Line . -—A truenorth and southline.Magnetic Meridian.—Amagnetic northand southline.Orienting or Setting amap or plane-table is the process of placing

the map or plane-table so that the north line points north.Plot t i ng .—The process of laying down on paper field observa-

tions and measurements.Re-sec t~ ion .—Amethod by which the sketcher determines his

position by observing the bearings of, or drawing lines from, at

least two previously fired points. (See Fig. XlV, p. 27.)Section.—The outline of the intersection of the surface of the

g round by a vertical plane.

Triani ,rulation.—The process of f ix ing the position of points onthe area tobe surveyed, by means of a measured base and a chainor network of triangles dependent on it.

Vertical Interval.—Sometimes written V.1 . and always g ivenin feet, is the d i f ference of level between two adjacentcontours.

LESSON IV .

Hill Features.

The slope of the ground is generally expressed in degreesthus

A slope of 2°,”“ a slope of 5°,”‘ a slope of 11°,”and so on

by this is meant that the ground rises at an angle of so manydegrees from the horizontal; the slope may also be expressed as

a gradient, thus “

in 20,” which implies that there is a rise of yard in a distance of 20 yards.Several methods are used to representhill features, viz.

1. 1-lachuring (see def in i t ion) .2. The Layer system: whereby the various levels are shown

by graduated shading—for instance : the highest levelsbeing darkest, the next in height less dark and so on .

3. Contours (see defini t ion) .4. On some maps the heights are shown by spot levels, i.e.,

the height is g iven in f igures at certain spots, and byshading. _ _ _ _ _ _________

The more correct terra is” magnetic declination,” but by long usage the

two terms hare become synonymous.



PLATE 3

T o f ac t- p ag e l~.

CONVENTIONAL SIGNS LETTERING USED IN FIELD SKETCHINGNote: Words which shou ld aEpear o n the Sketch are shewri in black

A M ” • • Sand

Hops t~IH~,t - t ~ot

~ “t’~ 4 I i~ -~ -

~,1h i’t,r’t

J-ct~ard . 1’ ~•

- - Morph

- ‘ Huu’~Ii F’5 uc

.~, P ~ ~‘lu’~’ - - - - - - - w Q ~ L.H.

‘p

ft —

‘M~~IId” Unm~to I, 0a~”Pine” ‘~ Y’dth /0ft

pocsablc’ . -

~1 rnpossoh1e — -

5

.~,,,e L’ I)’’o/,j~If HAWLEY~-~--~--~----- ~ —4--If EYNSFORD- ~viI ’a iI,-i~-n ~- , - ~ “ ~; ,t1fI,’~ 0 IyJr~// -

51,,i,,

Railwoy’

:~ ~ ~ ~-~“ ~~~EYNSFORDFor’

1~t HAWLEY

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13

O n a military sketch the features of the ground are usuallyrepresented by “ Form Lines,” i.e., “Approximate Contours”:

a small number of levels of points at considerable distances apartare f i xed , with less accurate instruments than are used in fixingcontours, or even by the eye, and are sketched in as carefully asthe limited time permits.

A good idea of what contours (or form lines) would be like ifactually marked on a piece of elevated ground may be gatheredfrom the following :—

Suppose an island subject to the in f luence of tide tohe markedby water lines showing high tide, low tide, and intermediateconditions of tide, and suppose again that each of these water

lines occurs at a regular fall, then such lines would g ive a truerepresentation of the contours of the i s land . The verticaldistance between two adjacent contours is known as the” vertical

interval,” and is written V.1 . , it is expressed in feet (except onforeign maps). A note on a map “contours at 50 feet V.1.,”means therefore that any two success ive contours are separatedby a vertical interval of 50 feet.

In some maps the height of each contour above the datumlevel or mean sea level is marked on the colltour itself ; when thisis done the V .1 . is apparent.

We must next consider the distance in plan, between twoadjacent contours, which is called the horizontal Equivalent(see def in i t ion , p. 11) ; the vertical interval being f i xed , it is clearthat the length of the horizontal equivalent ~villdepend on themean degree of slope ; where the slope is steep the contours willhe close together, and the horizontal equivalent small ; where theslope is gentle, the contours will be far apart, and the horizontal

equivalent great. Thus in Plate 4, AF represents the horizontalequivalent when the slope is 20°,AD when the slope is 10°,and AB when the -slope is 5°,the V .1 . , GF, ED, or CB being thesame in all cases.

The horizontal equivalent is usually expressed in yards and iswritten hI.E., and, being the distance on the map between twoadjacent contours, must not be confused with the distance on theground. The d i f fe rence between these distances, although in

gentle slopes not great, increases as the slope becomes steeper.Note .—I f m en have a dif f iculty in understanding contours, theV .1 . and H.E., these may be practically illustrated by puttinga mound of earth into a bath or tub full of water, which can bedrawn of f itt quantities so as to show levels at equal vertical

intervals ; the successive water levels marking the contours willbe found to be close together where the slope is steep, and farapart where the slope is gentle.

The horizontal equivalent for various degrees of slope is

calculated on the following principle :—

For a slope of 1°a vertical rise of on e foot g ives a horizontalequivalent of 573 feet. or 101 yards.



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15

For a slope of 2°and the same rise of foot the horizontalequivalent is half this, - or 9 •6 yards; for a slope of 3°it is one-third, and so on. Thus for a vertical interval of foot we havethe following list of horizontal equivalents :— -

Degree ot slope, It. E. inyards.1 ... 191

2 9.5 --

3 ... 04

4 ... ... 4.5

5 - 3.5

6 . ... 3~2am1soon.

For a vertical interval of 25 feet it is merely necessary tomultiply these horizontal equivalents by 25, for V .1. of 50 feet

by 50, for a V .1. of 100 feet by 100.The following is a table of horizontal equivalents in yards fora vertical interval of 100 feet :—

Degree II,E. Degree I1.E.of slope. in yards. ofSlope. Inyards.

1 ... ... ... 1,009 12 ... ... . . 157

2 ... ... ... 954 13 ... ... ... 1443 .. .. ... 636 14 ... ... ... 134

4 ... 477 15 ... ... ... ~24881 10 ... . . ... 118

6 .. .. .. 317 17 ... ... ... 109

7 ... .. ... 271 18 ... .. ... 102

8 ... ... .. 237 19 ... ... ... 079 ... 210 20 ... ... ... 01

10 ... ... •.. 189 25 . ... .. 7111 ... ... ... 171 30 . . ... ... 58

This table is not meant to be learnt by heart.A very useful approximate rule is the following :—

H.E.=191

whore H.E. is the horizontal equivalent in yards.V . 1 . vertical interval in feet.D. ,, degree of slope (angle of elevation or

depression) .

Example.—What is the horizontal equivalent for an 8°slope,

the vertical interval being 25 feet?

Here H.E.=19~1

The 1-inch Ordnance maps of the United Kingdom showcontours at intervals of 100 feet; in any operations at homethese maps, or enlargements of thorn, will be freely used ; it istherefore necessary that sketches made for use, in conjunctionwith the Ordnance maps, should show the 100, 200, 3 00feet contours. The same applies to the use of the n ew i-inchOrdnance map.

LESSON V .SLOPES.

Slopes are u su aUy de scrib ed as concave or convex; the slopebetween two points is concave when an imaginary straight line



16

joining them is throughout its length above the surface of theground immediately beneath it, and convex when the surface ofthe ground interrupts the direct vision between these two points.

(See Plate 6.) If the siope of the uppez part of a hill side isgentle, indicated by the contours being far apart, and that of thelower part steep, indicated by the contours bein g close together,the genera l slope will be convex .

If, on the other hand, the upper part of the slope is steep,indiàated by the contours being close together, and the lowergentle, indicated by the contours being far apart, the siopo will be

concave .The factof a slope being concaveor convex does not necessarily

imply that such a slope is steep or gentle—it may be either.A convex slope is ill-suited for defence, as it is evident that

an enemy having gained the foot of the hill would be invisible,and not under fire from the top of the hill, the defenders musttherefore take up their position some distance down the hillside,whore they can command the lower portion of the slope, or evenat the bottom of the hill. A concave slope, or one perfectlyuniform throughout, is best adapted for defence , as an enemy

advancing up itwould be infull view, andcontinuously under thefire of the de fenders , stationed at the top of the hill. For thisreason the glacis, or slope, descending from a fortress is madeperfectly uniform. In nature slopes are seldom uniform, theygenerally vary considerably, being steep in som e places andgentle in others ; under-features, such as knolls or hoflow~occur,breaking the uniformity of slope and a f fo rd ing cover to troopsattacking, but, unless the map were constructed with very close

contours these small features would not be apparent. In orderto show them the map would have to be on a very large scalewhich is impracticable.

It may be taken for granted, therefore, that if the map showsa convex slope therewill be much ground hidden from view fromthe crest, technically known as dead ground, but it must not betaken for granted that if it shows a concave siope, the whole ofthe lower ground will be seen ; in order to ascertain this theground must

be personallyinspected

before itssuitability

forde fence can be ascertained.Sites for defens ive trenches, rifle pits, or temporary firing

places should be selected so that the occupants will have an

uninterrupted view of the ground to their front; this can onlybe assured by bringing the eye to the level, usually a few inchesabove the ground, from which fire is to be delivered , it cannotbe done by a man mounted on a horse, nor even by aman standingup, unless it is intended to construct breastworks or parapets

from which the fire will be delivered.This subject of visibility will be further considered in the next

chapter on sections.



17 -

S a C T I ONS .

This chapter is given to further illustrate the necessity forshowing contours or form-l ines on a map, and the manner in

which they represent hill features. Section drawing is neverrequired in practice, but it is necessary tounderstand the subjectin order to be able to decide, when reading a map, what portions

of a hillside are visible or invisible from any given point on thehill. -

A section has been de f ined above (p. 12) as” the outline of theintersection of the ground by a vertical plane” ; a railway cuttingor a road cutting a f fords a good illustration of a section, if we

imag i ne that the whole of the hill on on e sid e of the cutting hasbeen removed. Another good illustration is a cottage loaf ofbread cut in half from top to bottom, the outline seen when on ehalf of the loaf is removed is a full-size section of the loaf . Aknowledge of contours and of the V.1 . and H.E. enables us to

drawa section of any hill represented on amap, which will presenta fairly accurate picture of the slopes as they would appear ifa cutting were made right through the hill. It is drawn as

follows. (S ee Plate 5):—On the map draw any straight lin e, AD , running through theportion of the hill of which a section is required, mark on thisline the points at which it is intersected by the contours ; then

either on the map, or on a separate sheet of paper, draw ahorizontal line of equal length, AD , representing the level of thelowest contour, and mark accurately thereon the contour inter-sections, from each of these points erect perpendicular lines andmark on the right and left uprights equi-distant points repre-senting the V.1 . to which the map is drawn—this vertical scaleshould be exaggerated to about six times the horizontal scale,otherwise the di f ferences in height will not be appreciable—through the oqui-distant points draw lines parallel to the lowestline, mark these lines successively in feet corresponding to theheights of the contours which they represent, thus, 2 5 , 5 0, 75 , c.,or 50, 100, 150, e., or 100, 200, 3 00, c., from X draw a lineascending through the intersection of the vertical lines with

the contour lines until the hill top is reached and descendingsimilarly to Y.

From this sketch (Plate 5) it can clearly be seen that wherethe slope is gentle the contours are far apart, and where steepthey are close together. (S e e a lso Plate 7.)

- LESSON VI.

VISIBILITY.

It is obvious that, in open country (i.e., country devoid ofh ed g e s, w alls, trees, undergrowth, c.), two points are visiblefrom each other when no physical feature obstructs the vision,



18

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• If )

o s ~ , in musketry language, “the line of sight,” from one to the- other.

For example, two points on the opposite sides of a valley

will be visible the on e from the other, if both are higher than anyportion of the ground between them.It is also obvious that, on an openplain which is perfectly level,

or on a slope which is absolutely uniform, not only will any twopoints be visible from each other, but that the intervening

country will be visible from either point.Plains, however, are seldom perfectly lev el, ov en if their

surface presents a level appearance when viewed from a distance;they will usually be found, on closer inspection, tobe broken by

depressions and elevations quite suf f ic ient to con c ea l bod ies oftroops.

If the plain is intersected by fences, or covered with trees, orundergrowth, visibilitywill be further limited.

Similarly, slopes are seldom uniform throughout; they aregenerally either” concave,” i.e., steeper at the top than below, or

convex,” i.e., gentle at the top and steeper below. (See Plate 6.)

It is evident that, on a concave slope, two points, on e on the

top and the other at the bottom of the siope, are visible from eachother, provided there are no under-features, boulders, c., toobstruct the view, and likewise that the ground between themwill be visible from either point.

As a clear field of fire is of supreme importance to the defence .an open plain, with no commanding heights within range, and ahill-top with uniform slope, or a concave slope, usuallyafford good -

de fens ive positions.

Note.—Tho expressions“

concave” and “convex” are onlyapplied to slopes with regard tothe verticalplane, andmust notbeconfused ~vith’’re-entrant” and “salient,” which are spoken ofwithregard to the horizontal platte. (See D efini tion s , pp. 10 and 11.)

INVIs IBILFIY.

Invisibility of on e point from another, or of a portion of theintervening ground, is due to some feature which ohstructs theline of sight.

It is sel f -evident that obstruction will occur whenever a hillintervenes between two points ; it will also occur on a convexslope (i.e., a slope gentle in the upper part and steeper in thelower of the hillside, see Fig. IX, Plate 6).

From this sketch, it is evident that, when a person is lookingdown a slope from a given point, his line of sight cannot fall at asteeper gradient than that of the ground near him, A toB (i.e., liecannot see through the g round ) , that the lower part of the slope

below the change at point B will be unseen , or” dead,” and like-wise that portion of the plain below interveningbetween the foot of

the hill and the point K where the line of sight from the hill-topmeets the ground.



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21

The top of a hill, therefore, with a convex slope is an un-favourable position for de fence , in that the enemy will be out of

sight and not exposed to fire while crossing the dead ground in

front of the position.ASCERTAINING VISIBILITY FROM A MAP OR SKETcH.

The extent to which visibility of on e point from another, and

of the intervening ground, can be ascertained from a sketch ormap, depends upon the size of the V.1 .

If the V.1 . is small, e.g., [0 feet, the unrepresented groundfeatures arc small, and visibility can be determined with con-siderable accuracy; if the V .1 . is large, e.g., 50 or 25 feet, the

unrepresented ground features are large, and include all elevationsand depressions of less than 50 or 25 feet, as the case may be.

V isibility, therefore, cannot in many cases be positivelydetermined without inspection of the actual ground, thoughprobable invisibility may be in ferred . -

Whenever the map has contours with a V .1 . greater than 10feet, as would be the case with maps issued for service in the f ield,it is well to regard as doubtful the visibility on the actual ground

of two points from each other, which seem to be mutually visibleon the map—unless it is evident that the line of sight from one tothe other throughout passes the height of a V . 1 . above anyinterveningfeature represented on the map—though visibility of -

a portion of the ground may be in ferred .From the foregoing considerations, the following rules can be

formulated :—

(1 ) If the map or sketch shows two points on the oppositesides of a valley standing well above any of the interveningground, each will be visible from the other, and portions of theintervening ground will be visible from either point.

(2 ) If between any two points a feature is represented higherthan both, neitherpointwill be visiblefrom the other, butportions

of the intervening ground .wihl be visible from either.(3 ) If between any two points a feature is represented higher

than on e of the points, each point may, or may not, be visiblefrom the other.

In such a case the question may be determined by(a ) Drawing a section (see Plate 5), a method for which time

is required. -

(b) By a proportion sum, taking the distances from the inter-vening feature to either point for the first pair of terms,and the di f ference in height between eitherpoint and theintervening feature as the third term.

— Thus, on Plate 7, is the top of hill B visible from the hill A—

the hill D is the intervening feature :— -

Distance from E to D, 820 yards.Distance from D to A, 700 yards.Di f fe r ence in height D and E, 25 feet.



22 -

The l ine of sight from A to P rises 50 feet in 700 yards. Theamount itwill rise from D toB is foundby proportion as follows

700 yards : 820 yards :: 50 feet : z foot,

whence x = 58~5feet.But B is only 25 feet aboveD, whence it is clear that the line

of sight from A passes 5S~5 25 = 3 3 ~5 feet.above B, andtherefore B is invisible from A.

If the principle that the rise or faIl must be in proportion todistance be kept in min d , probable visibility or invisibility mayoften be determinedfrom an inspection of the map, as in the case

just g i ven , without arithmetical calculation.

(4 ) When a slope is shown by the map to be convex , twopoints thereon will be invisible from each other, and likewisemuch of the intervening ground.

(5 ) When a slope is shown by the map to be concave , twopoints thereon will probably be visible from each other, andportions of the intervening ground will certainly bt~visible fromeither point.

(6 ) When ground is shown by the map to be level, two pointsthereon

willprobably

be visible from each other, andportions

of the intervening ground will be visible from either point.

LESSON VII.

True and Magnet ic North.

Before proceeding further it is necessary to understand themeaning of the terms “ true north” and” magnetic north.” By

“ true north” is meant the direction of the North Pole from theobserver ; ‘by” magnetic north” is meant the direction in whichthe compass needle points.

The meridian or true north line is, therefore, a direction whichnever changes , and by showing it on every sketch we get a linecommon to all. The magnetic north, on the other hand, variesfrom the variationof the compass—in other words, with its devia-tion from true north, which is dependent on locality, on theearth’s surface, and in a minor degree on the particular compassthat is being used.

Variation.At present (1912) the variation of the compass in England

varies between 150 west in the east or England and 18°west inthe west and north, and it is diminishing by about 7 minutesannually.

If true north is known, the Variation of a particular compass

can be ascertained by taking the bearing of true north; if notknown it may be found by one or other of the methods given inthe Appendix. -

It is obvious that if the variation of a compass is known, the



23

true north can be obtained without having recourse toeither ofthe methods referred to.

Thus, supposing the variation of a compass in a particular

localty to be 20°west, a bearing of 20°will g iv e the true north.(See Fig. X .)

Similarly, suppose the variation to be 20°cast, a bearing of340°(360°—20°)will g iv e the true north. (See Pig. XI.)

It will, therefore, be seen that (a) when the variation is west,itmust be deducted from, and (5) when east added to the reading

of the compass, in order to get the true bearing of the object.In (a), however, if the result is minus it must be subtracted

from 360°and in (5) if the result is greater than 360°,3600 must

be subtracted from it.The following diagrams in illustration will make this clear :—

O n all military sketches the true north and magnetic northarc shown in the accompanying conventional sign (Fig. XII), butit often occurs that in sketches of positions, road reports, c.,thearrow heads do not point approximately towards the top of thesketch. They may point towards the bottom, or towards either

side.The reason for this is that in making a sketch, of a road for

instance, it is desirable to get the whole of the sketch within thelimits of the paper, and, in order to accomplish this, the top mustpoint in the general direction of the road; e.g., if the road runs inan easterly direct ion, the north would be on the left side.

Positions, again, are sketched with reference to the directionfrom which the enemy is expected, the paper being laid so as to

face that direction, which may be due south.The sides of rectangular Ordnance maps of Great Britain are

drawn parallel to a true north and south line running throughDelamere Forest; in the extreme eastand west counties they will

vary about4°froma true northand south line, they are, therefore,only approximatelynorth and south.

FIG. XI.

Vari~ticn.

z o oVeriation.

20°E. C



4

other known points in the map coincide in direction with the

imaginary lines proceeding from the eye of the observer to thosepoints as they are actually seen on the ground.

The following diagram (Fig. XIII) shows the four cardinalpoints and intermediate points of the compass :—

FIG XIII

N.360°orO°

From this it will be seen that a man standing at P and facingthe north has the south immediately behind him, the cast on his

By setting a map is meant placing itinsuch a position relatingto the ground it represents, that lines or” rays,” drawn from thepoint on the map denoting the position of the observer to any

-

F IG XII

270’ W E.9O~

5.I8O~



5

right, and the west on his left. It will also be observed that thereare 360°in the circle, and these are reckoned in the samedirectionas the f igures on a watch, commenc ing at the north point; in each

degree there are 60 minutes, and in each minute 60 seconds;degrees are marked thus ~, minutes ‘ seconds “. it is useful toremember that the sun, speaking generally, rises in the east andsets in the west, that outside the tropics at noon it is approxi-mately due south of an observer in the northern hemisphere,and approximately due north of an observer in the southernhemisphere ; the statement, however, regarding the rising andsetting of the sun is only accurate at the cquinoxes (the end ofMarch and end of September), at other times there will be less

or more variation accord ing to the altitude and the time of year,amounting in London to 38~°orth at midsummer , and to38~°south at mid-winter.

Thisvariation will be apparenton an examinationofFig. XIIIA,which represents the face of a magnetic compass, the approximate

points of the rising and setting of the sun at midsummer and mid-winter being shown.

FIG XIIIA



26

LESSON VIII.

FLNDING ONE’ s PosiTioN ON A MAP.

In connection withwhat has been said in tIre last lesson it isn ow proposed to show how to find one’s position on the map.To d o this it is generally necessary first of all to “ Set” the

map, which is, as already e~rplained,toplace it in such a manneras to correspond exactly with the actual lie of the ground.

To” Set” a map it is necessary first :—

(it) To ascertain the direction of the truenorth(5 ) Or to ascertain the direction of the magnetic north;

(c ) Or to be able to see at, least three objects, such as achurch, hill, or isolated building which are recognisableon tile map;

(d) O r, standing at a known point, to al ign another knownpoint with its corresponding point on the map.

(a ) This can be found by day or by night by the methodsg iven in the Appendix, two pickets being driven into the groundto mark the direction.

If the map or plan be then placed on the ground with its northpoint parallel to the line of pickets, the arrow head pointing north-wards , it will be correctly set.

(5) This is found by means of a compass, and themap is set bylaying it on the ground and turning it round, until its magnetic

north point is parallel with the needle of the compass and pointsnorthwards.

c In this case, n o compass being available, one’s position canbe found without setting the map, in the following manner

Pin on a board a piece of tracing paper, on which lay a ruler.From any convenient point on the paper as a pivot, withoutmoving the board, draw a line along the straight edge of th~ulerin the direction of each of the three known distant points. Thenremove the piece of tracingpaper from the board and apply it to

the map so that the three lines pass through the distant pointas marked on the map, the pivot point will g ive on the map the -

spot where on e is standing. -

If tracing paper is not available, ordinary paper may be usedand the pivot point pricked through on to the map.It is only possible to use this method on rare occasions.When a map is “ set,” either by the true north or magnetic

north, the position of the observer can be found without the useof tracing paper by similar observations on two objects only, theintersection of the two lines thus drawn on the map marking thepoint of observation.

If in the case of (d) it is required to “ set” the map after

f i nd i ng one’s position, it is only necessary to turn the map round

until the representation on the map of the spot where one isstanding and any on e of the distant objects marked on the mapare in visual line with that object. -



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Re-sect ion.

Another method of determining the position of the observer isby what is called” re-section” (from two points). This requires

the use of a compass and a knowledge of bow to take bearingsand lay them of f on paper. Thus, in Fig. XIV, suppose “ A”to be a point which it is required to f i n d , and B and C are twoknown points.

The observer, standing at A, first takes the bearing of B andf i n d s that it reads, say 320°and C 50°. He then sets oil from Bthe reverse angle of 320°,i.e. 320°less 180°= 140°,or, inotherwords, the bearing of A from B. Similarly from C he plots the

bearing of A from C, i.e. 50°+ 180°= 230°.The point of intersection will g ive A.Bearings are ascertained by means of the prismatic compass,

and are laid oil on the map by means of the protractor.

1 ’ -

The prismatic compass contains amagnetic needle balanced ona pivot and carrying a card d iv ided into 360°—thebearings areread through a prism which enables the observer to see thedistant object and the reading at the same time. S ee Plate 8,with reference to which :—C, is the inbtal cover ; V , hair linefor use as a sighting vane; W , glazed window; R containsprism through which can be read the graduated edge of the dial,while at the same time the sighting vane (V ) can be al igned on

the object through the slit above the prism; S , clamping screwfor magnetic dia l when not in use ; A, check sp rin g for steadying

dial when taking an observation. -

FIG. XIV

C

The Prism at ic Corn pass.



28

Tue Protractor.

- The protractor is an instrument graduated on on e side ~viha similar scale of degrees to that shown on the compass card,radiating from the centre of -the -inner edge , which is markedwith

~narrow head—the on e used formilitary sketching is a rectangularslab of ivory or box-wood exactly 6 inches in length—the degreesup to 180 are shown by the outer row of f igures, those from 180 to3 60 by the inner row, (The service protractor is shown on Plate 9.)

Nors.—Every soldier studying map-reading is recommendedto provide himself at his own expense with a protractor, priceabout Gd.

To la y off a Bearing.

To lay of f a bearing place the protractor on the map with theradiating centre, which is marked by an arrow head, on the spotfrom which the bearing has been ascertained, the inner edge of

the instrument pointing N. and S . Then mark on the paperwhere the degree, corresponding with the reading of the compass,is shown on the protractor—a line drawn from the point of obser-vation through this mark will be the bearing of the object. Forbearings up to180°the graduated edge of the protractor is laid tothe rightor east; for bearings 180°to360°the graduated edge of

the protractor is laid to the left or west.

To take ~j7a Distance.

There is also a scale of inches on the service protractor fromwhich lengths measuring decimals of inches such as are requiredin constructing scales can be measured. The first place ofdecimals is given by the sub-d ivis ions on the bottom line, thesecond place by counting upwards the required number along the

diagonal line starting from the first place of decimals . Thus, fora line 2 •5 inches putonepoint of the dividers at a and the otherat5. For 2~55nches count up f ive from S to d and put on e pointat c and the other on the same horizontal line at d (see Plate 9).

LESSON IX.

CONVENTIONAL SIGNs.

To thoroughly understand a map it is necessary to be familiar

with the various conventional s igns that are used in militarysketches. Plate 3, showing these, will be found facing p. 12, so itwill not be necessary to dilate upon them here. They should,however, be carefully studied and copied.

Troops .

It may be necessary to show the disposition of troops ona sketch, as, for instance, on a sketch of an outpost

or de fens ive position. It is not desirable to spend time in

drawing troops in any form to scale. It is suff icient to draw asymbol (filled up with colour, if available), which will attractthe attention, writing ~the necessary information as regardsstrength and unit alongside .



T o ~‘acrage 2 8PLATE 9

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29

In outpost sketches, the letters P, S , R, may be writteninstead of piquet, support and reserve.

The direction of a patrol is shown by an arrow.

MAP REAPING.

In the foregoing pages the most essential points have beendealt with which will assist the beginner to read a map, buta fewpractical hints may now be a d d e d .

When examining a contoured map, three preliminary pointsshould be attended to before commenc ing to answer any questionconnected with it.

1. What is the scale ?2. What is the contour interval (V.1 .)

3. Where is the north point I

1. ale.—Theremust be something to show it ; it will bedrawn; its R.13. will begiven; or itmayberevealed by milestonesmarked along a road.

Having ascertained the scale, endeavour to impress upon themind what distance represents a mile, ~ mile, c.

2. Contours .—Consider what is the interval, and by observa-tion of the V .1 . and distance between the contours (H.E.) estimatethe gradients of roads, c.,and the slopes ; in which connectionit will be useful to remember what slopes are practicable for eachof the three arms.

These are givenin detail in the following table

~ Are practicable for all arms. Cavalry will charge more effectively up full than down.

~iopesup to ~ ~ Artillery fire is more effect ive down hill than up. -

Close movemen t s for infantry are dif f icult .Cavalry can only charge up kill a short distance.

Between5° ,, Artillery moves with difficulty; its effectualand 100 and constant fire ceases. A slope of 8°will

almost stop bag gag e wag on s without extra-horses. -

I Infantry can only move a very short distanceBetween 10° ) in order. Cavalry can only trot a short

and 15° ~ distance up hill, and walk down . ArtilleryLmoves withgreat dif f iculty ; f i re ceases entirely.

° I Infantry cannot move in formed bodies, andBetween 15 ~ can only fire s ingly . Cavalry can ascend at a

l .walk, and descend obliquely.

I Infantry can only move in extended order,Botw~en~0 ~ Lightcavalry may ascend and descend obliquely

an ~ on e by one.Between 25° f Infantry as before, but veryslowly. Cavalry

and 30° ~ as,~before,butwithgreat dif f iculty .



- 30

Slopes over 30°may be climbed up by m en using theirhands.Note also the various heights marked on the map.3. Methods for ascertaining the direction of the true north

will be found in the following Appendix.

APPENDIX.

The direction of the true north can be ascertained(a ) By an observation of the sun .(5) By an observation at night of the PoleStar.

Method (a) .—Day t ime .

Lean a pole pointing northwards on two crossed sticks. Fromits tip drop a plummet line to the ground at A.

From the point thus found as a centre, and with any con-venient radius, describe a circle. Before n oon watch the shadowof the pole as it gradually gets shorter and shorter, till at last thetop of the shadow will just touch the circumference of the circle.Mark this spot with a picket. The shadow will continue toshorten until 12 o’clock, and will then lengthen again. - Watch it

as it creeps out until again its tip just touches the circumferenceof the circle ; mark this spotwithanotherpicket. Between thesetwo observations the sunmust have” culminated” or reached itshighest point in the heavens. If, therefore, the arc between thetwo pickets be bisected, and a line AB drawn from the centreof the circle to the point of bisection, the direction of thetrue meridian” or north and south lin e, will be obtained (see

Fig. XV). -

C

Then from some point C on the line BA, carefully produced,take an observation of the two points A and B, and note the

reading of the compass ; the d i f fe rence between the compassreading and 360°(or 0°)will be the variation of the compass; if

the compass reads 10°it is evident that the compass bearing 360°,or M N , lies 10°W. of the true north, and that its variation is

FIG XV

PLCXeL



3

10°W. ; if it reads 345°it is evident that the compass needJe (orbearing360°)points 15°B. of true north. (Seep. 22, Variation.)

The ground on which this operation is carried out must be

perfectly smooth and level.

Method (b).—At night. By the I’olc or North Star.

For all practical purposes the Pole (or North) Star may beconsidered as being due north. It is so, in fact, when the star

i c ” (Zeta)—the last but on e from the end of the tail of the“ GreatBear “—is vertically above or below the North Star.

In order to identify the NorthStar, note the following diagram

(Fig. XVI) showing the seven stars of the constellation, known asthe” GreatBear.” This constellation, owing tothe rotation of theearth, appears to revolve round the North Star from east towestby the north, i .e .—in the contrary direction to the movement ofthe hands of a watch.

In this diagram the” Great Bear” is shown in four differentpositions. At and 3 the Pole Star is due north, because thestar Zeta is vertically below or above it. a and S are thePointers,” so called because they always point towards the

North Star, N . (which is the last star in the tail of the constellationknown as the” LittleBear.” Z is the star” ~“ (Zeta) in the tailof the” Great Bear;”

FIG. XVI.

3

*

6 -

4.a 4

4

5-4’

4:~ *2 24

*4

*

*

z *

*

1



3 2

- FINDING THE MEIIIDIAN WITH A WATCH.

The following is a rough-and-ready way of finding a north andsouth line (i.e., a meridian line) by means of a watch

In the Nor thern Hem isp lie r e .— Hold the watch horizontallywith the face upward. Point the hour hand at the sun. Thena line from the centre of the d ial to a point half way betweenthe f igure XII and the pointer of the hour hand is approximately

a south line.In the Southern Hernisphere .—Hold the watch as before, but in

this case point the line from the centre of the dial to figure XIIat the sun, then the line found as above is in this case approxi-matelya north line.

N0TE.—This method is clearly a very rough one. It shouldnever be used in the tropics, and the higher the latitude, i.e., thefarther from the equator, the more reliable it is.

It is nearly always possible to see, even on a cloudy day, theshadow of a blade of grass, or of a pin, c., on the f i nger nail,and the hour beijig known , a rough idea of the points of thecofnpass may be obtained thus :—

At 9 o’clock n .m . , the sun in the northern hemisphere beingmore or less in the S .E . , the shadow points nearly N.W.; at

3 o’clock p.m., the sun being roughly SW., the shadow pointsnearlyN.E. In the southern hemisphere at 9 n .m . , the sun beingmoreor less N.E., the shadow points S.W.; and at 3 o’clock p.m.the shadow will pointS.E.

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14



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16 -

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