phoenician reassessed

7/27/2019 Phoenician Reassessed

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1 The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

Joseph [email protected]

27thof May, 2010

The Phoenician Alphabet eassesse!in "ight of its #escen!ant $c%ipts

an! the "ang&age of the Mo!e%n "ebanese


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P(")T)A", E")3)(/$ ( ET'+) A3E+#A -)"" E EP/#)ATE#.

Abstract

The contempo%a%y beliefs %ega%!ing the Phoenician alphabet a%e %e5ie6e! an! challenge!,in light of the cha%acte%istics fo&n! in the ancient alphabets of Phoenicias neighbo&%s an!

the lang&age of the mo!e%n "ebanese.


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Introduction

The Phoenician alphabet, as it is &n!e%stoo! to!ay, is a 22 lette% abja! 6ith a one8to8onelette% to phoneme %elationship 9see Table 1:.1%e!ite! fo% being the 6o%l!s fi%st alphabetan! mothe% of all mo!e%n alphabets, it is belie5e! to ha5e been inspi%e! by the ol!e%hie%oglyphics system of nea%by Egypt an!;o% the syllaba%ies of yp%&s, %ete, an!;o% theyblos syllaba%y 8 to 6hich the Phoenician alphabet appea%s to be a g%aphical s&bset of.2


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! The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

#espite being s&ccessf&lly !eciphe%e! since the eighteenth cent&%y =A.#.>, minimal effo%tsha5e been ma!e to e?plo%e the moti5ation behin! ey cha%acte%istics of the sc%ipt 8mainly4 its appa%ent 5o6el less nat&%e, the %eason behin! employing 22 lette%s an! finally,a tho%o&gh analysis of the lette%s an! thei% application in %ep%esenting the 5ocal lang&age

of the Phoenicians.

Motivation

ontempo%a%y tho&ght claims the Phoenician alphabet e?hibite! 22 lette%s simply beca&sethe Phoenician lang&age &tilise! no mo%e than 22 phonemes. )n this 6ay, one Phoenicianlette% co%%espon!e! to one phoneme fo&n! in the Phoenician lang&age. #espite the%ebeing no soli! p%oof of the Phoenician lang&age only &tilising 22 phonemes, this a%g&mentalso appea%s to o5e%loo the significance of n&me%ology in ancient, no%th $emitic an!neighbo&%ing c&lt&%es. Mo%e specifically, the n&mbe% 22 is the la%gest an! a%g&ably the

most po6e%f&l of a special set of n&mbe%s no6n as the Maste% +&mbe%s.

B

T6enty T6o, fo%many n&me%ologists, is a symbol of4 p%agmaticality;economy, lea!e%ship, s&ccess, an!!isciplineC 8 cha%acte%istics 6hich can easily be associate! 6ith the alphabet 6hencompa%e! to the less efficient pictog%aphic an! syllabic metho!s of 6%iting. The Phoenicianalphabet, the%efo%e, co&l! ha5e been p&%posely !esigne! to &tilise 22 lette%s so as toe?p%ess the belief in the significance of the n&mbe% 22 in Phoenician c&lt&%e. The samea%g&ment might also apply to Phoenicias neighbo&%s 6ho also maintaine! a 22 lette%alphabet afte% the Phoenicians, s&ch as the4 'eb%e6s, Assy%ians, +abataeans, Pa%thiansan! the ancient 3%ees of %ete 9see Appen!i? A:.7DThe significance of the n&mbe% 22 inancient, no%th $emitic c&lt&%e is f&%the% emphasise! by the 22 line insc%iption fo&n! on thePhoenician sa%cophag&s of ing Eshm&naFa% )) 9see ig&%e 1: 6hich 6o&l! ha5e

&n!o&bte!ly been p%ecisely !esigne! gi5en the fo%me% stat&s of the %esting bo!y insi!e.10

&%the% still, the boo of e5elations =also no6n as Apocalypse> is comp%ise! of 22chapte%s 6hich 6o&l! appea% as no coinci!ence gi5en the =s&ppose!> c%yptic nat&%e of thisboo.11)t is the%efo%e, no acci!ent that the alphabet of the Phoenicians an! othe% nea%byc&lt&%es e?hibite! 22 lette%s.12 /tilising 22 lette%s 6o&l! ha5e been the Phoenicianin5ento%s 6ay of e?p%essing his;he% spi%it&al beliefs in light of his;he% c%eation 8 the fi%stalphabet.1


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The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

$a%cophage !Eshmo&naFa% )), G /+E$(,http:##portal$ne%co$orci#en#e'$php()RL*ID+1,-.-/)RL*D0+D0*T0PIC/)RL*SECTI0N+21$html

3i&re 1:The sa%cophag&s of ing Eshm&naFa% )),feat&%es a t6enty8t6o line insc%iption.

onfining the Phoenician alphabet to 22 lette%s opens the possibility of the in5ento%choosing to sac%ifice alphabetic i!eality fo% spi%it&al e?p%ession.1Th&s, the simple an!Hi!ealI metho! of %ep%esenting one phoneme 6ith one lette% co&l! ha5e been p&%posely%ejecte! fo% a system 6he%e lette%s co&l! e?hibit a !&al o% g%eate% polytypical nat&%e 8 in the

same 6ay the lette% HcI in English, can %ep%esent =in )PA 9see Appen!i? :>4 [k]in HcatI o%

[s]in HcityI o% []in HoceanI o% [t]in HcelloI. P%o5ing s&ch phonetic ambig&ity among the

Phoenician lette%s 6hen %ep%esenting the Phoenician 5e%nac&la%, ho6e5e%, 6o&l! %e&i%eaccess to the 5ocal Phoenician lang&age 8 6hich is ass&me!ly e?tinct. 1B #espite thisappa%ently fo%gotten info%mation, the%e may still be some c%e!it in compa%ing sc%ipte!

1! L. *re&oble, L. hale), Sa(ing Languages) An &ntroduction to Language 'e(itali*ation, Cambrid+e 5&i6ersit)Press, 7ew 8ork, 2""-, . 1.

1 (et/ro&, op! cit., . 1!.


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- The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

Phoenician 6ith the 5e%nac&la% of the Ma%onite 5illages fo&n! high in the "ebanonmo&ntain %ange. The moti5ation behin! this compa%ison is !%a6n f%om the no6na!amants po%t%aye! by these mo&ntain Phoenicians 6ho 6e%e among the last in theoman Empi%e to gi5e &p thei% b%an! of paganism an! a!opt h%istianity.1C17&%the%, once

ma!e membe%s of the &ni5e%sal ch&%ch, this comm&nity %ef&se! to confo%m to thei!eologies of the h%istian (%tho!o? ch&%ches 8 e5en afte% the late% ha! become thespi%it&al stat&s &o in the mi!!le east.1D'isto%y has also sho6n that, as time p%og%esse!,not e5en the %ife s6o%!s of the 5a%io&s con&e%ing )slamic empi%es co&l! pe%t&%b the faithof the Ma%onites of the "ebanon18 not e5en afte% they 6e%e s&%%o&n!e! an! then c&t offf%om the %est of the 6o%l!.20)nte%estingly, as 6ell, afte% being %e&nite! 6ith ome !&%ing the'igh Mi!!le Ages, it 6as fo&n! that the Ma%onites 8 &nlie thei% othe% easte%n atholicco&nte%pa%ts 8 ha! not fallen into he%esy b&t ha! obse%5e! all aspects of thei% faith j&st asthey !i! befo%e being sepa%ate! f%om ome.21 inally, "ebanons last official cens&s=con!&cte! in 1 %e5eale! that the Ma%onite comm&nity la%gely o&tn&mbe%e! all othe%%eligio&s comm&nities in the ne6ly fo%me! nation of "ebanon.22 2 Phoenician lang&age feat&%e! mo%e than 22 phonemes, !espite thePhoenician alphabet feat&%ing only 22 lette%s. )n this 6ay, Phoenician 6o&l! ha5e been

sc%ipte! mo%e lie mo!e%n English 8 6hich feat&%es mo%e than 2C phonemes !espite its 2Clette% =omanise!> alphabet.2B

Observation and Analysis

ompa%ing sc%ipte! Phoenician 6ith the 5e%nac&la% of the Ma%onites of the "ebanonmo&ntain %ange yiel!e! se5e%al inte%esting patte%ns 6hich a%e s&mma%ise!, as follo6s4

9+.. The follo6ing compa%isons 6e%e ma!e by s&%5eying "ebanese Ma%onites f%om the"ebanon an! then compa%ing thei% %esponses 6ith the Phoenician 6o%! list gi5en by

1- D74 a&al)sis, so&sored b) 7atio&al *eo+rahic, has re6ealed the maorit) of moder& Leba&ese are desce&da&ts ofthe Phoe&icia&s. $ee= %. *ore, ho ere the Phoe&icia&sE i&National #eographic, October 2""!, &ter&et,htt=>>

&+m.&atio&al+eo+rahic.com>features>world>asia>leba&o&>hoe&icia&s#text>1,@13 >www.state.+o6>+>drl>rls>irf>2""1>-1.htm,@1!


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a6linson an! the online Phoenician !ictiona%y fo&n! at4 666.canaanite.o%g.: 2C272D

!Phoenician" like #ebrew and Arabic" is read from right to left$%

The follo6ing %es&lts a%e p%esente! in the fo%mat4KHEnglishI L [Lebanese Maronite pronunciation in !"]L %cripte4 Phoenician.

1. letter 1, aleph=a>, gene%ally appea%s in place of any 5o6el, o% a 5o6el p%ece!e! o%p%ocee!e! 6ith eithe% anothe% 5o6el o% a glottal stop =[]> o% a semi85o6el, e.g.

Hhea!I 8 [r#$s]8sar,

H%e&estI 8 [s%&'l]8 las,

Hea%thN g%o&n!I 8 [($&red]8Sra,

HoneI 8 [we)&'d]8dHa

2. letter , beth=b>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [b], e.g.

HblessI 8 [be)&r'k]8 krb

, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [*], e.g.

HfeeI 8 [($*&redt]8trga

. letter ., daleth=d>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [d], e.g.

Hbloo!I 8 [d%m]8md

B. letter 6, he=h>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [h], e.g.

Hhe%eI 8 [h($n]8nh

C. letter ,, waw=w>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [w], [+], e.g.

Hinsi!eI 8 [*o+&we)]8 wg,

Han!I 8 [+]8 w

7. letter 7, zayin=z>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [z], [d], e.g.

Hfa%mI 8 [m%z&re)]8orzm,

Hsac%ificeI cf. Hsla&ghte% 9an animal:I 8 [d($&b']8Hbz

D. letter 8, heth=H>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [], [,], e.g.

HgoI 8 [r+]8Hr,

HitchenI 8 [m%dt&be),]8HbTm

2- *. %awli&so&, Chater : ; Phoe&icia& riti&+, La&+ua+e a&d Literature i&History of "hoenicia, Lo&+ma&s,*ree&, a&d Co, Lo&do&, 19, . 3"#3!.

2 >ca&aa&ite.or+>dictio&ar)>

i&dex.h,@1! tc1>sc2>

w+2>docs>&2!-.df, @19


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. letter -, teth=T>, appea%s in the place of the so&n! [dt], e.g.

HbellyI 8 [b%dt&dten]8nTb

10. letter 12, yodh=y>, appea%s in the place of the so&n!s4 [j], [')], e.g.

H!ayI 8 [j%m]8my,

Hhan!I 8 [')d]8dy

11. letter 11, kaph=k>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [k], e.g.

He5e%y, allI 8 [k'-l]8 lk

12. letter 1, lamedh=l>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [l], e.g.

H!ogI 8 [k($&l'-b]8 blk

1, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [m], [n], e.g.

HingI 8 [m($&l'k]8 klm,

Hfo%tyI 8 [)r&b'n]8mobra

1. letter 1., nun=n>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [n], e.g.

Hgoo!I 8 ['-m&n']8Hnm

1B. letter 16, samekh=Z>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [s], [z

], e.g.HfeelI 8 ['-s]8 ZH,

Hmemo%yN %emembe%I 8 [z)&k'r]8 rkZ

1C. letter 1,, ayin=o>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [], [.], e.g.

HeyeI 8 [/n]8no,

H!i%tN !&stI 8 [.%&b'-r]8 rpo

17. letter 17,pe=p>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [b], [0], e.g.

Hmos&itoI 8 [b($&r'-.&)]8sorp,

HopenI 8 [0($&dt']8Htp

1D. letter 18, tsade=S>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [s], [d], e.g.

HonionI 8 [b%s&s#$l]8 lSb,

HbacI 8 [d($&h'-r]8 rhS

1. letter 1-, oph=q>, appea%s in the place of the phoneme [], e.g.

Hb&%yN g%a5eI 8 [($&b'-r]8 rbq


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20. letter 2, resh=r>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [r], [l], e.g.

HcattleI 8 [b%$r]8 rqb,

H%ootI 8 ['-&l'-]8srs

21. letter 1, shin=s>, appea%s in the place of the phonemes4 [s], [], an! the so&n!

[dt], e.g.

Hhea%, listenI 8 [sme)]8oms,

Hs&nI 8 [($&m'-s]8sms,

Hth%eeI 8 [dtle)&dt)]8sls

22. letter , tau=t>, appea%s in the place of the so&n!s4 [dt], [ndt], e.g.

H!ie!I 8 [me)dt]8tm,

H!a&ghte%I 8 [b'-ndt]8tb

2


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1" The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

Table :A s&mma%y of the !eciphe%ment obtaine!by compa%ing sc%ipte! Phoenician 6ith the5e%nac&la% of the Ma%onites, li5ing in the "ebanonMo&ntains.

Letter Name Glyph Phonetic Vale !in IPA"

aleph a "n1 2owel or combination o0 2oweland another 2owel or glottal stop3

beth b [b]

gamil g [*]

daleth d [d]

he h [h]

waw w [w], [+]

zayin z [z], [d]

heth H [], [,]

teth T [dt]

yodh y [j], [')]

kaph k [k]4

lamedh l [l]

mem m [m], [n]

nun n [n]

samekh Z [s], [z]

ayin o [], [.]

pe p [b]5, [0]

tsade S [s], [d]

oph q []

resh r [r], [l]

shin s [s], [], [dt]

tau t [dt], [ndt]

O an! possibly [g]

56he%e [b]is p%obably A%abise! [p]. Also, [2]might ha5e also been %ep%esente! by p9see Appen!i? #:.

These results were used to make the following analysis.

"ette%s4 2, , appea% in the same place as thei% phonetic e&al in spoen "ebanese 8 if


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one consi!e%s the t%a!itional !eciphe%ment of the Phoenician alphabet.2The %emainingcha%acte%s also gi5e c%e!it to the t%a!itional !eciphe%ment, ho6e5e%, the obse%5e! patte%ns=abo5e> s&ggest a slightly mo%e sophisticate! lette% to phoneme %elationship. Theseappa%ent %elationships 6ill be a!!%esse! in the follo6ing pa%ag%aphs.

i%stly, the !&plicity e?hibite! by cha%acte%s4 D, 1C, an! 1D =heth, ayin, tsade, %especti5ely>can be cla%ifie! by taing a close% loo at the A%abic alphabet L belie5e! to be thes&ccesso% of the Phoenician alphabet 5ia A%amaic an! +abataean inte%me!ia%ies. Th&s, a

compa%ison bet6een heth =H> an! its A%abic e&i5alent, &a' =9>, sho6 that both lette%sstan! in the place of the phoneme []. 'o6e5e%, by simply a!!ing a !iac%itic =i'(am> to the

&a', the %es&ltant lette% 8)a'=> 8 becomes a %ep%esentati5e of the phoneme [,]. Th&s, byigno%ing the a!!itional !iac%itic, it becomes clea% that the lette% fo%m H9I stan!s as a%ep%esentati5e fo% eithe% [] o% [,]. This obse%5ation in A%abic is analogo&s to the

compa%ison =abo5e> bet6een sc%ipte! Phoenician an! the "ebanese 5e%nac&la% an! th&s,s&ggests that heth =H> al6ays !i! %ep%esent both [] an! [,] it is j&st that the

Phoenicians p%efe%%e! not to &se !iac%itics L j&st lie HgI in English HgateI = [g]> o% Hgene%alI

=[d*]>. &%the%, of all the possible !esigns )a' => co&l! ha5e taen, it seems mo%e thancoinci!ental fo% it to simply appea% as a &a'=9> 6ith a !iac%itic =>. $&%ely, the%e m&st besome moti5ation behin! this con5ention an! base! on the lin bet6een spoen "ebanesean! sc%ipte! Phoenician, it !oes seem 5e%y liely that the A%abs ha! al6ays no6n abo&tthe phonetic !&plicity of heth=o% at least its +abataean !escen!ant> b&t finally !eci!e! to!isting&ish bet6een its t6o phonemes by &tilising a !iac%itic. The%efo%e, it is 5e%y possible

that heth al6ays !i! %ep%esent the t6o phonemes []an! [,]. The same a%g&ments can

also be applie! to the Phoenician lette% ayin=o> %ep%esenting []an! [.]in the same 6ay

that a!!ing a !iac%itic to A%abic ayin =;> [] ca&ses it to become ghayn = [.] 6hilstPhoenician tsade=S> can be [s]o% [d]j&st lie ho6 A%abic tsade==> [s]becomes d'ad[d]once a !iac%itic is a!!e! =>>.

)n light of this s&specte! !&plicity, it is 6o%th noting that !iac%itic8less A%abic te?t has beenfo&n! sc%ipte! along the 6alls of a%chaic mo&ntain !6ellings 6ithin the "ebanon 9seeig&%e 2:.


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3. 'aye, The *adisha +alley ,rom the Depths$$$ to the Peaks, Annaha% P&blishing 'o&se, 200D, p. D. To elabo%ate, A%abic sinpec&lia%ly p%og%esses to shinby the s&!!en a!!ition ofth%ee !iac%itics. This is in cont%ast to the %est of the A%abic alphabet 6he%e p%og%essions tothe ne?t lette% a%e gene%ally ma!e by the a!!ition of one !iac%itic =at a time> 9see ig&%e 6ith othe% A%abic g%ammatical con5entions.


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Phoenicians to %ep%esent [dt]6ith shin6hen cha%acte% 22 =tau> appa%ently al%ea!y !i! the

same job. 'o6e5e%, if one consi!e%s the g%ammatical st%&ct&%e of sc%ipte! Phoenician an!then of spoen "ebanese =if "ebanese can be &se! as a !ecent s&bstit&te fo% Phoenician>,one 6ill %ealise the eme%gence of 5e%y ambig&o&s homog%aphs. As an e?ample, the

n&mbe% Hth%eeI in "ebanese, is =mo%e o% less> p%ono&nce! [dtle)&dt)]6hilst Hone thi%!I is=mo%e o% less> p%ono&nce! [dt'-&l'-dt]. )f one is to %ep%esent both these n&mbe%s by

typically sc%ipting only consonants, as is !one in Phoenician, then the %es&lt fo% bothn&mbe%s 6ill be =in oman> H!tl!tI. (b5io&sly, s&ch an ambig&ity bet6een Hth%eeI an! Hathi%!I co&l! ha5e catast%ophic %es&lts in fiel!s 6hich %ely hea5ily on n&mbe%s, s&ch asenginee%ing. Th&s, a con5ention 6o&l! ha5e been necessa%y to a5oi! s&ch homog%aphs,

hence, the application of shinfo% [dt]6hen 6%iting the ca%!inal n&mbe%s 6hilst =p%obably>

%ese%5ing lette% 22 =tau> fo% the f%actional e&i5alents. The%efo%e, the employment of shinto

also %ep%esent [dt]may ha5e been seen as the sol&tion to a5oi!ing ce%tain homog%aphs.


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1! The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

that the A%ab e&i5alents inhe%ite! thei% !&plicity f%om thei% Phoenician ancesto% 6hose

waw also %ep%esente! the phonemes [w] an! [+] 6hilst yodh also %ep%esente! the

phonemes [j]an! [')].

"ette% 1, aleph, appea%s as4 a 5o6el, o% a 5o6el combine! 6ith anothe% 5o6el o% semi85o6el o% a glottal stop. This is cont%a%y to pop&la% belief 6hich s&ggests the alephstoo!only fo% a glottal stop. To j&stify the obse%5ations ma!e, one nee!s to only listen to spoen"ebanese to %ealise the e?act p%on&nciation of ce%tain 6o%!s !epen!s on ho6 the 6o%! is&se!. The 6o%! HeatI, fo% e?ample, is spelt lkain Phoenician b&t is typically p%ono&nce!

=in "ebanese> [je)&k#$l]in [b'&je)&k#$l]8 Hhe eatsI 8 b&t is then p%ono&nce! [e)&k#$l]in

['-b&e)&k#$l]8 H) eatI. The change f%om the thi%! pe%son to the fi%st pe%son, the%efo%e, has

lea! to a slight change in p%on&nciation 8 a change &n!o&bte!ly notice! by the c%eato% ofthe alphabet 6ho 6o&l! ha5e th&s, incl&!e! alephso as to stan! fo% all the 5a%io&sp%on&nciations of a gi5en 5o6el f%om a pa%tic&la% 6o%!. Aleph, the%efo%e, may ha5e

o%iginally stoo! fo% 5o6els 6hose p%on&nciation 6as infl&ence! by g%ammatical facto%ss&ch as the pe%son.

)n f&%the% opposition to pop&la% tho&ght, it 6o&l! seem sensible to s&ggest the aleph 6o&l!ha5e o%iginally so&n!e! 5e%y m&ch o% the same as 6hat 6o&l! become the 3%ee alpha

=Q, R> 8 that is, a 5o6el. &%the%, if one consi!e%s the A%abic %en!ition of the "ebanese

5e%nac&la%s, alif =, aleph'sA%ab e&i5alent> se%5es as a 5o6el an! only acts as a 5o6elan! glottal stop 6hen 6%itten 6ith a hamza=> abo5e =F> o% belo6 it =>. al6ays !i! %ep%esent 5o6els in gene%al.

"ette% 7, zayin, appea%s in place of the phoneme [z]=as pop&la% tho&ght s&ggests> b&t

also fo% the phoneme [d]. The late% case may seem %athe% st%ange, especially since the

lette% daleth=d> al%ea!y appea%s to a!e&ately se%5e the phoneme [d]. 'o6e5e%, those

6ho a%e familia% 6ith spoen "ebanese to!ay an! Mo!e%n $tan!a%! A%abic =M$A> mightha5e also notice! that the%e !oes appea% to be some inte%esting e?changes bet6een

e&i5alent 6o%!s 6ith [d] an! [z] an! thei% emphatic 5e%sions. o% e?ample, the 5e%b

HcleanI is p%ono&nce! [n($&d'0]in "ebanese b&t is p%ono&nce! [n/&z

i$0]=HJK> in M$A6hilst the no&n HbacI is p%ono&nce! [d($&h'-r] in "ebanese b&t [z/&hr] => inM$A. !i! in fact, %ep%esent both [z]an! [d], one may 6on!e% 6hat moti5ation co&l!

be behin! s&ch ambig&ity. Pe%haps it may ha5e been to a5oi! ce%tain homog%aphs fo%%easons simila% to those !isc&sse! fo% shin.


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"ette% 1, appea%s in place of the phonemes [m]an! [n]6hen j&?tapose! 6ith

the e&i5alent "ebanese. )nte%estingly, ho6e5e%, memonly seems to appea% in place of

the [n]6hen [n]is p%esent at the en! of a ca%!inal n&mbe%. o% e?ample, the n&mbe% fo%ty

is p%ono&nce! =mo%e o% less> [)r&b'n] in "ebanese 6he%e as in Phoenician it is spelt

mobra. Pe%haps, the%efo%e, mem typically %ep%esente! [m] b&t also %ep%esente! [n]

6hen [n]6as the final so&n! of a ca%!inal n&mbe%. Again, the possible moti5ation behin!

s&ch a con5ention may be %elate! to a5oi!ing ce%tain homog%aphs.

"ette% 1B, samekh =Z>, 6as a %elati5ely !iffic&lt cha%acte% to !eciphe% beca&se of the%elati5e fe6 specimens !isco5e%e!, only abo&t t6o o% th%ee 6e%e compa%able to ane&i5alent "ebanese 6o%!. T%a!itionally, this cha%acte% is belie5e! to stan! fo% the

phoneme [s]6hich seems fitting 6hen one compa%es the "ebanese 6o%! ['-s]6ith the

Phoenician ZH 8 6hich both mean HfeelI. 'o6e5e%, samekhalso appea%s to tae theplace of [z]in the 6o%! H%emembe%I 6hich is p%ono&nce! [z($&k'r]in "ebanese an! is

sc%ipte! rkZ, in Phoenician. Mo%e compa%able specimens 6ill be %e&i%e! befo%e a fai%!eciphe%ment of sameh can be ma!e. Shin =s> al%ea!y appea%s to a!e&ately

%ep%esent the phoneme [s], ho6e5e%, samekhmay ha5e also been &se! fo% this p&%pose

fo% simila% %easons gi5en ea%lie% 8 %ega%!ing homog%aphs. &%the%, it 6o&l! seem pla&sible

fo% samekh to %ep%esent [z], especially if one consi!e%s that the Phoenicians may ha5e

also 6ante! a lette% to %ep%esent emphatic [z]=that is, [z]>, in the same 6ay that tsade

%ep%esente! emphatic [s] an! [d] =[s] an! [d], %especti5ely> 6hilst teth %ep%esente!

emphatic [t]=that is, [t

]>.

"ette% 17,pe =p>, appea%s in place of the phonemes [b] an! [0]. T%a!itional !eciphe%ing

s&ggests pe %ep%esente! [p] 6hich is pla&sible gi5en its alphabetic position 6hen

compa%e! to the alphabets &se! in nea%by c&lt&%es. &%the%, it 6o&l! seem logical fo% the

Phoenicians to possess the phoneme [p]j&st lie thei% neighbo&%ing comm&nities ac%oss

the Me!ite%%anean L 6hom the Phoenicians often t%a!e! 6ith.


16/40

1- The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

"ette% 1, oph =q>, t%a!itionally is belie5e! to %ep%esent the phoneme [q] j&st lie the

e&i5alent cha%acte% in $y%iac =q> an! Mo!e%n $tan!a%! A%abic =>. 'o6e5e%, none of thecompa%able "ebanese p%on&nciations s&ppo%te! this claim b&t instea!, s&ggest that the

lette% %ep%esente! the phoneme []=that is, the glottal stop>.1 2(ne may a%g&e that the

[q] in the "ebanese tong&e co&l! ha5e fallen o&t of &se o5e% the cent&%ies b&t s&ch a

theo%y 6o&l! seem %athe% poo% gi5en that the "ebanese 6e%e constantly con&e%e! by

A%amean, A%ab, an! othe% mi!!le easte%n empi%es most of 6hich also feat&%e! [q]in thei%

!ialog. $&ch an en5i%onment of [q]p%ono&ncing comm&nities 6o&l! ha5e most liely ma!e

it easie% fo% the "ebanese to %etain the [q]in thei% speech 8 if they e5e% possesse! it. A

mo%e sensible a%g&ment, instea!, 6o&l! be that the "ebanese ne5e% !i! p%ono&nce [q]L

not e5en 6hen they 6%ote in Phoenician. Th&s, lette% 1 6o&l! ha5e most liely

%ep%esente! the glottal stop =[]>, as s&ppo%te! by the obse%5ations abo5e.

#&plicity is also appa%ent fo% lette% 20, resh =r>, 6hich e?hibits the phonemes [r]an! [l].

The latte% case ho6e5e%, 6o&l! most liely ha5e been %ese%5e! fo% a5oi!ing ce%tain

homog%aphs. As an e?ample, the 6o%! H%ootI is spelt srsin Phoenician an! @inthe A%abic %en!ition, in "ebanon.


17/40


also %ep%esente! [l]6hen a5oi!ing homog%aphs 6as !esi%able.

inally, lette% 22 =tau, t> appea%s in place of the phonemes [dt] =6hich mo%e o% less,

ag%ees 6ith t%a!itional 5ie6s> an! [ndt]. The latte% case 6o&l! seem j&stifie! if one

consi!e%s the appa%ent p%actice of en!ing a no&n 6ith tau so as to mae that no&nfeminine.As an e?ample, the 6o%! Hlo%!;citiFenI is sc%ipte! as lob6hilst its femininefo%m is sc%ipte! tlob. The same p%actice is obse%5e! fo% se5e%al othe% no&ns lieHp%iestI 8nhk8 an! Hp%iestessI 8tnhk8 o% HmanI 8sa8 an! H6omanI 8 tsa.

Th&s, if the 6o%! fo% HsonI is p%ono&nce! along the lines of [b'-n] 8 spelt nb8 then it

6o&l! be fai% to a%g&e that the 6o%! fo% H!a&ghte%I 6o&l! ha5e been p%ono&nce! along the

lines of [b'-ndt]L as is the case 6ith the "ebanese, to!ay. Th&s, the sc%ipte! 6o%! fo%

H!a&ghte%I 8tb8 6o&l! ha5e been %ea! as [b'-ndt]6hich s&ggests the lette% tau=in this

case> stoo! fo% [ndt]. Also, if tau6as &se! to occasionally %ep%esent the so&n! [ndt]then

it might also be possible that the sc%ipte! Phoenician 6o%! fo% Hyo&I, ta, co&l! ha5ebeen p%ono&nce! along the lines of ['-ndt]=o% ['-ndt&dt($]if 5o6els a%e a%bit%a%ily a!!e!>

6hich is ho6 it is p%ono&nce! =mo%e o% less> by the mo!e%n "ebanese. The possiblemoti5ation behin! this hypothetical !&al nat&%e, lie ce%tain lette%s !esc%ibe! ea%lie%, mayha5e been the a5oi!ance of ce%tain homog%aphsB 8 especially 6hen one %ealises that,

ce%tain Phoenician =an! "ebanese> 6o%!s a%e ma!e pl&%al by en!ing them 6ith [dt].C

efo%e p%og%essing, it is 6o%th commenting that it may also be possible that sc%ipte!Phoenician employe! silent lette%s. o% e?ample, the 6o%! fo% HthisI is sc%ipte! as hzhb&t is =typically> p%ono&nce! [he)&de)], by the "ebanese. This s&ggests that the

te%minatinghis silent, in this pa%tic&la% e?ample. The moti5ation behin! silent lette%s mayha5e been to a5oi! ce%tain homog%aphs fo% simila% %easons !isc&sse! 6hen a!!%essingcha%acte% 21 =shin>. Any, if not all Phoenician lette%s co&l! ha5e been employe! as silentlette%s b&t to p%o5e s&ch a case 6o&l! %e&i%e a close% compa%ison bet6een the "ebanese5e%nac&la%s an! sc%ipte! Phoenician L e5en then it may not be easy to p%o5e gi5en thenat&%al e5ol&tion of lang&age 6hich 6itnesses the coming of ne6 6o%!s an! the fo%gettingof ol! 6o%!s.

The following analysis is in regards to the physical appearance of certainPhoenician letters.

i%stly, lette% B =he, h> appea%s to be a g%aphical s&bset of lette% D =heth, H>.)nte%estingly, the p%opose! phonemes fo% each lette% a%e a%g&ably simila% s&ch that, heth

=as []> is meant to be an emphatic 5e%sion of he=i.e. [h]>. Th&s, it 6o&l! seem as if heth

6as p&%posely !esigne! so that it %esemble! heb&t appea%e! g%aphically hea5ie% than heso as to emphasise that it is a phonetically st%onge% 5a%iant of he. $imila%ly, lette% 1D=tsade, S> loos lie lette% 21 =shin, s> only 6ith an e?t%a long, left8most st%oe 6hiche?ten!s !o6n6a%!s. Again, it appea%s as if the g%aphically hea5ie% lette%, tsade, is also a

phonetically st%onge% 5a%iant =i.e. [s]>, of shin=fo% the case 6he%e shin %ep%esents [s]>.

!! %awli&so&, op! cit., . 3!.

! 'ust for the record,tnb@as it is scritedA has bee& tra&slated as Gow&H. Phoe&icia& scribes, therefore, ma) ha6ewished to reser6e this selli&+ o&l) for this defi&itio& a&d he&ce, chosetto also rerese&t [ndt]i&[email protected]+hterA.

!- %awli&so&, op! cit., . 33.


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$imila%ly, the emphatic 5e%sion of the the so&n! [dt]=%ep%esente! by tau, t> is appa%ently

%ep%esente! by cha%acte% =teth,T> L 6hich loos lie tauonly that it has an e?t%a st%oe=an enci%cling %ing>. Th&s, it appea%s as if the emphatic so&n!s of the Phoenician lang&age

a%e %ep%esente! by lette%s 6hich g%aphically appea% lie thei% non8emphatic co&nte% pa%tsb&t 6ith an a!!e! st%oe 9see ig&%e B:.

"ette% 1B =samekh, Z>, g%aphically appea%s lie lette% 7 =zayin, z> connecte! to lette% 22=tau, t> L at the bottom. )f lette% 1B 6as !esigne! in this 6ay on p&%pose then =base! onsimila% a%g&ments as abo5e,> it might ha5e been to s&ggest that it %ep%esente! the so&n!

[dtz]o% [zdt]6hich a%g&ably so&n! 5e%y m&ch lie an emphatic [z]=that is, [z]>. (ne may

fai%ly a%g&e, ho6e5e%, a zayin6ith an e?t%a st%oe co&l! ha5e easily been employe! to

%ep%esent an emphatic [z]L as appea%s to be the case 6ith the p%e5io&sly !isc&sse!4 heth,

tsade, an! teth. Also, altho&gh the obse%5ations p%esente! gi5e c%e!it to the t%a!itional

5ie6 that samekh %ep%esente! [s], it may also be 6o%th no6ing 6hethe% samekh=o% anyothe% cha%acte%> also %ep%esente! the phoneme [z]L mainly beca&se it is obse%5e! in the

"ebanese 5e%nac&la%s.7

The ol!est, no6n insc%iptions 9see Appen!i? : of lette%s 1< =mem, m> an! 1 =nun, n>sho6 that mem =a%chaically, M> g%aphically contains the lette% nun =a%chaically, N>. Thismay e?plain 6hy memappea%s to sometimes, beha5e as nun=as !esc%ibe! ea%lie%> an!

may also in!icate that the Phoenicians %ecognise! [m]an! [n]as belonging to the same

class of so&n!s 8 that is, the nasal consonants.D

inally, the &estion as to 6hethe% oph %ep%esente! [q] o% [] might be %esol5e! byconsi!e%ing the g%aphical nat&%e of the lette%. Th&s, in light of the g%aphical an! phonetic%elationship !isplaye! by the p%e5io&sly !esc%ibe! lette%s, it 6o&l! ha5e ma!e sense fo%the Phoenicians to !%a6 oph=q> lie kaph=k> b&t 6ith an e?t%a st%oe beca&se oph6ass&ppose!ly a g&tt&%al 5a%iant of kaph.)nstea!, t6o 5e%y !iffe%ent cha%acte%s a%e obse%5e!6hich s&ggests that oph an! kaph !i! not so&n! simila% eno&gh to the Phoenicians.)nte%estingly, the ea%liest insc%iptions of ophe?hibit a 5e%tical st%oe emanating !o6n6a%!f%om the base of a ci%cle =that is, Q> 6hich =6ith some imagination> %esembles a pe%sonstan!ing &p%ight 9see ig&%e :. A!!ing to this, the "ebanese 6o%! fo% Hstan!I =the 5e%b> is

[#$0]6hich is 6hat HophI 6o&l! so&n! lie if the [q]6as %eplace! 6ith a []. Th&s, the

o%iginal g%aphical %ep%esentation of ophs&ggests that it co&l! ha5e o%iginally %ep%esente!a pe%son stan!ing &p%ight an! this in t&%n s&ggests that oph%ep%esente! the phoneme []

8 f%om [#$0]6hich means Hstan!I.

! Fe+hali, op! cit., . 6#x.! Baker, op! cit., . ".

!9 Cowa&, op! cit., . !.


19/40


3i&re .:The Phoenician lette% oph, may ha5e been !e%i5e! f%om the 6o%! Hstan!I 8 [#$0].

&%the%mo%e, lette% 1C =ayin, o> appea%s to be a g%aphical s&bset of the ea%lie% 5a%iant oflette% 1 =a%chaic oph, Q> 6hich th&s, s&ggests a phonetic %elationship bet6een these t6olette%s 8 acco%!ing to p%e5io&sly ma!e a%g&ments. Th&s, in light of the p%opose! g%aphicalan! phonetical %elationship bet6een the Phoenician lette%s, the final asse%tion of ophas a%ep%esentati5e of the glottal stop comes f%om Pat%ic an! -%ight 6ho affi%m the close

phonetic %elationship bet6een HhamzaI 8 8 =that is, the glottal stop> an! A%abic ayin8 ;8=6hich is phonetically the same as the Phoenician ayin>.

B0

" B. Patrick, . ri+ht,Lectures on the %omparati(e #rammar of the Semitic Languages, *or+ias Press LLC, 7ew

'erse), 2""2, . !!.


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3i&re 6:+on8emphatic lette%s appea% as g%aphical s&bsets of thei% emphatic;g&tt&%al e&i5alents.

)n %esponse to the a%g&ments %ega%!ing oph, abo5e, one may 6on!e% ho6 ophco&l!

change f%om [] to [q] 6hen the alphabet 6as sp%ea! to the nea%by [q] p%ono&ncing

comm&nities. To ans6e% s&ch a &estion, one only nee!s to %emembe% ho6 the oman HhIcame to %ep%esent a silent lette% in %ench an! $panish 6hilst it came to =typically>

%ep%esent [h]in English.B1B2B


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The following will address the issue of the missing! vowels.

lassing the Phoenician alphabet as an abja! 6o&l! be an &n!e%statement, gi5en theminimal 5o6el %ep%esentation obse%5e! in the !esc%ibe! %es&lts. /n!e%stan!ing, ho6e5e%,6hy this minimisation 6as employe! is 5ital if one is to boast abo&t completely

&n!e%stan!ing the min! of the alphabets c%eato% 8 6ho &n!o&bte!ly &n!e%stoo! the %oleplaye! by 5o6els in lang&age, hence, the !elibe%ate minimisation in p%esentation. Pop&la%tho&ght s&ggests minimisation 6as !&e to the inte%est in taing a!5antage of the t%ilite%al%oot nat&%e of the $emitic lang&ages.B Alte%nati5ely, one may a%g&e that 5o6elminimisation 6as yet anothe% p%ice that nee!e! to be pai! fo% confining the alphabet to 22lette%s. Altho&gh both mo!es of tho&ght seem c%e!ible, a mo%e pla&sible e?planation maybe obtaine! by e?plo%ing the nat&%e of 5o6els in spoen lang&age.

)n e?plo%ing the nat&%e of the spoen 5o6el, it becomes clea% that fo% any pa%tic&la% 6o%! ofa gi5en lang&age, 5o6el p%on&nciation can 5a%y 6hilst consonant p%on&nciation !oes not=gene%ally speaing>. This phenomena is implicitly e?emplifie! by the song "ets all the

-hole Thing (ff 6hich cont%asts4 [t'-&me'&t)+]6ith[tu$&m($&t)+]fo% the 6o%! HtomatoI,

[b'-&n/&n8$]6ith [b'-&n)&n)] fo% the 6o%! HbananaI, [i$&7)]6ith [a'&7)] fo% the 6o%!

Heithe%I, an! so on.BBThis 5a%iation in p%on&nciation can be obse%5e! by compa%ing the!ialects of 5a%io&s cities, to6ns an! 5illages 6hich all spea the same lang&ageBC8 e5en ina %elati5ely small co&nt%y lie "ebanon. Th&s, it 6o&l! be fai% to say that, a !ialect can be!isting&ishe! by the analysis of its =spoen> 5o6els fo% any gi5en 6o%! of a gi5enlang&age. The%efo%e, minimising 5o6el %ep%esentation in sc%ipte! 6o%!s, minimises thehallma%s of a comm&nities !ialect on the sc%ipte! 6o%!s an! this in t&%n, %es&lts in a!ialect f%ee system of 6%iting. A !ialect f%ee system of 6%iting ele5ates no comm&nitys!ialect highe% than the !ialect of any othe% comm&nity an! th&s, implicitly p%omotes the!ignity an! e&ality of all =spoen> !ialects.B7This h&mble i!eology may ha5e been theg%eatest moti5ato% fo% 5o6el minimisation an! if fo&n! to be t%&e, highlights yet anothe%belief of the alphabets in5ento% an!;o% his;he% clients 8 the Phoenician people.

"iscussion

The obse%5e! %es&lts, as !esc%ibe! p%e5io&sly, clea%ly s&ggest that se5e%al Phoenicianlette%s %ep%esente! mo%e than one phoneme. Mo%e inte%estingly, as 6ell, 6as the st%ongco%%elation bet6een the Phoenician lette%s 6hich e?hibite! phonetic ambig&ity an! thee&i5alent mo!e%n A%abic lette%s. This co%%elation i!entifies e?actly 6hy se5e%al A%abic

lette%s loo the same, sa5e fo% the e?t%a !iac%itic=s> 6hich specify e?actly 6hich phonemesho&l! be p%ono&nce!. &%the%, these fin!ings !isc%e!it the pop&la% belief 6hich ass&mesthe Ma%onites of the "ebanon mo&ntains spea a !ialect of A%abic beca&se thei% mo!e%n5e%nac&la% feat&%es mo%e than the 22 phonemes s&ppose!ly allo6e! by the Phoenicianalphabet.BDMo%eo5e%, this pop&la% ass&mption al6ays appea%e! fla6e! beca&se of itsfail&%e to e?plain 6hy the "ebanese 5e%nac&la% s&ppose!ly inhe%ite! f%om A%abic, the

phonemes4 [,], [d], [z], an! [.]b&t then !i! not inhe%it f%om A%abic, the phonemes4 [6],

! %awli&so&, op! cit., Chater ; 0he Peole ; Ori+i& a&d Characteristics, &ter&et. F. 4staire, Lets Call the hole 0hi&+ Off i&'omantic Lo(e Songs Lyrics, 2"1", &ter&et,

htt=>>www.theroma&tic.com>lo6eso&+s>letscallthewholethi&+off.htm,@1


22/40


[7], an! [q]. This ass&mption also fails to e?plain ho6 the "ebanese obtaine! the

phonemes4 [*], [g], [2]an! [p]8 6hich !o not appea% in M$A 9see Table < o% Appen!i? #:.

'ence, a mo%e pla&sible e?planation 6o&l! be that, the phonics of the "ebanese5e%nac&la% ha5e not been la%gely infl&ence! by A%abic 8 o% any othe% lang&age, fo% that

matte%. )nstea!, the phonics of the "ebanese 8 in pa%tic&la%, the Ma%onites of the "ebanonmo&ntains 8 ha5e s&%5i5e! f%om the ea%liest of %eco%!e! time 8 if not ea%lie%.

Table 5:E&i5alent Phoenician an! A%abic lette%sbase! on the %es&lts p%esente! =ea%lie%>.

Phoenician Arabic !MSA" Arabic !]Lebane%e^"

a _ B F _ B F b O Og n;a d h w B Bz d d H 9 9T f fy k g gl m n Z ? j ?

o < ; < ;p \ \ OS > = > =q r Y Ys @ ? @ ?

t kK kK


23/40


onse&ently, the %es&lts !esc%ibe! p%e5io&sly mae necessa%y the %ee5al&ation of thepossible p%on&nciation of the 5a%io&s no6n =sc%ipte!> Phoenician 6o%!s. (ne implicationof this %ee5al&ation 6o&l! be the %eassessing of the o%igins of the mo!e%n A%abic lang&age.To !emonst%ate, the %es&lts !esc%ibe! ea%lie% s&ggest, the 6o%! fo% Hea%thI 8 Sra8 can

no6 be p%ono&nce! [($&red

]in Phoenician 6hich is =mo%e o% less> the same as in A%abic8 >YF. This s&ggests both A%abic an! Phoenician inhe%ite! this pa%tic&la% 6o%! f%om acommon ancesto% o% that, mo!e%n A%abic inhe%ite! this 6o%! f%om the ol!e% Phoenician 8pe%haps 5ia a 'eb%e6 o% +abataean inte%me!ia%y. ega%!less of ho6 eithe% lang&agecame to obtain this an! many othe% common 6o%!s, the A%abic %en!ition of the sc%ipte!6o%! is &n!o&bte!ly !e%i5e! f%om the Phoenician 8 the only !iffe%ences being the font=ob5io&sly> an! the !iac%itics a!!e! to the A%abic 5e%sion 9see ig&%e C:.BTh&s, it 6o&l! befai% to a%g&e that, the mo!e%n A%abic 5ocab&la%y is pa%tly inhe%ite! f%om ol!e% $emiticlang&ages an! these common 6o%!s a%e gene%ally sc%ipte! in the same 6ay only that theA%ab %en!ition a!!s !iac%itics to specify e?act p%on&nciation.

3i&re ,:Many HA%abicI 6o%!s a%e sc%ipte! e?actly lie thei% Phoenician e&i5alents, sa5e fo% the4

font, !iac%itics, an! =te%minating> ta'-marbuta=>.

9 0he 6er) moti6atio& for addi&+ diacritics i& 4rabic, ma) ha6e come from the wa&ti&+ to reser6e the GcorrectH

ro&u&ciatio& of the 6erses of the Iora& a&d>or from the Iora&ic reectio& of dualit), trilicit), or a&) otherol)t)ical &ature as emhasised b) $ura != 1"#11 G... do &ot sa) G0ri&it).H $to sa)i&+ that ...H. $ee= F. >www.mideastweb.or+>mew#ura&.df, @1


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#onclusion

)n concl&sion, the Phoenician alphabet 6as not simply an alphabet 6ith a one8to8one,lette% to phoneme %elationship. )nstea!, the Phoenician alphabet 6as a simple !e5ice 6itha %elati5ely sophisticate! nat&%e in the sense that it &tilise! lette%s 6ith a polytypical nat&%e6hilst at the same time, con5eye! to the 6o%l! the beliefs of the alphabets c%eato%.

Ideas for $elated% &uture Pro'ects

The follo6ing aims a%e an in5itation to c&%%ent an! 6o&l! be %esea%che%s of Phoenician,"ebanese an! othe% mi!!le easte%n st&!ies.

1. in! the 6o%! o%igins of the mo!e%n A%abic 5ocab&la%y then !ete%mine 6hat pe%centageis inhe%ite! f%om Phoenician, 'eb%e6, +abataean, ancient A%abic, etc.

2. in! the 6o%! o%igins of the 5a%io&s "ebanese 5e%nac&la%s then !ete%mine 6hatpe%centage is inhe%ite! f%om Phoenician, 'eb%e6, /ga%itic, A%amaic, A%abic, 3%ee, "atin,T&%ish, %ench, English, etc.

say4

[b'-dt&dt'-&k) e)n&gl'&z)9]in "ebanon, b&t then =typically> say[b'&dt'&dte)&k%l&l%m e)n&g'&l'&z'&j)9]in Egypt, b&t then =typically> say

[h%l t)&t)&%d&d%6 %l 'n&d*'&l'&z'&j)9]=p%obably> in the g&lf,

[h%l dt)&dt)&k%l&l)m )l 'n&d*li$&z'&j)9]in Mo!e%n $tan!a%! A%abic,

[t't&k/l&l/m 'n&g'&li$&z'9]in )%a, an!

[w/ k/t&r)0 n/g&l'&z'&j/9]in Mo%occo.C1C2C as

[du$ ju$ spi$k /&:)&b'k9], in Englan! =typically>

[d+) j+) sp'k )&:)&bek9], in the /$ =typically>

-" *. uckerma&&, 4bba, h) was Professor (i++i&s 0r)i&+ to 0each Kli/a to $eak Like Our Clea&i&+ Lad)E=>www.tra&sare&t.com>lear

arabic>hrases.html, @1


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[d+)w j+)w spi$k /&:8$&b'k9], in =typical, English speaing> )n!ia

[d+ j+ p'k )&;)&b'k9].CC

B. hallenge the pop&la% belief 6hich ass&mes e5e%ybo!y in the Mi!!le East spoe

A%amaic o% $y%iac befo%e the A%ab con&est. Ass&ming all Mi!!le Easte%ne%s spoeA%amaic beca&se of an A%amean o% Assy%ian con&est is no !iffe%ent to ass&ming that allMi!!le Easte%ne%s =sa5e fo% )s%aeli Je6s> spea A%abic to!ay !&e to the A%ab;)slamiccon&est.

C. $tan!a%!ise the !efinitions of lang&age, !ialect, an! accent.

7. E?plain 6hy it is pla&sible to say e5e%ybo!y =e?cl&!ing )s%aeli Je6s> f%om Mo%occo to)%a, incl&si5e, speas a !ialect of A%abic 8 e5en if the !ialects a%e &nintelligible f%om eachothe%. Also, e?plain 6hy it is pla&sible to classify the omance lang&ages as lang&ages inthei% o6n %ight %athe% than !ialects of "atin an! then e?plain 6hy s&ch a classification is nota !o&ble stan!a%! 6hen compa%e! to the H!ialects of the A%abic speaing 6o%l!I.

D. eassess the possible phonics of the /ga%itic lang&age, in light of this pape% 8especially gi5en /ga%it 6as Phoenicias neighbo&% to the no%th.

. eassess the possible phonics of the ancient 'eb%e6 lang&age, in light of this pape% 8especially gi5en ancient )s%ael 6as Phoenicias neighbo&% to the so&th.

10. Attempt to !eciphe% the yblos $yllaba%y, gi5en the fin!ings of this pape%.

11. eassess the lin bet6een Egyptian hie%oglyphics an! the Phoenician alphabet, inlight of this pape%.

-- P. (e++art), . ,@22


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Appendi( AT6enty8T6o lette% alphabets of the ancient, +o%th $emitic an! neighbo&%ing %egions.

ebre

$. Age%, 'eb%e6 in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;heb%e6.htm,=22 May 2010>.

Ancient Gree !Cretan"

$. Age%, Ancient 3%ee alphabet in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;g%ee.htm,=22 May 2010>.
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/greek.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/greek.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/greek.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/greek.htm


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Nabataean

$. Age%, +abataean abja! in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;nabataean.htm, =22May 2010>.

Parthian

$. Age%, Pa%thian sc%ipt in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;pa%thian.htm,=22 May2010>.

Samaritan

$. Age%, $ama%itan alphabet in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;sama%itan.htm,=22 May 2010>.
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm


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Syriac !E%tran&elo"

$. Age%, $y%iac sc%ipt in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;sy%iac.htm,=22 May2010>.

Syriac !Ne%torian"

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm


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Syriac !Serto"

http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm


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Appendi( )

The International Phonetic AlphabetTaen f%om4 $. Age%, English in .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld, 1D, )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;english.htm,=22 May 2010>.
http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htmhttp://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm


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En&li%h in IPA

ey:AmE Ame%ican English =3ene%al Ame%ican>, A&E A&st%alian English, %E %itish English =P>,aE ana!ian English, )%E )%ish English, +UE +e6 Uealan! English, $AE $o&th Af%icanEnglish, $cE $cottish English, -eE -elsh English


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34/40


Appendi( #The e5ol&tion of the Phoenician alphabet.

Taen f%om4 #. =enjamin> 'a%!en, The Phoenicians, Thames an! '&!son, "on!on, 1C2, p. 117.


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Appendi( "The Mo4ern Stan4ar4 Arabic Alphabet

Letter Name Glyph Vale !IPA"

alif [($]

ba' O [b]

ta' [t]

tha' [6]

(im [d*]

ha' 9 []

kha' [,]

dal [d]

dhal [7]

ra' Y [r]

zay d [z]

sin ? [s]

shin @ []

sad = [s]

dad

> [d

]ta' f [t]

za' j [z]

'ayn ; []

ghayn < [.]

fa' \ [0]

af [q]

kaf g [k]lam [l]

mim [m]

nun [n]

ha' [h]

waw B [w]

ya [j]A!apte! f%om o6an, pp. 18.

N$q$The follo6ing so&n!s =f%om abo5e> !o not occ&% in English4 [] [,]


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The ]Lebane%e Arabic^ Alphabet

Letter Name Glyph Vale !IPA"

aleph [e)]

bea

O [b]> [p]

tea [dt]

sea [s]> [dt]

zhin [*]

hea 9 []

khea [,]

da [d]

za [z]> [d]rea Y [r]

zayne d [z]

sin ? [s]> []

shin @ []> [s]

sod = [s]

dod > [d]

tah f [dt]zah j [z]

'ayn ; []

ghayn < [.]

fea \ [0]> [2]

oph []> [k]

kaf g [k]> [g]

lam [l]mim [m]

nun [n]

hea [h]

waw B [w]

lam-aleph [l)]

yea [j]


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Connectin& Arabic Letter%=A!apte! f%om o6an, pp. 182.>


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$eferences

Age%, $. .mniglot /riting Systems and Languages of the /orld$1D. )nte%net,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;english.htm, http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;heb%e6.htm ,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;g%ee.htm, http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;nabataean.htm,http4;;

666.omniglot.com;6%iting;pa%thian.htm ,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;sama%itan.htm,http4;;666.omniglot.com;6%iting;sy%iac.htm. =22 May 2010>.

Alalesi, . 0rai Phrasebook. Mc3%a6 'ill, $y!ney, 200, p. 2B.

An!ja%, ., acon, #., encheh!a, A. Moroccan Arabic Phrasebook. "onely Planet P&blications Pty"t!, *icto%ia, 1, p. 1.

Astai%e, . "ets all the -hole Thing (ff in Romantic Lo1e Songs Lyrics$2010, )nte%net,http4;;666.the%omantic.com;lo5esongs;letscallthe6holethingoff.htm. =17 May 2010>.

ae%, A. Ship or Sheep$amb%i!ge /ni5e%sity P%ess,Melbo&%ne, 200C, p. iii.

ell, J., ampbell, $. The 2omplete 0diots 3uide to the 4ook of Re1elations$Peng&in 3%o&p )nc,/$A, 2002, p.1D.

ollelo, T. -o%l! -a% )) an! )n!epen!ence in Lebanon5 A 2ountry Study. 1D7. )nte%net,http4;;co&nt%yst&!ies.&s;lebanon;21.htm. =1 May 2010>.

o%tina, . Spanish in 67 Lessons$ollins lea%8Type P%ess, "on!on, 17D, p. 20.

o&lmas, . The 4lackwell 8ncyclopedia of /riting Systems$lac6ell P&blishe%s "t!, (?fo%!,1, pp. 0180.

eghali, M. Spoken Lebanese. Pa%6ay P&blishe%s )nc., +, 1, p. 5i.

ische%, $.A #istory of /riting$eation oos "t!, "on!on, 200


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'egga%ty, P., Mag&i%e, -., McMahon, A. Accents of English f%om A%o&n! the -o%l! in The>ni1ersity of 8dinburgh$2007. )nte%net, http4;;666.so&n!compa%isons.com; . =22 May 2010>.

'aye, 3. The *adisha +alley ,rom the Depths$$$ to the Peaks. Annaha% P&blishing 'o&se, 200D,

p. D


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!" The Phoenician Alphabet Reassessed in Light of its Descendant Scripts and the Language of the Modern Lebanese

U&ce%mann, 3. Abba, -hy 6as P%ofesso% 'iggins T%ying to Teach EliFa to $pea "ie (&%leaning "a!yS4 MiF%ahim, AshenaFim, P%esc%ipti5ism an! the eal $o&n!s of the )s%aeli"ang&age in 3hil'ad 9uckermann" Associate Professor. 200B. )nte%net,http4;;666.F&ce%mann.o%g;p!f;abba.p!f. =1D May 2010>.

"ebanon in >$S$ Department of State B Diplomacy in Action. )nte%net,http4;;666.state.go5;g;!%l;%ls;i%f;2001;BC1B.htm. =1 May 2010>.

'ea% A%abic $&%5i5al Ph%ases in Transparent Language. 2010. )nte%net,http4;;666.t%anspa%ent.com;lea%n8a%abic;ph%ases.html.=1D May 2010>.

"ebanese "ang&age in a b c Leb$com. 200. )nte%net, http4;;666.abcleb.com;.=1 May 2010>.

'isto%y of "ebanon in L302" Lebanon. 200B. )nte%net,http4;;666.lgic.o%g;en;histo%yYlebanon1B1C.php. =1 May 2010>.

$a%cophage !Eshmo&naFa% )) in >?8S2. B Memory of the /orld. +o5embe% 200C. )nte%net,http4;;po%tal.&nesco.o%g;ci;en;e5.php8/"Y)#1CV/"Y#(#(YT(P)V/"Y$ET)(+201.html. =21 May 2010>.
http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/abba.pdfhttp://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5615.htmhttp://www.transparent.com/learn-arabic/phrases.htmlhttp://www.transparent.com/learn-arabic/phrases.htmlhttp://www.abcleb.com/http://www.abcleb.com/http://www.lgic.org/en/history_lebanon1516.phphttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/abba.pdfhttp://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5615.htmhttp://www.transparent.com/learn-arabic/phrases.htmlhttp://www.abcleb.com/http://www.lgic.org/en/history_lebanon1516.phphttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.htmlhttp://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=16949&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

phoenician reassessed

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