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Results, More APA. M.Educ. 6000 Session 5. Results. Are the findings presented clearly? Is sufficient detail evident in the findings?. Qualitative Studies. Examples and interpretation - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
M.Educ. 6000
Session 5
Are the findings presented clearly?
Is sufficient detail evident in the findings?
Examples and interpretation
Enough information to assess the adequacy of the finding, but not so much as so be overwhelmed by extraneous information
Were the results the researchers found likely to occur by chance alone?
This question LEADS US TO . . . . .
Descriptive statistics: describing an outcome with numbersMeasures of Central Tendency
Mean: the average ( X ) Mode: the most common Median: the middle number when the data is
put in order from least to greatestWhen should you use which measure?
Measures of VariabilityStandard Deviation (SD): a measure of how
spread out the data are; roughly, the average of how far each data point is from the mean
Range: difference between the lowest data point and the highest data point
Interquartile Range: rank order the data, split it in half and in half again, subtract the median of the bottom half from the median of the top half
Measures of AssociationCorrelation coefficient (r ) : a number between -1
and 1 that describes the relationship between two data sets r=0 if there is no relationship r=1 if there is a perfect positive relationship (as one goes
up, the other goes up a perfectly predictable amount) r=-1 if there is a perfect negative relationship (as one
goes up, the other goes down a perfectly predictable amount)
Most correlation coefficients are somewhere in betweenSquare the correlation coefficient to show how
much (%) of the second variable can be attributed to differences in the first variable. This is called the coefficient of determination.
Association does not mean Causation!
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r=.463 r=.073
What is the probability that the difference found between these samples would have occurred if there was really no difference in the total populations?
What is the probability that the differences between TWO groups has occurred by chance alone?
The way it is reported:
t(49) = 1.34, p<.05
It is likely that there is a real difference
Degrees of freedom (typically n-1)
Value calculated by the t-test
Probability that this difference is due to chance alone
What is the probability that the differences between more than two groups has occurred by chance alone?
The way it is reported:F(3,53) = 26.26, p<.001
(number of groups -1, roughly the number of subjects)
Value calculated by the ANOVA
Probability that this difference is due to chance alone
ANOVA doesn’t indicate where the differences occur, just that there is a difference
Researchers must then pair the means to find the differences
Like ANOVA but some covariate (something that is in common between the two groups) is statistically held constant when the comparison is calculated.
For example: comparing the achievement level of different schools with SES held constant
Comparisons when data can’t be averaged Nonparametric: without assumptions about
the shape of the data distribution
The way it is reported:Χ2 (2, N=120) = 12.39, p=.002
(number of groups -1, number of subjects)
Value calculated by the statistic
Probability that this difference is due to chance alone
Method used to develop a predictive equation based on the relationship between two variables
Multiple regression is when two or more variables are used to predict another variable using an equation
Confidence interval: accuracy band around the predicted scores.
When a difference is found that appears unlikely to have occurred by chance, that difference is identified as being statistically significant. It does not mean the difference is important, crucial, or practically significant.
Effect size: a standard measure of the size of the differenceStandardized mean difference effect size: difference between means divided by the standard deviation
Use figures forNumbers 10 and aboveNumbers in an abstract Number that immediately precede a unit of
measurementNumbers that represent statistical or
mathematical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles and quartiles
Numbers that represent time; dates; ages; sample, subsample or population size; specific numbers of subjects or participants in an experiment; scores and points on a scale, exact sums of money; and numerals.
Numbers that denote a specific place in a series, parts of books and tables, and each number in a list of four or more numbers. Grade 3 (but third grade) Row 5
3.31 (p. 111)
Use words to expressNumbers below 10Number beginning a title, sentence, or headingCommon fractionsUniversally accepted usage
The Five Pillars of Islam The Ten Commandments
Combine words and numbersBack to back modifiers (unless it’s more clear to
write out both words 3 two-way interactions
4.32 (p. 112)
Ordinal numbersTreat ordinal numbers (first, 12th) as you would
the cardinal base (one, 12) Plurals of numbers
Add an s or es alone, without an apostrophe 1960s Fours and sixes
Use a CommaBetween elements in a series of three of
more items (including before and and or)To set off a clause that embellishes a
sentence but if removed would leave the grammatical structure and meaning of the sentence intact (nonrestrictive clause).
To separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction
4.03 (p. 88)
Use a Comma (continued)To set off the year in exact datesTo set off the year in parenthetical
reference citationsTo separate groups of three digits in
most number of 1,000 or more
DON’T use a CommaBefore a clause that limits or defines the
material it modifies (restrictive clause). Removal of such a clause from the sentence would alter the intended meaning
Between two parts of a compound predicateTo separate parts of measurement
Use a SemicolonTo separate two independent clauses that
are not joined by a conjunctionTo separate elements in a series that
already contain commas
3.03 (p. 80)
Use a ColonBetween a grammatically complete
introductory clause and a final phrase of clause that illustrates, extends, or amplifies the preceding thought.
In ratios and proportions In references between the place of publication
and publisher
4.05 (p. 90)
DON’T use a ColonAfter an introduction that is not a complete
sentence
Use a DashTo indicate only a sudden interruption in the
continuity of a sentence. Overuse weakens the flow of material.
Use Quotation MarksTo introduce a word or phrase used as an ironic
comment, as slang, or as an invented or coined expression. Use quotation makes the first time the word or phrase is used; thereafter, do not use quotation marks.
To set off the title of an article or chapter in a periodical or book when the title in mentioned in text.
To reproduce material exactly
4.07 (p. 91)
DON’T use Quotation MarksTo identify anchors of a scale (italicize)To cite a letter, word, phrase, or sentence
as a linguistic example (italicize)To introduce a technical or key term
(italicize)To hedge
4.07 (p. 91)
Use ParenthesesTo set off structurally independent elementsTo set off reference citations in textTo introduce an abbreviationTo set off letters in a series (a), (b)To group mathematical expressionsTo enclose statistical values
4.09 (p. 93)
DON’T use ParenthesesTo enclose materials within other
parentheses [use brackets]Back to back
Use a SlashTo clarify a relationship in which a
hyphenated compound is usedFor some units of measurement , per (e.g.
m/s)To set off English phonemesTo cite a republished work in text
DON’T use a SlashWhen a phrase would be clearerFor simple comparisonsMore than once to express compound units
4.11 (p. 95)
Capitalize . . . Words beginning a sentence Major words of titles of books and articles
within the body of the paper (but not the reference list
Proper nouns Nouns followed by numerals or letters that
denote a specific place in a numbered series Titles of tests
When a capitalized word is hyphenated, capitalize both words
4.14, p. 101
Use italics for Titles of books, periodicals, films, videos, TV
shows Genera, species, varieties Introduction of a new, technical, or key term
or label A letter, word, or phrase cited as a linguistic
example Words that could be misread Statistical symbols or algebraic variables Journal volume numbers in the reference list Anchors of a scale
4.21, p. 104
Use abbreviations sparingly. Communication can be garbled rather than clarified if the abbreviation is unfamiliar to the reader.
Abbreviations introduced and then used fewer than three times thereafter in a long paper, may be difficult for a reader to remember
See pp. 107-109 for common abbreviation and abbreviations used as words.
4.22, p. 106
Read Chapters 6 and 7 Bring rough draft of Literature Review,
highlighters (multiple colors), scissors, and tape