notes on victorian poetry a-b ciocoi-pop

8/9/2019 Notes on Victorian Poetry a-b Ciocoi-pop

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ANA-BLANCA CIOCOI-POP

NOTES ON VICTORIAN

POETRY

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………….4Introduction. An Overview of the Victorian Age …………………………5

General Considerations ……………………………………………..5Victorianism and Art. he !lace of !oetr" in the #andsca$e of Victorian #iterar" !roductions ………………………………………%&eligion and 'ociet" in the Victorian Age …………………………1(!articularities of Victorian )iction and Victorian !oetr" …………..11

Alfred #ord enn"son ……………………………………………………..1*+atthew Arnold ………………………………………………………...…,-&o ert /rowning …………………………………………………………..-(0li a eth /arrett /rowning ………………………………………………..-*2#esser3 Victorians

ohn Clare ……………………………………………………….….4-alter 'avage #andor ………………………………………………46

Gerard +anle" 7o$kins ………………………………………….…55Arthur 7ugh Clough ………………………………………………..8(

he !re9&a$haelites:ante Ga riel &ossetti .......................................................................8-Christina &ossetti …………………………………………………...8*

Now Read On …………………………………………………….………72

Alfred #ord enn"son …………………………………………………….*-+atthew Arnold …………………………………………………………..66

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&o ert /rowning ………………………………………………………..11,0li a eth /arrett /rowning …………………………………………….1-1

ohn Clare ………………………………………………………………144

alter 'avage #andor ………………………………………………….155Gerard +anle" 7o$kins ………………………………………………..18(Arthur 7ugh Clough ……………………………………………………188:ante Ga riel &ossetti …………………………………………………1*(Christina &ossetti ………………………………………………………16-

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A !nowled"e#ents

+" heartfelt gratitude goes out to the !resident of the 2Vasile Goldis3 est;niversit" of Arad< !rofessor Aurel Ardeleanu< to +rs. &ector< !rofessor Coralia Adina Cotoraci< as well as to Associate !rofessor +arius Grec< :eanof the )acult" of 7umane< !olitical and Administrative 'tudies at VG ;Afor their invalua le su$$ort in the $u lication of this ook.

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Int$od% t&on. An O'e$'&ew of t(e V& to$&an A"e

)ene$al Cons&de$at&ons

/eginning with the ,( th centur"< the termVictorian < which is used to denoteas$ects and events connected to the reign of =ueen Victoria >1%-*916(1?<was associated with such terms as @$ruder"


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elevation of the self through emotion and imagination


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easil" la el him &omantic. /ut it was also enn"son who drew attention tothe necessit" of educating 2the $oor man efore making him our master3.+atthew Arnold< another ke"9figure in Victorian writing< famousl" stated in

his $oem Dover Beach that…J the world< which seems

o lie efore us like a land of dreams<'o various< so eautiful< so new<

7ath reall" neither Ko"< nor love< nor light< Lor certitude< nor $eace< nor hel$ for $ain.

/ut at the same time< he refused to re$rint his $oem Empedocles on Etna < inwhich a Greek $hiloso$her throws himself into a volcano< ecause hethought that it set a ad e am$le. It was also Arnold who critici edan Anglican isho$ who $ointed out mathematical inconsistencies in the/i le D he critici ed him not on grounds of his eing wrong< ut ecause hethought that for a isho$ to reveal these things to the general $u lic was anirres$onsi le attitude.

Attitudes towards the Victorian age are as far from homogenous as theage itself. +odern writers who were tr"ing to free themselves from theinfluence of their $redecessors often regarded the Victorians as re$ressed<over9confident< and $hilistine. e should also ear in mind that the $o$ular notions of Victorian life as $icturesEue hardl" fit the com$le it" of Victorianrealit"F

hat earnest world ofractarian $arsons and O ford common9rooms< that worof 7ard" s $easants uried dee$ in 0nglish shires< did reall" e ist. Of course it did. /uwas not ver" im$ortant. /" and large Victorian 0ngland was a tremendousl" virile anver" terri le affair. If we stri$ awa" the gadgets and fashions< Victorian 0ngland was

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unlike the ;nited 'tates toda". here was the same un linking worshi$ of inde$endencand of hard cashH there was the same elief in institutions 99 $atriotism< demoindividualism165-? $rovides a series of $ossi le answers to the $ro lem of defining Victorianism in the field of art and literature. A ramsargues that all discussions of literature focus on four essential elementsFte tMwork< author< realit"Mnature< and audienceMreadershi$ 9 the differconsisting merel" in which one of the four the" em$hasi e.

)irst< there is thework < the artistic $roduct itself. And since this is a human $roduct<artifact< the second common element is the artificer< theartist . hird< the work is taken tohave a su Kect which< directl" or indirectl"< is derived from e isting things N to e or signif"< or reflect something which either is< or ears some relation to< an o Kectiof affairs. his third element< whether held to consist of $eo$le and actions< ideasfeelings< material things and events< or su$er9sensi le essences< has freEuentl"denoted " that9word9of9all9work< @natureH@ ut let us use the more neu

com$rehensive term


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A rams a$$lies the termmimetic to those works of art which are animitation of as$ects of the universe. A crucial as$ect of all such mimeticwritings< and which $ro a l" shocks most modern readers< is that the artist

does not have 2a determinative function3< as A rams $uts it< that is to sa"<although $oets are 2indis$ensa le3< their 2$ersonal faculties< feelings< ordesires are not called u$on to e $lain the su Kect matter or form of a $oem3.

o $hrase it differentl"< it is com$letel" unim$ortant if the $oet is sincere or originalF onl" accurac" in $roviding a $erfect co$" of realit" counts.

he ne t categor" of writings< that em$hasi es the relation of art to itsaudience< is called pragmatic < 2since it looks at the work of art chiefl" as ameans to an end< an instrument for getting something done< and tends to Kudge its value according to its success in achieving that aim. …J hecentral tendenc" of the $ragmatic critic is to conceive a $oem as somethingmade in order to effect certain res$onses in its readers3. raged"< for e am$le< is traditionall" su$$osed to em$lo" onl" no le characters< elevateds$eech< and $oetic devices such as meta$hor< to create feelings of $it" andfear in the audience. #"ric< satirical< or e$ic writings have in turn their ownrules< ecause this kind of critical $osition considers literature a form of technolog" that should $roduce s$ecific effects in the reader. 7ere too< the $oint is not whether the $oet is sincere or originalF onl" effect andeffectiveness< and skill in following literar" rules< are deemed im$ortant.

Onl" with the advent of romantic theories we start noticing all the

criteria associated with genuine emotionF s$ontaneit"< sincerit"< originalit"<and intensit" . 2!oetr" is the overflow< utterance< or $roKection of the thoughtand feelings of the $oetH or else >in the chief variant formulation? $oetr" isdefined in terms of the imaginative $rocess which modified and s"nthesi esthe images< thought< and feelings of the $oet. …J A work of art is

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essentiall" the internal made e ternal3< A rams notes. #iterar" genres andeven the readershi$ are no longer central< and the $oet s e $erience ecomesentirel" su Kective. In the words of the &omantic $oet illiam ordsworth<

trul" great art and literature advance so e"ond the reader s e $ectations thatthe" create the ver" taste " which it is to e enKo"ed. And fourth<manifestos and $refaces< critics and inter$retative criticism< ecomecentrall" im$ortant< as does the notion of anavante garde < since someonehas to e $lain and defend art and artist to audience.

'ur$risingl"< man" nineteenth9centur" readers and writers elieved the&omantic a$$roach eEualed egotism and e cessive su Kectivit". Levertheless< as 0. :. 7. ohnson $ointed out in hisThe lien Vision o! Victorian "oetry >165,?< Victorian literature set out to find literar" andartistic wa"s of co$ing with a series of the age s inherent o$$ositionsF self and societ"< $ersonal and $olitical< su Kective and o Kective< $u lic an $rivate. ConseEuentl"< new devices such as thedramatic monologue andnew forms ofauto iogra$h" and auto iogra$hical fiction were created. Inother words< Victorian literature identified a wa" to create a mi of whatA rams calls the $ragmatic and the e $ressive >or &omantic? artistice $ression.

Rel&"&on and So &et* &n t(e V& to$&an A"e

ohn&uskin< one of the most $rominent figures of the nineteenth centur" in0ngland< thought Victorianism to e a dark age< and argued that the darknessof the times was a result of the lack of faith. 7e also elieved that landsca$esand nature generall" s$eaking can conve" a sense of tranEuilit" and evensanctit"< that eaut" can< in a m"stic wa"< lead to an understanding of the

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divine. Art< &uskin holds< reveals the truth a out religion< and the wa" weshould live< it is the ver" em odiment of civili ation< showing how great or flawed it is< and it leads us to God >or the $rinci$le of Good< as !lato

$hrased it?. 7owever< in 1%8, he $u lished a work entitled#nto These Last$ where he seems to have a andoned m"sticism in favour of $olitics< ringing u$ ideas which< fort" five "ears after his death< would e at the ver" asis of the elfare 'tate.

A movement awa" from religion and towards $olitics and the socialsciences can also e identified in the fact that in 1%8*


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remain relevant and interesting even in the twent"9first centur". 7owever<one also has to mention the fact that much of Victorian literature has ecomesu Kect to rather harsh criticism in recent "ears< $ro a l" ecause the

re$resentative writers of that e$och oversu scri ed to values which are nolonger $art of our own time and $aradigm. Pet< this $ers$ective ignores thefact that nearl" all Victorian writers were essentiall" at odds with their ageand societ"< and that in their works the" ha ituall" s$oke not for< utagainst the $revailing value9s"stems of the era. An" reader of Victorianliterature can easil" notice the underl"ing tone of unrest which runs throughso man" of the nineteenth centur" te ts< and which is seen " man" critics ast"$ical of the $eriod. hat reall" sets Victorian literature a$art from theliterar" $roductions of an" other age is this inner conflict< demonstra lewithin the work of all re$resentative nineteenth centur" the writers< etweenthe $u lic conscience of the author who comes forward as the accreditedliterar" s$okesman of his societ"< and the $rivate conscience of the artistwho elieves that his highest dut" must e his own aesthetic creeds.

Victorian literature was first and foremost a literature of ideas< and<furthermore< of ideas rought into direct relation with the dail" concerns of its readers. If we were to consider for instance the novel< :ickens< George0liot< or ane Austen all Euite evidentl" wrote a out themes with great socialsignificance. !arado icall"< the ver" fact that these writers allowedthemselves to e involved so $rofoundl" in the life of the times< led to their

literar" isolation. heir works< ins$ired " the hostilit" towards the $rogressof industrial societ"< $lace moral authorit" not in the e isting social order utwithin the s$iritual resources of the individual. ConseEuentl"< one can sensein their work a kind of tension originating in the writer s desire tocommunicate without etra"ing his creative eliefs< even when faced with a

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reading $u lic not reall" willing to undergo the rigors of aesthetice $erience.-

Victorian $oetr" is also largel" ased on this am ivalenceH and this is

es$eciall" true for enn"son< /rowning< and Arnold< the greatest $oeticvoices of their times. he histor" of nineteenth centur" 0nglish $oetr"revolves around a radical shift in the relationshi$ of the $oet to his audienceF

A divorce etween the artist and societ" first ecame cons$icuous as an element of the &omantic movementH ut even though the" had to endure a use or neglect< the&omantics did not in an" sense think of themselves as a dicating the $oet s

traditional right to s$eak for his age. /lake< Coleridge< ordsworth</"ron< 'helle"< eats were all< it is true< keenl" sensitive to their generation sreluctance to $a" attention to what the" were sa"ing< ut the" acce$ted isolation as anecessar" conseEuence of their revolutionar" $rogram. hat the" should confessdefeat< with the alternatives either of self9withdrawal or com$romise< never seriousl" occurred to them. On the contrar"< the" declared o$en warfare on the $reKudices which would dis$ossess them and continued to assert that the $oet s

vision is transcendentl" of intellectual and s$iritual truth.4

owards the end of the centur"< however< this conflict thus had almostcom$letel" urned out. In com$ensation< the aesthetic creed known as art for art s sake emerged< its main re$resentatives eing alter !ater andOscar ilde< as well as the !re9&a$haelite /rotherhood in the field of $oetr"and the visual arts. As com$ared to earl" Victorian te ts< this movementvalued the forms of art more than its message. he missing link etween the&omantics and the !re9&a$haelites is re$resented " enn"son< /rowning<and Arnold. According to most critical views< these Bmidwa" Victorian

- 'ee Victorian e4 'ee Victorian e

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$oets< unwilling to indulge in the same maKestic self9sufficienc" which hadcharacteri ed the &omantics< esta lished a com$le relationshi$ with their readershi$ 2 " com$romising with the middle9class moralit" of the time<

and in so doing deli eratel" sacrificed artistic validit"35. /ut this sim$listicinter$retation of the situation does not do Kustice to the real meaning of theendeavor to which enn"son< /rowning< and Arnold were committed. 0achof these $oets was seeking to define the s$here within which the modern $oet can e ercise his talent< while also considering the tendencies of asociet" increasingl" vulgari ed " the industriali ation and materialism of the nineteenth centur". ConseEuentl"< this dou le awareness< whichcharacteri ed Victorian literature< ecame a $ermanent state of mind for these $oets and was materiali ed in their efforts to identif" a new aesthetic $osition for the artist.

It is Euite im$ressive to notice the e tent to which the literar" careers of enn"son< /rowning< and Arnold resem le each other< es$eciall" since their

$oetic $ersonalities were so different. his similitude can onl" e e $lainedin terms of the various influences from the outside world< which decisivel"sha$ed their $roductions. In the earl" writings of each of these three $oetsthere is an intros$ective< even a cloistral atmos$here< which the" later eliminated in the attem$t to connect with contem$orar" lines of thought.

enn"son succeeded most efficientl" in conforming to the Victorian ideal of the $oet as $o$ular ard. As a result of this< he was a$$ointed !oet #aureate

as ordsworth s successor. /rowning s $rogress in terms of $o$ularit" wasnot so s$ectacular< ut the esta lishment of the /rowning 'ociet" in 1%%1meant his arrival in the select grou$ of Victorian literar" idols. 0ndowedwith somewhat less $oetic talent< +atthew Arnold ecame a literar"5 'ee Victorian e

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$ersonalit" and won the $restige of the O ford !rofessorshi$ of !oetr" onl"after turning to $rose writing. On the other hand< we should consider thathis ina ilit" to ada$t his $oetr" to the demands of the age is $ro a l" the

reason wh" he has attracted far more serious critical attention in recent "earsthan enn"son or /rowning< who seem to e graduall" sli$$ing intoo livion.

he Victorian $oet had to ada$t to a reading $u lic considera l" larger and more heterogeneous than an" that had e isted efore. he failure of their first $rinted volumes of verse led enn"son< /rowning< and Arnold to elieve that under the e isting social< cultural and literar" conditionsoriginalit" would not entail artistic recognition. +ost of the critical reviewsof the da" were Euite hostile< and $oets were used to them< ut it was thedisa$$roval of close friends which reall" had an im$act on them. )riendsand critics alike agreed that the $oets needed to ecome more conscious of their res$onsi ilities as men of letters. heir $oetr" was< according to $u lico$inion< 2much too intros$ective and self9o sessed< too often o scure incontent and $recious in manner38. All of these shortcomings can eattri uted to immaturit"< ut the" also allow us a glim$se into the ideologicalt"rann" which Victorianism e ercised over its $oets.

It is Euite o vious from the inconsistencies in their critical re$utationsthat $oets such as enn"son< Arnold or /rowning 2were never sure enoughof their audience to e a le to estimate its res$onse with an" degree of

relia ilit"3*. &o ert /rowning masterfull" $hrased the nature of Victorian artin his Red Cotton %ight&Cap Country < where he referred to artistr" as 2 eing attle with the ageM It lives inQ3

8 Victorian we* Victorian e

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he distinguishing feature of the literar" $ersonalities of enn"son</rowning< and Arnold is

a certain aristocratic aloofness< a stu orn intracta ilit" which is likel" to manifestitself at Kust those $oints where the contem$orar" social order assumed automaticconformit" with its dictates. hus< their refusal to e restricted " currentsu$$ositions is less often a su terfuge to cover a fear of failure than a forthrightavowal of the artist s inde$endence from societal $ressures whenever these threatento inhi it the free $la" of his imaginative $owers.%

enn"son< /rowning< and Arnold never managed to do what the $oetswho came after them succeeded inF to disassociate themselves entirel" fromtheir readershi$. he" intuitivel" knew what their audience was keen onhearing< and catered to these e $ectations. On the other hand< we should notstate that the" merel" shared most of the values that< rightl" or wrongl"< areattri uted to the Victorians. 'uch a sim$listic outlook ignores that dou leawareness which is nowada"s considered to e as the landmark of Victorianliterar" $roductions.

Alf$ed Lo$d Tenn*son

% Victorian e

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Though much is taken$ much a'ides( and though

)e are not now that strength which in old days

Moved earth and heaven$ that which we are$ we are(

*ne e+ual temper o! heroic hearts$

Made weak 'y time and !ate$ 'ut strong in will

To strive$ to seek$ to !ind$ and not to yield,

-#lysses.

Alfred #ord enn"son was the Victorians most revered ard. A$$ointed !o#aureate " =ueen Victoria< he was for a long time the est9known and macclaimed figure of the nineteenth centur" 0nglish literar" landsca$e. In rece"ears his re$utation has witnessed a certain degree of readKustment< w

enn"son eing increasingl" associated with the artificialit" and lack of su stanman" critics connect to Victorianism. 7e remains< however< one of the masterversification in the 0nglish language< and the second most Euoted 0nglish autafter illiam 'hakes$eare.

/orn on August 8th< 1%(6< at 'omers "< #incolnshire< enn"son was fourth of twelve children of George and 0li a eth enn"son. 7is childhood wmarked " the famil" s difficult financial situation< rought a out " the factthe $oet s grandfather had decided to make his "ounger son< Charles< his heirhad arranged for enn"son s father to enter the ministr". he contrast etweenfamil" s hardshi$s and the great affluence of his aunt 0li a eth and uncle Cha

enn"son >who owned several castles? made enn"son feel $articularl" uneaand de$rived and led to a lifelong worr" a out mone".

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'till another lifelong fear of enn"son s was the one of mental illnes ecause man" men in his famil" suffered from a mild form of e$ile$s"< whichVictorian times was regarded as a shameful disease. 7is father and rother Arth

further worsened their health " e cessive drinking. 7is rother 0dward had to confined to a mental institution< and when enn"son was in his late twenties father s $h"sical and mental condition reached a never efore low< and he ec $aranoid< ver all" a usive< and $h"sicall" violent.

In 1%,* enn"son esca$ed his trou led home and followed his two old rothers to rinit" College< Cam ridge. :ue to their having $u lished "oems 'yTwo Brothers >with Alfred winning the Chancellor s Gold +edal in 1%,% Tim'uctoo ? the enn"son rothers Euickl" ecame $u lic figures at Cam ridge1%,6 he A$ostles< an undergraduate clu < whose mem ers remained enn"friends all his life< invited him to Koin. he grou$< which met regularl" to dimaKor $hiloso$hical and other issues of the da"< included Arthur 7enr" 7allawho would later on ecome enn"son s est friend.

7allam< a rilliant "oung man< much like &o ert /rowning and +attheArnold< was recogni ed " all of his contem$oraries as $ossessing an unusu $romising literar" talent. he friendshi$ etween 7allam and enn"son lasteonl" four "ears< ut it was so fruitful that it had a maKor influence on the $oeta visit to the enn"son home< 7allam met and later ecame engaged to 0m

enn"son< and the two friends looked forward to a life9long com$anionsh7allam s death in 1%-- >at the frail age of onl" ,,? shattered enn"son< and h

$ain lead to the creation of most of his est verse< including /n Memoriam$ The "assing o! rthur < and#lysses .

enn"son was one of the Victorian $oets most sensitive to criticism cominfrom his readers< and thus< the mi ed rece$tion of his 1%-, volume "oems hurthim dee$l". his harsh criticism led enn"son not to $u lish again for nine "ear

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#ater on< enn"son started to worr" more and more a out his mental heaand finall" visited a sanitarium run " :r. +atthew Allen< with whom he lateinvested his inheritance and some of his famil" s mone". hen :r. Allen

usiness $lans went ankru$t< enn"son< who did not have enough monemarr"< was forced to eak off his engagement to 0mil" 'ellwood. he success his 1%4, volume "oems < however< turned enn"son into a $o$ular $oe)urthermore< the success ofThe "rincess and /n Memoriam < as well as hisa$$ointment in 1%5( as !oet #aureate finall" turned him into as the most $o$ul $oet of the Victorian age.

/" the age of fort"9one< enn"son had $u lished some of his greate $oems< and his $o$ularit" was growing continuousl". In 1%5-< as the enn"were changing location and moving to the Isle of ight< !rince Al ert $aid thean une $ected visit. 7is love for enn"son s $oetr" hel$ed consolida

enn"son s $osition and the $oet in turn dedicatedThe /dylls o! the 0ing toAl ert s memor". =ueen Victoria later invited him to court a cou$le of times< at her insistence he acce$ted the title of !oet #aureate< having $reviousl" declinit.

A$art from his occasional nervous reakdowns< enn"son suffered fre treme short9sightedness. It is said that without a monocle he could not even enough to eat. his created great difficult" when writing and reading< and ledthe fact that enn"son com$osed his $oetr" inside his head< working on individ $oems for man" "ears on row. :uring his time at Cam ridge he often did no

write down his $oems< although his friends continuall" $ushed him to do so. >instance< the first version ofThe Lotos&Eaters was written down " Arthur 7allamat a meeting of the A$ostles.?

enn"son died on Octo er 8< 1%6,< at the age of %-.

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Tenn*son s L&te$a$* Pe$sonal&t*

enn"son was among the Victorian $oets the one who est e$itomi ed t

division etween the needs of the self and the needs of societ". his as$ea$$ears firstl" in his search for a $u lic use for the $oetr" he wrote< and seconin his descri$tion of intensel" $ersonal e $eriences< for instance the death of est friend 7allam.

In what $oetic e $ression is concerned< enn"son is often said to have ha tendenc" for creating static< lifeless images. )or instance in his $oem Mariana>1%-(? he manages to create intensel" visual static $anels or ta leau . he $oeseven stan as use Gothic landsca$e in the e $ressionist manner to re$resent state of mind of the l"rical s$eaker< identified in the e$igra$h as 2+ariana of moated grange3 waiting for her lover >from 'hakes$eare s $la" Measure !or

Measure ?. Although time $asses as the reader moves from stan a to stannothing ha$$ens in this $oem a$art from endless lamentation< which takes form of a $owerful mental de$ression.

According to critics< most of enn"son s earlier $oems share an a sencmoral or theme. herefore< in his later "ears< enn"son s $oetic $roKect invfinding a wa" to make his writings morall" relevant. 7e succeeded to do so i

The Lady o! 1halott < which takes the reader through a series of shar$l" segmente $anels or sections >similar in structure to the ones in Mariana ? leading to adramatic moment reminiscent of religious conversion.

he #ad" of 'halott is an Arthurian figure invented " enn"son< whserves as a s"m ol for the artist living awa" from the Breal world in an ivtower. Isolated in her tower< the lad" weaves a ta$estr" that de$icts human liwhich she herself can onl" e $erience at a distance in a magic mirror. hen thhandsome #ancelot whom she sees reflected in the mirror leads her to loo

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directl" out her window< her mirror and we shatter< fl"ing a$art< and she is ha mortal curse. he $oem $resents in a s"m olical form the $ro lematic relatof the artist to societ". enn"son< like so man" other Victorian artists who felt t

need to kee$ aesthetic distance while at the same time making old statemea out their own world< e $resses his thoughts a out Victorian 0ngland " usm"thic< $ara olic narratives< set in other $laces and times.

his is how George !. #andow of /rown ;niversit" assesses enn"son s $oetic meritsF

enn"son s characteristic $oetic structure takes the following formF the main char $rogresses through a series of discrete sections or $anels that ma" take the formlandsca$es< states of mind< arguments< or tests< until he has a dream< vision< $owerful revelation that effects a conversion to new wa"s of life and action. hat $erha$s most distinctive a out enn"son s $oetic structure is the shar$ se$aratioachieves etween sections in man" of his $oems. In fact< even when telling a stor" ina$$arentl" straightforward chronological form< enn"son alwa"s $refers to $rogrthrough a series of $ara les< songs< visions< arguments< and actions. 7is charact

use of flash acks< $ara olic commentar"< and com$le $lotting creates a narrativein /n Memoriam >1%5(? andThe /dylls o! the 0ing >1%5691%%%? that antici$ates modernist narrative of )aulkner.

,%$t(e$ Read&n"

incaid< ames &.Tennyson2s Ma3or "oems: The Comic and /ronic "atterns . Lew7avenF Pale ;niversit" !ress< 16*5.

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#andow< George !. @Closing the )rameF 7aving )aith and ee$ing )aith inenn"son s he !assing of Arthur . @ /ulletin of the ohn &"lands ;niversit"

#i rar" of +anchester< 58< 16*4.

&iede< :avid G. @ enn"son s !oetics of +elanchol" and the Im$erImagination


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h$ love$ let us 'e true

To one another5 !or the world$ which seems

To lie 'e!ore us like a land o! dreams$

1o various$ so 'eauti!ul$ so new$

4ath really neither 3oy$ nor love$ nor light$

%or certitude$ nor peace$ nor help !or pain(

nd we are here as on a darkling plain

1wept with con!used alarms o! struggle and !light$

)here ignorant armies clash 'y night,

-Dover Beach.

+atthew Arnold< one of the most $rominent 0nglish $oets and critics< was or#aleham on the hames< as the eldest son of homas Arnold< historian and gheadmaster of &ug " 'chool< and of +ar" Arnold. )rom his earl" schooling da"he e hi ited an uncommon talent for writing. 7e was educated at &ug "< whhe won a $ri e for his $oem laric at Rome < and O ford< where he won a $ri e fCromwell$ "ri6e "oem and graduated with onl" 'econd Class honors< toever"one s sur$rise. Alwa"s outwardl" socia le during his school da"s< he had"et revealed that 2hidden ground of thought and of austerit" within3 which wasa$$ear in his $oetr" later on. 2:uring these "ears3< homas Arnold states

"assages in a )andering Li!e < 2m" rother was cultivating his $oetic gifcarefull"< ut his e u erant< versatile nature claimed other satisfactions. 7is antering talk made him something of a social lion among O ford men< he e egan to dress fashiona l"3. In 1%4< after a short interlude of teaching at &he was elected )ellow of Oriel< a great distinction at O ford.

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#ittle is known a out his $rivate life during this $eriod. It seems that some $oint he was "outhfull" enamored of )rance and of the acting of &achewhom he followed to !aris and watched night after night. It also a$$ears that

visited George 'and at Lohant on one occasion and made on her the im$ressioof a 2+ilton Keune et vo"ageant3 >a "oung and wandering +ilton?. )rom h $oems dedicated to the m"sterious +arguerite and from a thinl" veiled referencin a letter to his friend Arthur 7ugh Clough< we ma" infer that his )rencBconnection was further strengthened " a less intellectual ond. In 1%51 A ecame an ins$ector of schools< and almost to the end of his life this Ko a sthe greater $art of his time and was res$onsi le for the relativel" small num er $oems he wrote. It was the same Ko < however< that ena led him to marr" )r#uc" ightman< a Kudge s daughter.

Arnold s literar" career took off unsuccesfull" in 1%46 with the $u licaof The 1trayed Reveller and *ther "oems 'y , < which attracted little critical or $u lic attention and was soon withdrawn from the shelves. Empedocles on Etnaand *ther "oems < $u lished in 1%5,< shared the same fate. 7e turned to literacriticism with the $reface to the "oems which he issued in 1%5- under his ownname. he $reface em$hasi es the im$ortance of su Kect in $oetr"< the 2cleaof arrangement< rigor of develo$ment< sim$licit" of st"le3 that the Gre $rofessed< and contains nearl" all the central elements in his later critical theoArnold< however< was still first and foremost a $oet< and in 1%55 he $u

"oems$ 1econd 1eries < which still did not ring him the $u lic acclaim he crave

In 1%5* he was a$$ointed to the $rofessorshi$ of $oetr" at O ford< whhe held for two successive terms of five "ears< and which made him focus almentirel" on criticism and neglect $oetr". In order to inaugurate the !rofessorsh2with dignit"3< as he wrote in a letter to a friend< in 1%5% he $u lished his trof Merope .

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In 1%81*n Translating 4omer was $u lished< followed in 1%8, " Last )ords on Translating 4omer D unfortunatel" oth volumes were uilt on rathear itrar" assum$tions and $resented no clear9cut conclusions. 0s$ecia

characteristic of these two $roductions is Arnold s argument regarding the nfor an o Kective and intelligent criticism in 0ngland. his line of thought is identifia le inThe 7unction o! Criticism at the "resent Time and The Literary

/n!luence o! cademies < two essa"s which were $u lished inCriticism >1%85?<where the influence of )rench ideas on Arnold is more than o vious.

After the $u lication in 1%8* of %ew "oems < and in 1%8% of the Essay onthe 1tudy o! Celtic Literature < a stimulating stud" on $hilolog" and anthro$olog"Arnold turned almost entirel" from literature to social and theological writings.his desire to ring culture and criticism to the 0nglish middle class< he wrote intellectuall" challengingCulture and narchy < where he mentions such conce$tsas 2sweetness and light3< orrowed from 'wift< and 2!hilistine3< orrowed the German &omantics. A further volume a$$eared in 1%*%< called Last Essays onChurch and Religion < and the ne t "ear he $u lished Mi8ed Essays .

In 1%%- he received a $ension of R,5( a "ear< ena ling him to retire frthe Ko of school ins$ector< due to which he had traveled through most of 0ngand made several tri$s a road to anal" e continental education. he re$ortswrote as a result of these travels were $u lished in ook form< and together whis ordinar" re$orts as a school ins$ector had an im$ortant im$act on the 0nglieducational s"stem. )reed from his dail" chores< he went on a lecture tour to t

;nited 'tates 6. he three lectures on %um'ers$ Literature and 1cience < and Emerson < which he delivered to American audiences in 1%%-9%4< were after

6 Ironicall" enough< Arnold was not $articularl" well received in the ;'. he American audiences helectured to were not mentall" ri$e for his ideas and outlook. In addition to this< he was even scorned andridiculed " Kournalists. At this time an American news$a$er com$ared him< as he stoo$ed now and then tolook at his manuscri$t on a music stool< to an elderl" ird $icking at gra$es on a trellisH and another descri ed him thusF @7e has harsh features< su$ercilious manners< $arts his hair down the middle< wears asingle e"eglass and ill9fitting clothes.@

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$u lished as Discourses in merica . Arnold told George &ussell< his iogra$heand editor of his #etters< that of all his $rose writings< this collection of s$eecwas the one he most wish to e remem ered for. 7e visited America again in 1%

when he went to see his daughter who had married an American. hen shreturned the visit in 1%%%< he went to #iver$ool to meet her< and there<running to catch a tramcar< suddenl" died.

Essays in Criticism: 1econd 1eries a$$eared shortl" after his death. hisvolume contained the " now world9famousThe 1tudy o! "oetry < with itsdiscussion of $oetr" as 2a criticism of life3. his volume< along with Essays inCriticism: 7irst 1eries$ contains the $rose work " which Arnold is now esknown.

Constantl" caught etween his image of a $oet and that of a critic< Arnwas< in his $rivate life< 2the most delightful of com$anions3< at least this isG. . 0. &ussell states in his "ortraits o! the 1eventies < where he descri es him as2a man of the world entirel" free from worldliness and a man of letters withothe faintest trace of $edantr"3. 7e was a familiar figure at the Athenaeum ClufreEuent diner9out and guest at great countr" houses< fond of fishing and shooa $leasant and livel" conversationalist< read constantl" and com$le l"< and duthe time when he had to su$$ort his famil" " school ins$ecting< he sought refin writing " filling note ook after note ook with $ersonal meditations writtenan almost monastic tone. 7is writings dis$la" a sometimes affling contradicti etween the seriousness of his critical views and the melanchol" tone of

$oetr".. +. &o ertson< in Modern 4umanists < notes that a$art from this

contradiction< one can notice another im$ortant $ro lem concerning ArnowritingsF few of his ideas were his own< and he failed to reconcile the conflicinfluences which moved him so strongl". Arnold himself confesses to the

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,%$t(e$ Read&n"

Cham ers< 'ir 0dmund. 2+atthew Arnold3. atson #ecture on 0nglish !oetr"<16-,< in 0nglish Critical 0ssa"sF wentieth Centur"< ed. !h"llis +. one#ondonF O ford ;niversit" !ress< 16--.

Collini< 'tefan. Arnold. O fordF O ford ;niversit" !ress< 16%%.

0liot< . '. @+atthew Arnold@< in he ;se of !oetr" and the ;se of CriticismCam ridgeF 7arvard ;niversit" !ress< 16--.

7amilton< Ian. A Gift Im$risonedF A !oetic #ife of +atthew Arnold. #ondon/looms ur"< 166%.

+a eno< #aurence . +atthew ArnoldF he Critical #egac". ood ridgeCamden 7ouse< 1666.

+urra"< Licholas. Li!e o! Matthew rnold . Lew PorkF 't. +artin s< 1668.

!ark< 7onan. +atthew Arnold< a #ife. Lew Pork< +cGraw 7ill< 16%1.

!aul< 7er ert . +atthew Arnold. #ondonF +acmillan< 16(,.

&ussell< G. . 0. +atthew Arnold. Lew PorkF Charles 'cri ner s 'ons< 16(4.

'aints ur"< George. Matthew rnold . Lew PorkF :odd< +ead and Com$an"<1%66.

rilling< #ionel. +atthew Arnold. Lew PorkF Lorton< 16-6.

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Robe$t B$own&n"

9row old along with me5 The 'est is yet to 'e$ the last o! li!e$ !or which the !irst was made, *ur

times are in his hand who saith$ 2 whole / planned$ youth shows 'ut hal!( Trust 9od: 1ee all$

nor 'e a!raid5

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-9rowing *ld.

Although &o ert /rowning s earl" $oetic career was s$ent in relative o scurhe has now come to e acce$ted as one of the most im$ortant $oets of tVictorian age. 7is chracteristic dramatic monologues and the com$le e$icThe

Ring and the Book >1%8%91%86?< a novel in verse< have guaranteed h $ermanent $osition in the histor" of 0nglish literature. 7e was also a giftechildren s writer< a $erfect e am$le in this sense eing 2 he !ied !i$er

7amelin


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thousand volumes< man" of which /rowning himself later on searched for $oematerial. In his $oem 2:evelo$ment1%%6?< /rowning remem ers at the age of five asking wha

father was reading. o e $lain the stor" a out the ro"an war< the elder /rowncreated a game for the child in which the famil" $ets were assigned roles anfurniture was used to re$resent the cit". #ater< when the child had incor$oratedgame into his $la" with his friends< his father introduced him to Ale ander !o$translation of the /liad . /rowning s a$$etite for the stor" was thus awakened< anhe decided to learn Greek so as to read the work in the original. hese indirect aingenuous methods of education dou tlessl" left a dee$ im$rint u$on him.

In addition to this< /rowning s education was conducted to a great e tenhome " his father< which is the e $lanation ehind the wide range of unuinformation the $oet incor$orated into his work as an adult. 7is famil" situatiowas also im$ortant from a financial $ers$ectiveF his father< whose artistic scholarl" am itions had een destro"ed " financial trou les< was more twilling to su$$ort his son s efforts< who decided as a child that he wanted to $oet< and never seriousl" considered an" other $rofession. /rowning we tremel" luck" to have oth his ever"da" needs and the financial cost o $u lishing his earl" $oems taken care of " his $arents.

/rowning s earl" career is descri ed " Ian ack as 2a search for a$$ro$riate $oetic form3. 7is first $u lished effort< "auline: 7ragment o! aCon!ession >1%--?< was not $recisel" what one would call a good sta

/rowning s ne t $oetic $roduction< "aracelsus >1%-5?< achieved more criticaacclaim and alread" dis$la"ed traces of the dramatic monologue that /rownin $erfected and turned into his distinguishing characteristic over the ne t "eaA$art from $oetr"< /rowning also wrote several $la"s< ut he was not at

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talented for eing a $la"wright. he $la"s lack of success was dou led " $oet s considera le difficulties in creating theatrical $lots.

:uring the same $eriod /rowning wrote 2 he !ied !i$er3. In +a" 1%4, the

son of one of /rowning s close friends< illie< was sick in ed. illie likeddraw and asked /rowning to give him 2some little thing to illustrate3 while ei edridden. he $oet first wrote a short $oem entitled 2 he Cardinal and the :ogand then< after eing im$ressed with illie s drawings for it< he came u$ w2 he !ied !i$er of 7amelin3. he $oem shows /rowning as a skilled stor"teller:es$erate to rid the cit" of the rats which are making ever"one s lives im$ossithe corru$t ma"or hires the m"sterious $i$er to charm the rats awa". he $i$ $la"s a tune that draws the rats from their holes and leads them to the river eswhere the" drown. Onl" one rat esca$es " swimming across the river and tellmorali ing tale to other rats. Once he sees the rats destro"ed and their ne locked u$< the ma"or of 7amelin feels secure and denies his agreement with $i$er< refusing to $a" him the mone" he demands. he ma"or offered fift" timthe $i$er s reEuested fee efore the rats were killed< he now offers onl" fguilders< thinking of all the fine wines he might $urchase with the mone" sav

he ma"or feels confident enough< thinking that the $i$er cannot restore the rto life. he angr" $i$er< seeking revenge< lows a new tune and this time lurechildren of 7amelin to follow him< not to the river ut to the o$$el ergmountain west of the cit"< which o$ens u$ to swallow all ut one< a lame o" cannot walk fast enough to $ass through the o$ening efore it closes. he ch

saved " his $h"sical handica$< $rovides a thoughtful $arallel to the rat wsurvives " its su$erior fitness. he 7amelin authorities offer rewards and sensearchers in all directions to find the missing children< ut to no avail. /rownialso notes the e istence of a $o$ulation of 'a ons in rans"lvania that ma" descended from the lost children of 7amelin and ends his $oem with the mor

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that one should alwa"s kee$ one s $romises. he $oem is utterl" charming< oth its theme and its moral reflect the main directions of Victorian thought.

0arlier critics tended to see /rowning s rh"me $atterns as a$$ro$riate fo

light verse such as children s $oems< where the em$hasis is on entertainmentas a defect in adult $oetr"< es$eciall" with the $hiloso$hical and religioconcerns taken u$ " Victorian verse. 7e was also freEuentl" attacked fo scurit" in his verse< and much of that o scurit" comes from his unreferenallusions to his vast and far from homogenous od" of readings.

Another narrative $oem< 27ow he" /rought the Good Lews from Ghento Ai 3 a$$eared in /rowning s collection of dramatic monologues Bells and

"omegranates . hile not necessaril" written for children< this $oem was $rintese$aratel" in a children s edition after /rowning s death and for man" "ears wcommonl" included in children s school te ts. he $oem dwells on an imaginseventeenth9centur" mission to relieve the cit" of Ai 9la9Cha$elle in German"

/esides introducing the world to 2 he !ied !i$er3 and esta lishing theatmos$here for his future verse< the volume Dramatic Lyrics also had a lastingeffect on /rowning s $ersonal life. 0li a eth /arrett greatl" admired the ooand in her 1%44 $oem 2#ad" Geraldine s Courtshi$3 she e $ressed the esteewhich she held /rowning " linking him to illiam ordsworth and Alfred

enn"son as one of the great $oets of the age. 'he eventuall" met /rowning andthe two $oets fell dee$l" in loveH unfortunatel"< 0li a eth s father< 0d+oulton /arrett< did not allow an" of his children to marr" and leave the home

On 1, 'e$tem er 1%48 the" were secretl" married< and one week later thelo$ed to Ital".

/rowning wrote relativel" little during their marriage< mainl" ecause thfamil" freEuentl" moved and also ecause of 0li a eth s frail health. 7e wusuall" us" making all the arrangements for housing and trans$ortation.

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/rownings had one child< &o ert iedemann /arrett /rowning< called 2!en< orn in 1%46 >the same "ear /rowning s mother died?. /rowning< Kust likown father had done with him< took $articular res$onsi ilit" for his so

education. 7owever< the $oet who some "ears earlier had $roduced a maKchildren s $oem to amuse the son of a friend< wrote no similar creations forown son< ut continued to work on longer $hiloso$hical $oems for an adaudience.

/rowning ecame in his later "ears that curious $henomenon< the Victorisage< famous for his knowledge and his e $lorations of $hiloso$hical Euestiongreat im$ortance in Victorian life. 7e witnessed the creation in 1%%1 of /rowning 'ociet" in his honor< dedicated to the stud" of the $oet s work anthought. ust efore his death in 1%%6< /rowning finall" $u lished the other written for "oung illie +acread"< 2 he Cardinal and the :og.3 his fifteen9lin $oem tells how Cardinal Crescen io< a re$resentative of the !o$e at the Couof rent< was frightened " the a$$arition of a large lack dog that onl" he cosee< after which he ecame seriousl" illH on his death ed he again saw the

he $oem has triggered little critical res$onse and has seldom een anthologiAn"one as widel" adored as /rowning was during the later "ears of his life

is ound to suffer a decline in critical evaluation after his death. Along with otVictorians< /rowning was dismissed " influential figures among the modernisincluding .'. 0liot >although 0 ra !ound $aid tri ute to /rowning as one of hiliterar" fathers?. )ollowing orld ar II< however< /rowning s re$utation h

een revived " a more o Kective generation of critics who notice his $ofailings ut also trace his influence on the $oetic forms and concerns of htwentieth9centur" successors. hrough all the shifts of critical re$utatiohowever< /rowning s maKor contri ution to the canon of 0nglish literatureretained its $o$ular audience.

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,%$t(e$ Read&n"

Chesterton< G. . Ro'ert Browning < +acmillan< 16(-.

:eVane< illiam Cl"de. Browning 4and'ook . ,nd. 0d. A$$leton9Centur"9Crofts< 1655.

:rew< !hili$. The "oetry o! Ro'ert Browning: Critical /ntroduction . +ethuen<16*(.

)inla"son< Iain. Browning: "rivate Li!e . 7ar$erCollins< ,((4.

Garrett< +artin. Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning and Ro'ert Browning . /ritish #i rar"riters #ives< /ritish #i rar"< ,((1.

7udson< Gertrude &eese. Ro'ert Browning2s Literary Li!e !rom 7irst )ork to

Masterpiece . e as< 166,.

arlin< :aniel.The Courtship o! Ro'ert Browning and Eli6a'eth Barrett . O ford<16%5.

#it inger< /o"d and :onald 'malle" >eds.? Ro'ert Browning: the Critical 4eritage, &outledge< 1665.

+a"nard< ohn. Browning2s outh . 7arvard ;niv. !ress< 16**.

&"als< Cl"de de #.The Li!e o! Ro'ert Browning: a Critical Biography . /lackwell<166-.

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oolford< ohn and :aniel arlin. Ro'ert Browning . #ongman< 1668.

El&/abet( Ba$$ett B$own&n"

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4ow do / love thee; Let me count the ways,

/ love thee to the depth and 'readth and height

My soul can reach,

-4ow Do / Love Thee; Let Me Count the )ays.

0li a eth +oulton9/arrett was orn +arch 8< 1%(8 in :urham< 0ngland. 7efather< 0dward +oulton9/arrett< made most of his Euite im$ressive fortune fr

amaican sugar $lantations< and in 1%(6 he ought 7o$e 0nd< a 5((9acre es

0li a eth lived a $rivileged childhood< riding her $on" around the grounvisiting other families in the neigh orhood< and arranging famil" theatri $roductions with her eleven rothers and sisters. Although frail< she a$$arehad no health $ro lems until 1%,1< when :r. Coker $rescri ed o$ium fonervous disorder. 7er mother died when she was ,,< and critics mark signs of thloss in her verse novel and most $o$ular master$iece urora Leigh,

0li a eth< a highl" intelligent child< had read a num er of 'hakes$ear $la"s< $arts of !o$e s 7omeric translations< $assages from "aradise Lost < and thehistories of 0ngland< Greece< and &ome< efore the age of ten. 'he was staught in almost ever" as$ect. :uring her teens she read the main Greek an#atin authors and :ante s /n!erno N all of them in the original languages. 7er e traordinar" a$$etite for knowledge moved her to learn enough 7e rew to rethe Old estament from eginning to end. 7er enKo"ment of the works and su

matter of !aine< Voltaire< &ousseau< and ollstonecraft was later e $ressed concern for human rights in her own letters and $oems. /" the age of twelve shhad written an @e$ic@ $oem consisting of four ooks of rh"ming cou$lets. /a

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later referred to her first literar" attem$t as< @!o$e s 7omer done over agairather undone.@

In her earl" twenties< she ecame a close friend of 7ugh 'tuart /o"d<

lind< middle9aged scholar< who revived her interest in Greek studies. :uring friendshi$ /arrett a sor ed an astonishing amount of Greek literature N 7ome!indar< Aristo$hanes< etc. N ut after a few "ears /arrett s fondness for /o"diminished. 7er intellectual fascination with the classics and meta$h"sics w alanced " a religious o session which she later descri ed as @not the $ersuasion of the mild Christian ut the wild visions of an enthusiast.@ religious o session might have also een the result of the fact that her famattended services at the nearest cha$el< and +r. /arrett was active in /i le and+issionar" societies.

)rom 1%,, on< 0li a eth /arrett s interests ecame more and moscholarl" and literar". +r. /arrett s financial losses in the earl" -(s forced him tosell 7o$e 0nd estate< and although never $oor< the famil" moved three tim etween 1%-, and 1%-*< finall" settling in im$ole 'treet in #ondon. In 1%-The 1eraphim and *ther "oems a$$eared< the first volume of 0li a eth s matu $oetr" to a$$ear under her own name. hat same "ear her health forced her move to orEua"< on the :evonshire coast. 7er favorite rother 0dward wenalong with herH his death " drowning later that "ear was a low which frwhich she never full" recovered. hen she returned to im$ole 'treet< she ecame an invalid and a recluse< s$ending most of the ne t five "ears in

edroom< seeing onl" one or two $eo$le other than her close famil".

One of those $eo$le was ohn en"on< one of the $o$ular mecenas of tVictorian age. 7er 1%44 volume "oems made her one of the most $o$ular writers

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in the land< and ins$ired &o ert /rowning to write to her< telling her how mucloved her $oems. en"on arranged for /rowning to come see her in +a" 1%45and thus egan one of the most famous courtshi$s in 0nglish literature. 'i "ea

older than him and an invalid< she could not elieve that the vigorous and wor/rowning reall" loved her as much as he said< and her dou ts are e $ressed in 1onnets !rom the "ortuguese which she wrote over the ne t two "ears. #oveconEuered all< however< and /rowning elo$ed with his eloved to Ital" in Aug1%48. 'ince the" were $ro$er Victorians< however< the" got married a w efore.

+r. /arrett disinherited her >as he did each one of his children who gomarried without his $ermission< and he never gave his $ermission?. ;nlike h rothers and sisters< 0li a eth had inherited some mone" of her own< so/rownings were reasona l" comforta le in Ital". In 1%46< the" had a son< &o

iedeman /arrett /rowning.At her hus and s insistence< the second edition of her "oems included her

love sonnets. he" greatl" increased her $o$ularit" and the high critical regard which the Victorians held their favorite $oetess. 7er enormous $o$ularit" testified " the fact that on ordsworth s death in 1%5(< she was seriouconsidered for the #aureateshi$< which however went to enn"son in the end. 7growing interest in the Italian struggle for inde$endence is evident inCasa 9uidi)indows >1%51? and "oems 'e!ore Congress >1%8(?. 1%5* saw the $u lication othe verse9novel urora Leigh < commonl" considered her finest achievement.

It is still unclear what sort of illness 0li a eth /arrett /rowning sufferedof< although medical and literar" scholars have enKo"ed s$eculating. hatevewas< the o$ium which was re$eatedl" $rescri ed $ro a l" made it worseH/rowning almost certainl" lengthened her life " taking her south and " hisolicitous attention. 'he died in his arms on une ,6< 1%81.

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Lo female $oet was more res$ected and admired " cultured readers oth the ;nited 'tates and 0ngland than 0li a eth /arrett /rowning during thenineteenth centur". 7er $oetr" had an immense im$act on the works of 0mil

:ickinson who admired her as woman of great talent. /arrett s treatment of sociinKustice >the slave trade in America< the o$$ression of the Italians "Austrians< child la or in the mines and the mills of 0ngland< and the restrict $laced u$on women? is manifested in man" of her $oems. he first half ofCasa9uidi )indows >1%51? was filled with $olitical discourse and the ho$e that newl" awakened li eral movements were moving toward unification and freedin the Italian states. he second half of the volume< written after li eralism een crushed in Ital"< is dominated " her disillusionment. After a decade of trItalians once again egan to struggle for their freedom< ut were forced to agrean armistice that would leave Venice under Austrian control. /arrett /rowning

"oems Be!ore Congress >1%8(? res$onded to these events " critici ing t0nglish government for not $roviding hel$ to the Italians. One of the $oemsthis collection< @A Curse )or a Lation


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$rom$ted the modern critical reevaluation of 0li a eth /arrett /rowning< antoda" it attracts more attention than the rest of her $oetr".

,%$t(e$ Read&n"

Creston< :ormer. ndromeda in )impole 1treet: The Romance o! Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning, #ondonF 0"re S '$ottiswoode< 16,6.

0verett< Glenn. Li!e o! Eli6a'eth Browning . he Victorian e ,((,.

)orster< +argaret. Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning . Lew PorkF &andom 7ouse<Vintage Classics< ,((4.

7a"ter< Alethea. Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning . #ondonF #ongmans< Green S Co.<1685.

a$lan< Cora. urora Leigh nd *ther "oems . #ondonF he omen s !ress

#imited< 16*%.

#ewis< #inda. Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning2s 1piritual "rogress . +issouriF+issouri ;niversit" !ress. 166*.

+ander< &osalie. Mrs Browning: The 1tory o! Eli6a'eth Barrett . #ondonFeidenfeld and Licolson< 16%(.

+arkus< ulia. Dared and Done: Marriage o! Eli6a'eth Barrett and Ro'ert Browning . Ohio ;niversit" !ress< 1665.

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!eterson< illiam '. 1onnets 7rom The "ortuguese . +assachusettsF /arre!u lishing< 16**.

!ollock< +ar" 'anders. Eli6a'eth Barrett and Ro'ert Browning: Creative "artnership . 0nglandF Ashgate !u lishing Com$an"< ,((-.

'te$henson< Glennis. Eli6a'eth Barrett Browning and the "oetry o! Love . AnnAr orF ;+I &esearch !ress< 16%6.

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0o(n Cla$e

/ am: yet what / am none cares or knows$ My !riends !orsake me like a memory lost(

/ am the sel!&consumer o! my woes$

They rise and vanish in o'livious host$

Like shades in love and death2s o'livion lost(

nd yet / am$ and live with shadows tost,

-/ m.

ohn Clare >1- ul" 1*6- D ,( +a" 1%84? was an 0nglish $oet< the son of a fala ourer< who came to e known for his id"llic re$resentations of the 0nglcountr"side and his lamentation of its destruction at the hands of industriali ati7is $oetic $roductions suffered a maKor re9evaluation in the late ,(th centur" ahe is now considered to e among the most im$ortant 16th9centur" $oets. 7 iogra$her onathan /ate states that Clare was @the greatest la ouring9class that 0ngland has ever $roduced. Lo one has ever written more $owerfull" nature< of a rural childhood< and of the alienated and unsta le self@.

Clare was orn in 7el$ston< close to the cit" of !eter orough i Lortham$tonshire and this is wh" he was often called @ he Lortham$tonsh!easant !oet@.

7e ecame an agricultural la ourer while still a childH however< he atten

school in Glinton church until he was twelve. In his earl" adult "ears< Cla ecame a $ot o" in the /lue /ell $u lic house and there he fell in love wit+ar" o"ceH ut her father< a wealth" farmer< for ade her to meet him. herehe was a gardener at /urghle" 7ouse. 7e enlisted in the militia< tried cam$ lifwith the g"$sies< and worked in !ickworth as a lime urner. In the following "e

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he was forced to acce$t $arish relief< a thing that greatl" humiliated and distreshim. +alnutrition going ack to his childhood ma" e the main reason ehind h59foot stature and ma" have contri uted to his $oor $h"sical health in later life.

hile he was struggling to make ends meet< Clare had ought a co$" homson s1easons and egan to write $oems and sonnets. In an attem$t to sto

his $arents eviction from their home< Clare offered his $oems to a l ookseller named 0dward :rur". :rur" sent Clare s $oetr" to his cousin oh

a"lor of the $u lishing firm of a"lor S 7esse"< who had $u lished the work ohn eats. a"lor $u lished Clare s "oems Descriptive o! Rural Li!e and

1cenery in 1%,(. his ook was highl" $raised< and in the ne t "ear hisVillage Minstrel and other "oems was $u lished.

+eanwhile he had married +artha >@!att"@? urner in 1%,(. 'oohowever< his income ecame insufficient< and in 1%,- he was nearl" $ennilThe 1hepherd2s Calendar >1%,*? met with little success. As he worked again ithe fields his health tem$oraril" im$rovedH ut he soon ecame seriousl" ill. )it illiam $resented him with a new cottage and a $iece of ground< ut Clacould not settle in his new home.

Clare was constantl" torn etween the two worlds of literar" #ondon anhis often illiterate neigh oursH etween the need to write $oetr" and the needmone" to feed and clothe his children. 7is health egan to seriousl" suffer< andhad outs of severe de$ression< which ecame worse after his si th child was in 1%-( and as his $oetr" sold less well. In 1%-,< his friends and his #ond

$atrons clu ed together to move the famil" to a larger cottage with smallholding in the village of Lorth orough< not far from 7el$ston. 7owever<felt onl" more alienated and de$ressed.

7is last work< the Rural Muse >1%-5?< was noticed favoura l" " reviewe ut this was not enough to su$$ort his wife and seven children. Clare s me

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health egan to colla$se. As his alcohol consum$tion steadil" increased alowith his dissatisfaction with his own identit"< Clare s ehaviour ecame merratic. A nota le instance of this ehaviour was demonstrated in his interru$t

of a $erformance ofThe Merchant o! Venice < in which Clare ver all" assaulted'h"lock. 7e was ecoming a urden to !att" and his famil"< and in ul" 1%-*< the recommendation of his $u lishing friend< ohn a"lor< Clare went of hisvolition >accom$anied " a friend of a"lor s? to :r +atthew Allen s $rivas"lum 7igh /each. a"lor had assured Clare that there he would receive the esmedical care.

:uring his first few as"lum "ears in 0sse >1%-*D1%41?< Clare re9wfamous $oems and sonnets " #ord /"ron. 7is own version of 2Child 7arold3 ecame a lament for $ast lost love< and 2:on uan< A !oem3 ecammisog"nistic rant of an aging dand". Clare also took credit for 'hakes$eare $la"s< claiming to e the &enaissance genius himself. @I m ohn Clare now $oet claimed to a news$a$er editor< @I was /"ron and 'hakes$eare formerl".@1%41< Clare ran awa" from the as"lum in 0sse < to walk home< elieving thwas to meet his first love +ar" o"ceH Clare was convinced that he was marrwith children to her and +artha as well. 7e did not elieve her famil" when thetold him she had died accidentall" three "ears earlier in a house fire. 7e remainefree< mostl" at home in Lorth orough< for the five months following<eventuall" !att" called the doctors and on Christmas 1%41< Clare was committo the Lortham$ton General #unatic As"lum. 7e remained here for the rest of h

life under the care of :r homas Octavius !richard< who encouraged and hel$him to write. 7ere he wrote $ossi l" his most famous $oem< 2I Am3.

7e died on ,( +a" 1%84< in his *1st "ear. Clare s gravestone ares thinscri$tions @ o the +emor" of ohn Clare he Lortham$tonshire !easant !oeand @A !oet is /orn not +ade@. In his time< Clare was commonl" known as @

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Lortham$tonshire !easant !oet@. 7is formal education was rief< his otem$lo"ment and class9origins were lowl". Clare s main merit is to have resisthe use of the increasingl" standardised 0nglish grammar and orthogra$h" in h

$oetr"< often com$aring grammar >in a wider sense of orthogra$h"? to t"ragovernment and slaver". 7e also wrote in his Lortham$tonshire dialecintroducing local words to the literar" canon.

In his earl" life he struggled to find a $lace for his $oetr" in the changinliterar" fashions of the da". 7e also felt that he did not elong with other $easanClare once wrote

I live here among the ignorant like a lost man in fact like one whom the rest seemcareless of having an"thing to do withNthe" hardl" dare talk in m" com$an" for fearshould mention them in m" writings and I find more $leasure in wandering the fiethan in musing among m" silent neigh ours who are insensi le to ever"thing ut toiland talking of it and that to no $ur$ose.

It is common to see an a sence of $unctuation in man" of Clare s origi

writings< although man" $u lishers felt the need to change this in the maKorihis work. Clare often argued with his editors a out how his $oems should $resented to the reading $u lic.

7is dominant themes were largel" the result of Clare s growing u$ during $eriod of massive changes in oth town and countr"side as the Industr&evolution changed the face of 0uro$e. +an" former agricultural workerincluding children< moved awa" from the countr"side to over9crowded citfollowing factor" work. he Agricultural &evolution saw $astures $loughed utrees and hedges u$rooted< the fens drained and the common land enclosed. destruction of a centuries9old wa" of life saddened Clare dee$l". 7is $olitical asocial views were $redominantl" conservative >@I am as far as m" $olitics rea

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ing and Countr" Nno Innovations in &eligion and Government sa" I.@?refused even to com$lain a out the su ordinate $osition to which 0nglish socirelegated him< hum l" stating that @with the old dish that was served to

forefathers I am content.@7is earl" work delights in nature and the human activities connected to i

!oems such as 2 inter 0vening3< 27a"making3 and 2 ood !ictures in 'ummer3cele rate the eaut" of the world and the sim$licit" of rural life< where animmust e fed and cro$s harvested in a c"cle that ensures alance and harmon".his rural9ins$ired he often used $oetic forms such as the sonnet and the rh"mcou$let. 7is later $oetr" is more meditative and use forms similar to the folsongs and allads of his "outh.

7is knowledge of the natural world went far e"ond that of the maK&omantic $oets. 7owever< $oems such as 2I Am3 show a meta$h"sical decom$ara le to the one of his great contem$orar" $oets. Clare was the moinfluential $oet< aside from ordsworth to $ractice in an older $oetic st"le.

Clare was relativel" forgotten during the later nineteenth centur"< interest in his work was revived in 16(%< 16,( and 16-5. he largest collectionoriginal Clare manuscri$ts are housed at !eter orough +useum< where the" aavaila le to view " a$$ointment.

,%$t(e$ Read&n"

/ate< onathan.


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'ummerfield< Geoffre"< 7ugh 7aughton< Adam !hilli$s< @ ohn Clare in ConCam ridge ;niversit" !ress< 1664.

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1alte$ Sa'a"e Lando$

%o truer word$ save 9od2s$ was ever spoken$Than that the largest heart is soonest 'roken,

-%o Truer )ord.

alter 'avage #andor was orn on -( anuar" 1**5 and died on 1* 'e$tem er 1%84. 7e was one of the most controversial and freEuentl" misunderstood 0ngl

writers and $oets of the Victorian Age. 7is est known $roductions are the $ro $iece /maginary Conversations < and the $oem 2&ose A"lmer3< ut the criticrecognition he received from contem$orar" $oets and reviewers was not match " $u lic $o$ularit". As valua le as his work was< it was overshadowed "difficult character and heated tem$er< which often got him into $ro lemsvarious sorts.

In a long and active life of eight"9nine "ears #andor $roduced considera le amount of literar" out$ut< among which $rose< l"rical $oetr"< $olitical writings< including e$igrams. 7is $rose and $oetr" have received macclaim< ut critics are divided in their $reference etween them and he is noften descri ed as a $oet s $oet < meaning that he was more widel" a$$reciahis own kind than " the Victorian readershi$. #andor s $rose is est re$resen " the /maginary Conversations . In this work he referred to a vast arra" of historical characters from Greek $hiloso$hers to contem$orar" writers acom$osed conversations etween $airs of characters that covered areas $hiloso$h"< $olitics< romance and man" other to$ics. his work catered#andor s natural a ilit" for writing dialogue much more than his $la"s. Althou

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these have man" Euota le $assages the overall effect suffered ecause he ne $ro$erl" learned the art of drama.

#andor wrote sensitive and eautiful $oetr". 7is love $oems were ins$ire

" some of his female romantic ideals N Ione< Ianthe< &ose A"lmer and &!a"nter. 0Euall" sensitive are his 2domestic3 $oems a out his sister and hchildren. In the course of his career #andor wrote for various Kournals on a raof to$ics that interested him from anti9!itt $olitics to the unification of Ital". 7was also a master of the e$igram which he used to good effect and wrosatiricall" to avenge himself on $oliticians and other $eo$le who u$set him.

#andor also wrote over three hundred #atin $oems< $olitical tracts anessa"s< ut these have generall" een ignored " criticism. 7e found #atin usefor e $ressing things that might otherwise have een viewed as 2indecentunattractive3 " Victorian standards.

#andor s life is Kust as fascinating as is his work and can e descri ed aama ing collection of incidents and misfortunes< man" of them caused " him ut some no fault of his own. 7is difficult nature and hot9headed tem$eramecom ined with a com$lete contem$t for authorit"< landed him in a great deatrou le over the "ears. /" a succession of i arre circumstances< he wsuccessivel" thrown out of &ug "< O ford and even from the famil" home. Incourse of his life he came into conflict re$eatedl" with his $olitical enemies 9 su$$orters of !itt 9 ut also with a succession of #ord #ieutenants< /isho$s< #oChancellors< '$anish officers< Italian Grand :ukes< nuncio legatos< law"ers

other minor officials. 7e usuall" gained the u$$er hand< if not with an immedihilarious res$onse< then $ossi l" man" "ears later with a iting e$ithet. +atimes his friends had to come to his rescue in facing his o$$onents or encouraging him to moderate his ehaviour. 7is friends were also active in tdes$erate attem$ts to get his work $u lished< where he offended or felt cheated

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a succession of $u lishers who found his work either unsella le or un$u lisha7e was re$eatedl" involved in legal dis$utes with his neigh ours whether 0ngland or Ital". )ate dealt with him unfairl" when he tried to $ut into $ractice h

old and generous ideas to im$rove the lot of man< or when he was mistakeone time for an agent of the !rince of ales and at another for a tram$. 7isstorm" marriage with his wife resulted in a long se$aration< and then when had finall" taken him ack to a series of sad attem$ts to esca$e.

In s$ite of all of this< #andor was often descri ed as 2the kindest agentlest of men3. 7e had lots of friends who went to great lengths to hel$ him 2his lo"alt" and li eralit" of heart were as ine hausti le as his ount" a eneficence of hand3. It was said that 2$raise and encouragement< deserveundeserved< came more readil" to his li$s than challenge or defiance3. numerous accounts of those with whom he came in contact reveal that he wfascinating com$an". 27is $assionate com$assion< his itter and urning $it" all wrongs endured in all the world< found outlet in his lifelong defencet"rannicide. 7is tender and ardent love of children< of animals and of flowemakes fragrant alike the $ages of his writing and the records of his life3.

In 1%(% he wanted to take $art in the !eninsular ar. At the age of thirtthree< he left 0ngland for '$ain as a volunteer to serve in the national armagainst La$oleon. 7e was disa$$ointed not to take $art in an" real action anfound himself giving su$$ort at /il ao where he was nearl" ca$tured. A cou$le months later #andor returned to 0ngland. he '$anish Government offered it

thanks to him< and ing )erdinand a$$ointed him a Colonel in the '$anish Armhe '$anish e $erience $rovided ins$iration for the traged" of Coun

ulian< ased on ulian< count of Ceuta. Although this demonstrated #andistinctive st"le of writing< it suffered from his failure to stud" the art of draand so made little im$act on the 0nglish stage. he $lot is difficult to follo

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unless the stor" is $reviousl" known and concerns a com$licated situation aftthe defeat of the last Visigoth ing of '$ain. he theme is the one of crimleading to crime. homas de =uince" later wrote of the work @+r #andor

$ro a l" the one man in 0uro$e that has adeEuatel" conceived the situation<stern self9de$endenc" and monumental miser" of Count ulian@. )ellow $'win urne descri ed it as @the su limest $oem $u lished in our langu etween the last master$iece of +ilton >1amson gonistes ? and the firstmaster$iece of 'helle"< > "rometheus #n'ound ? one eEuall" worth" to standunchallenged eside either for $oetic $erfection as well as moral maKest". su$erhuman isolation of agon" and endurance which encircles and e alts the his in each case e $ressed with eEuall" a$$ro$riate magnificence of effect. st"le of Count ulian< if somewhat deficient in dramatic ease and the fluencnatural dialogue< has such might and $urit" and maKest" of s$eech as elsewhwe find onl" in +ilton so long and so steadil" sustained.@

/efore going to '$ain< he had een looking for a $ro$ert" and settled on ruined /enedictine a e". 7e sold the $ro$ert" which he inherited from his fatheand $ersuaded his mother to sell her estate to contri ute to the $urchase cost. wanted to ecome a model countr" gentleman< $lanting trees< im$orting shfrom '$ain< and im$roving the roads.

In 1%11 he went to a all in /ath and seeing a $rett" girl e claimed @ hthe nicest girl in the room< and I ll marr" her@. 'he was ulia huillierdaughter of an im$overished 'wiss anker who had an unsuccessful usiness

/an ur" and had gone to '$ain< leaving his famil" at /ath. he" married at 'tames Church /ath on ,4 +a" 1%11 and settled for a while at #lanthon" A e".

7is countr"side life< however< offered him little satisfaction. 7e hfreEuent Euarrels with his neigh ors and was even accused of having $rovothe death of a man who drank himself to death. 7e wasted much effort and mon

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in no le attem$ts to im$rove the land< and to relieve the $overt" and raise condition of the lower class inha itants. he final straw was when he let farmland to a man who was incom$etent and e travagant and $aid no rent. Af

an e $ensive action to recover the de ts from him< #andor finall" had enoughcountr"side life< and decided to leave< a andoning #lanthon" to his credito $rinci$all" to his mother.

In 1%14 #andor left 0ngland for erse"< where he had a Euarrel withwife and set off for )rance on his own. 0ventuall" she Koined him at ours as dhis rother &o ert. 7owever< #andor soon ecame dissatisfied with ours after a series of conflicts with his landlad" set off in 'e$tem er 1%15 with hwife and rother on a Kourne" to Ital".

hile in Ital"< #andor usied himself with new editions of his works aninterested himself in the unification of Ital". In 1%81< /rowning left Ital" after death of his wife. #andor afterwards seldom left the house and remained $etulaand uncomforta le< occasionall" visited " his sons. 7e was much concerna out the fate of his $icture collection< little of which had an" merit< and a $re$arations for his grave as he ho$ed to e uried at idcom e near /ath. 7 $u lished some /maginary Conversations in the Atheneum in 1%819, and 1%8- $u lished a last volume of 4eroic /dyls$ with dditional "oems$ English and

Latin$ descri ed " 'win urne as @ the last fruit of a genius which after a lifeeight"9eight "ears had lost nothing of its maKestic and $athetic $ower< its e Eand e alted@.

Almost the last event of his life was a visit in 1%84 from the $o'win urne< who visited )lorence s$ecificall" to see him< and dedicated to him

Atlanta in Cal"don . In 1%84 on +a" :a" #andor said to his landlad" @I shnever write again. !ut out the lights and draw the curtains@. A few months latedied Euietl" in )lorence at the age of %6. 7e was uried not after all at idcom

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ut in the 0nglish Cemeter"< )lorence< near the tom of his friend< 0li a/arrett /rowning.

,%$t(e$ Read&n"

/icknell< itus. @Calamus 0nse !otentior 0stF alter 'avage #andor s !oetic aof ords@< 1668.

Cham ers< 0 >ed?. Landor: "oetry and "rose < 1648.

0lwin< +alcolm. Landor: Replevin < 165%.

)orster< ohn.The )orks and Li!e o! )alter 1avage Landor < % vols.< 1%48.

!insk"< &o ert. Landor2s "oetry < 168%.

!roudfit< Charles #. >ed.?. Landor as Critic < 16*6.

&ostrevor 7amilton< G.)alter 1avage Landor < 168(.

'u$er< &.7. )alter 1avage Landor < 16**.

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)e$a$d anle* o+!&ns

9lory 'e to 9od !or dappled things&&

7or skies o! couple&colour as a 'rinded cow(

7or rose&moles all in stipple upon trout that swim(

7resh&!irecoal chestnut&!alls( !inches2 wings(

Landscape plotted and pieced&&!old$ !allow$ and plough(

nd all trades$ their gear and tackle and trim,

-"ied Beauty.

Gerard +anle" 7o$kins was orn on ,% ul" 1%44 and died on % une 1%%was an 0nglish $oet< &oman Catholic convert< and esuit $riest< and aftedeath he came to e regarded as one of the leading Victorian $oets. 7e $erimental e $lorations in $rosod" >es$eciall" s$rung rh"thm? and his useimager" esta lished him as a daring innovator in a $eriod of largel" traditionverse.

Gerard +anle" 7o$kins was orn in 'tratford< 0sse as the first of ninechildren. 7is father founded a marine insurance firm and< at one time< was /ritish consul general in 7awaii. 7e was also< for a time< the church warden at

ohn9at97am$stead and a $u lished writer and $oet. 7e reviewed $oetr" for imes and wrote one novel. 7o$kins mother was the daughter of a #ond

$h"sician< $articularl" fond of music and of reading< es$eciall" Germ $hiloso$h"< literature and the novels of :ickens. /oth $arents were dee$lreligious 7igh Church Anglicans. 7o$kins s first am itions were to e a $ainand he was ins$ired< as an adult< " the work of ohn &uskin and the &a$haelites.

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+anle" 7o$kins moved his famil" to 7am$stead in 1%5,< near to whereohn eats had lived thirt" "ears efore. At ten "ears old Gerard +anle" 7o$kin

was sent to oard at 7ighgate 'chool and< while stud"ing eats s $oetr

com$osed @ he 0scorial@ >1%8(?< his earliest $oem. 7ere he also attemasceticism for the first time. 7e once argued that most $eo$le drank more liEuithan the" reall" needed and et that he could go without drinking for a week. 7 $ersisted until his tongue was lack and he fainted. On another occasion<a stained from salt for a week.

At /alliol College< O ford< he studied the great classics. 7o$kins was unusuall" sensitive and sh" student and $oet< as witnessed " his class9notes earl" $oetic $ieces. It was at O ford that he forged a lifelong friendshi$ wi&o ert /ridges >who later ecame !oet #aureate?. 7o$kins was dee$l" im$ressein the work of Christina &ossetti and she ecame one of his greatest contem$orinfluences< meeting him in 1%84. :uring this time he studied with the $restigiwriter and critic alter !ater< who tutored him in 1%88 and who remained a fritill 'e$tem er 1%*6 when 7o$kins left O ford. :uring the time s$ent at O fohe ecame more studious and egan recording his @sins@ in his diar". Aundergraduate he engaged in friendshi$s that ma" e viewed as romantic< thothe" tended to e idealised and s$iritualised. In $articular< he found it hardacce$t his se ual attraction to other men< including a dee$ infatuation for :ig+ackworth :ol en. here is nothing to suggest< however< an" $h"sicconsummation and indeed he seems to have remained celi ate throughout his l

7e e ercised a strict self9control in regard to his homose ual desire. It was durthis time that he egan to consider choosing the cloister.

On 1% anuar" 1%88 7o$kins com$osed his most ascetic $oem< 2 he 7of !erfection3. On ,- anuar" he included $oetr" in the list of things to e giveu$ for #ent. In ul" he decided to ecome a Catholic. 7e was received into t

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degree failed his final theolog" e am. his failure almost certainl" meant ththough ordained in 1%**< 7o$kins would not $rogress in the order. In 1%*wrote9od=s 9randeur < an arra" of sonnets and finishedThe )indhover onl" a

few months efore his ordination. hough rigorous< isolated and sometimun$leasant< his life during esuit training had at least some sta ilit"H the unceand varied work after ordination was even harder on his sensi ilities. In Octo1%**< not long after he com$leted 2 he 'ea and the 'k"lark3 and onl" a monafter he had een ordained as a $riest< 7o$kins took u$ his duties as su miniand teacher at +ount 't. +ar" s College< Chesterfield. In ul" 1%*% he ecacurate at the esuit church in +ount 'treet< #ondon. In :ecem er he ecamcurate at 't. Alo"sius s Church< O ford< then moving to +anchester< #iver$and Glasgow.

In 1%%4 he ecame $rofessor of Greek and #atin at ;niversit" Colle:u lin. his $osition< as well as his isolation in Ireland dee$ened his gloom ahis $oems of the time< such as 2I ake and )eel the )ell of :ark3< reflected thi

he" came to e known as the @terri le sonnets


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7o$kins died of t"$hoid fever in 1%%6 and was uried in GlasnevCemeter". 7e is thought to have suffered throughout his life from what todamight e diagnosed as either i$olar disorder or chronic de$ression< as wel

occasional outs of an iet". 7owever< on his death ed< his last words re$ortwere< @I am so ha$$"< I am so ha$$". I loved m" life.@

,%$t(e$ Read&n"

A ot< Claude Colleer >0d.?.The Letters o! 9erard Manley 4opkins to Ro'ert Bridges < #ondonF O ford ;niversit" !ress< 1655.

+artin< &o ert /ernard.9erard Manley 4opkins > Very "rivate Li!e < #ondonF)lamingoM7ar$erCollins !u lishers< 166,.

'agar< eith Literary Biography < O fordF O ford ;niversit"!ress< 166,.

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A$t(%$ %"( Clo%"(

h yet$ when all is thought and said$

The heart still overrules the head(

1till what we hope we must 'elieve$

nd what is given us receive(

Must still 'elieve$ !or still we hope

That in a world o! larger scope$

)hat here is !aith!ully 'egun

)ill 'e completed$ not undone,

-Through a 9lass Darkly.

Arthur 7ugh Clough >$ronounced @cluff@?< was a nineteenth centur" 0nglishwhose e $eriments with literar" language and su Kect were ahead of his time

was orn in 1%16 to ames and Ann >!erfect? Clough in #iver$ool. iogra$her descri es his father as an @intermittentl" unsuccessful cotton mercfrom the Lorth ales landed gentr"@ and his mother as 2more solidl" middclass3. In 1%,6 he entered &ug " school< $erha$s the most im$ortant inde$enschool in Victorian 0ngland.

he ne t few "ears are among the most im$ortant oth in Clough s l

homas Arnold< who had Kust taken over as 7eadmaster of &ug " the "ear ehad egun to institute his reforms Kust as Clough entered the institution< u $recise changes the headmaster made to the curriculum are far less im$ortant ththe moral s$irit with which he ran the school. Clough ra$idl" ecame a favorite:r. Arnold< who in turn ecame a su stitute father< since Clough s $arents

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living in the ;'. 7is intellect made him a model student >at 15 he was reading Lie uhr and 'chleiermacher in German?< and his awareness of his role as a mofor his fellows >he eventuall" ecame 7ead of the 'chool< an honorar" $ositi

Arnold created for the o" whom he wanted to set the school s standard? mhim a rilliant e am$le of the success of Arnold s methods.

7e and the $eo$le around him came to e $ect too much of him. After h&ug " career< mere success was not enoughF ever"one thought him destinedistinguish himself in an" career he chose. 7is "ears at O ford s est colle/alliol< were trou led. 7e $ut off his honors e ams several times ecause he fun$re$ared< and efore he took them in 1%41< his father went ankru$t fosecond time. hat meant that Arthur could e $ect no hel$ from his father and this career now de$ended u$on his score on the e am. hen he receiv

notes on victorian poetry a-b ciocoi-pop

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