sailing and seamanship

8/14/2019 Sailing and Seamanship

1/55

1

1

SAILING AND SEAMANSHIPBy Capt. Ron Glendinning

1 Introduction

This course has two phases: a series of 10 lessons giving you the background material that can be learnedwithout much practical experience. When you cruise on Keewatin, you will be able to put much of your background learningto use and you will develop additional practical skills; marlinespike seamanship (knotting), steering by compass, piloting incoral waters by eye, dinghy work, skin-diving, swabbing decks, etc. You will then fill out what you have learned in these

pages.

The objective of the course is to give you enough basic knowledge and practical experience to enable youto go cruising on a small sailing yacht, and to conduct your cruise with the maximum of safety and enjoyment. Therefore,the 10 lessons include, beside the basic elements of sailing, enough practical knowledge of chart and compass, tides, anchors

and anchoring, the Rules of the Road, management in heavy weather, etc. Hopefully, the information will keep you out oftrouble, or at least, to get you out of trouble if you manage to foul up somehow.

Much more detail on coastal and electronic navigation is given in our second course; the one you shouldtake before you undertake any longer cruises in waters completely unfamiliar to you. That course provides more detail on

publications available to the mariner, more advanced chart work and some techniques of electronic navigation. However,unless youve had a fair bit of experience, the present course is the right one for you. So lets get underway. We hope thatyou will have fun with this course and learn something as well.

The schooner Keewatin


2/55


3/55

3

3

Metal construction, usually steel or aluminum, is less commonly found in small yachts, although steel is the materialfrom which ships are built. Metal construction closely follows the method used in wood construction; keel and frames areconstructed and set up and plating is bonded to these in the place of planking. Metal hulls are very strong but corrosion issometimes a problem. Steel hulls influence the ships compass to a great extent making it necessary to employ an expert toovercome this effect.

Ferro-cement is becoming increasingly popular as a material for building hulls. It is a type of steel-reinforcedconcrete. The metalwork creates the form of the hull: rods and mesh laid over a wooden jig. The rods and mesh are tied

together with wire, making a thin metal framework that is subsequently plastered with special concrete. Toweling attains asmooth finish. The finished hull is lighter than you would imagine since the thickness of the metal and concrete may be lessthan one inch. The method is suitable for amateur construction with the result that a fair number of ugly vessels have been

produced. However, when properly designed and built, the boats are strong and seaworthy.

Types of Rig

The term rig refers to the particular arrangement of masts and sails found on a sailing vessel. We will restrict ourdiscussion to those rigs seen on yachts. The rigs of large sailing ships are very complex and these days are of interest only tonautical historians. Ships use square rigs predominantly. These sails are rectangular and are supported from spars calledyards that are mounted from their centers on the masts and are free to swing. By adjusting the braces that control the yards,the sails can be pointed almost straight ahead (to go to windward) or across the vessel (running free).

Yachts almost always use a fore and aft rig in which the sails are supported at their forward edges by masts or stays.

Gaff and Bermudan Rigs: these terms essentially describe the shape of the mainsail of the yacht.

Gaff Rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig named for a spar known as a gaff. The sail is quadrilateral, the upper side ofwhich, is called the head, and is laced to the gaff. Two separate ropes called halyards raise the gaff. The forward end of thegaff has jaws that partially encircle the mast and are secured with a lanyard and parrell ball, allowing the gaff to pivot throughnearly 180 degrees without coming away from the mast.

Bermudan Rig is also known as Marconi or jibheaded rig. It is the most common rig in these days of the pursuit ofthe ultimate in efficiency. Most yachts are designed to win races and races are usually won on the windward leg when abilityto point close the wind and make a good speed on that point of sailing is important. Since Bermudan rig is more efficient onthe wind, the gaff rig is never seen today on racing yachts. Note that because the Bermudan rig is more efficient when goingto windward, it does not necessarily mean that it is more efficient on all points of sailing. There is a good deal to be said for

the gaff rig when the wind is from the side or behind the boat. In these cases, gaff rig may be more efficient.

Interestingly, the Bermudan rig is probably more ancient than the gaff rig since it derives from a sail shape calledleg-o-mutton that can be seen today on the Bahamian conching smacks and on some classic Dutch yachts.

Rigs and Rigging

Spars

Continuing with the parts of the boat with which you ought to be familiar, well point out some features of the spars.Spares are poles that support the sails. Mast: everybody knows what a mast is. Keewatin, being a schooner, has two of themThe shorter one toward the bow, is the foremast and the taller one aft is the mainmast. With the gaff rig, a smaller pole issometimes found fastened to the top of a mast and supports a small sail called a topsail. The pole is called a topmast.

Keewatin has one of these on the mainmast.

The masts of a gaff-rigged vessel are usually shorter and thicker than those of a Bermudan rig if the sail areas areequal. Also, they are commonly solid wood, either laminated structures or the hearts of whole trees. Today, most Bermudanmasts are made of extruded aluminum.

Boom: a spar to which the foot of some sails is fastened. The boom is joined to the mast by a pivoting fitting calledthe gooseneck.

Gaff: another spar, at the head of a gaff sail, as already described.


4/55

4

4

Bowsprit: a pole extending over the bow of some vessels. These days the bowsprit is secured permanently to thevessel, but in the old days of sail, the bowsprit could be run in on deck. The purpose of the spar is to extend the base of thesail plan, allowing more sail to be set.

Standing Rigging

This is the rigging, usually of wire rope, which supports the masts and once set up, rarely needs adjustment. Thewires which run from the sides of the vessel, where they are fastened to metal straps called chain plates by adjustable rigging

screws called turnbuckles or by deadeyes and lanyards (system of blocks and tackle without sheaves) are known as shrouds.

Those rigging wires, that run parallel to the centerline of the boat, are called stays. There is one from the bow tonear the top of the mast called a forestay. On a sloop, there may be one from the masthead to the stern called a backstay.Two masted vessels naturally have more complicated rigging, including at least two stays from the forward masthead, one tothe bow, and the other to the outboard end of the bowsprit. This outer stay is the jib stay. This arrangement is found onKeewatin. On vessels with more than one mast, there are also stays between the upper parts of the masts. On Keewatin theyare known as the spring stay and the topmast stay.

There is one type of backstay that can be, and is, adjusted rapidly and often. This is called the running backstay.There is one of these on each side of the mast, running to each quarter. These are usually setup by means of block and tackle

purchases. Running backstays are often found on gaff-rigged vessels, where the presence of the gaff makes it impossible toinstall a permanent backstay.

Running Rigging

This is the most important part of the rigging as far as actually sailing the vessel is concerned. Constant attentionmust be given to the running rigging when underway and the sailor must be familiar with the use of every item of it.

Halyards are the lines that raise and lower the sails. A Bermudan sail has one halyard of either rope or wire, usuallythe latter. It runs through a pulley at the masthead; the pulley wheel or sheave being inserted into a slot cut right through themast in a fore-and-aft direction so that the halyard runs up the front of the mast and down the back.

To get the sail up really tight, some kind of purchase is necessary on the halyard. Today, this usually is a winch thattakes up the wire on a reel and is geared to provide a strong pull on the halyard when the handle is turned. Winches areexpensive. On gaff-rigged vessels of any size, the halyards are composite tackle systems consisting of two or more parts ofline rigged to provide a mechanical advantage of two, three or even four. Also, the final tightening of the halyard is

accomplished by swaying or passing the line around a hook on deck so that one man may pull the line at right angles to itsdirection while another man takes the slack up on a belaying pin or cleat.

Halyards are named for the sails they hoist. Thus we have the main halyard, the jib halyard, etc. Gaff sails have twohalyards. The throat halyard hoists the forward end of the gaff next the mast while the peak halyard hoists the after end of thegaff where the peak of the sail is secured.

The Topping Lift

This is a line that runs from the end of a boom to a point high on the mast and back down to a cleat or belaying pin.Its sole purpose is to support the boom when the sail is not hoisted. When sails are being set, the boom is lifted above its atrest position. Consequently, the sail does not take the weight of the boom until it is hoisted and set.

Sheets

The sheets of a sailing vessel are much like the gearshift and throttle of an automobile. They are, with the wheel ortiller, the controls of the vessel. Most of the art of sailing is concerned with the proper way to handle the sheets. Naturally,you already know that the sheets are not the sails. They are the lines that control the positions of the sails.

In a sloop, you have only two sheets: the main sheet and the jib sheets. In a schooner, you also have a foresail sheet,a jumbo or staysail sheet and a topsail sheet.


5/55

5

5

The Mainsheet

The mainsheet is almost always a block and tackle arrangement with a fairly high mechanical advantage. There areusually not less than four parts of rope taking the strain and on larger vessels, six parts or more.

The purpose of the sheet is to control the position of the boom and with it, the sail. To achieve this, the sheet isrigged in various ways, sometimes to a traveler on deck (a rod or track that allows the tackle to slide from side to side andalign it more nearly with the booms angle). From the traveler it is led to a block or blocks on the boom and back to the deck

or on very small boats to the helmsman. The boom pivots at the mast and is free to swing over an arc of almost 180 degrees.

The foresail sheet of a schooner and the mizzen sheet of a ketch or yawl are rigged in a similar fashion to themainsheet although it may be of lesser power. A somewhat similar arrangement may also be found on those staysails or

jumbos that have booms. See Fig. 1-1 for a typical mainsheet arrangement.


6/55

6

6

Jib sheets

There are two jib sheets, both fastened at the same point on the sail, which is called the clew and is the lower aftercorner of the triangular sail. One sheet passes down the starboard side of the boat and the other down the port side where itangles down to the deck and passes through a block or fairlead. In small vessels, there is no mechanical advantage providedwhile larger jibs require two or three part tackle arrangements or lead to a winch near the helmsman.

Only one sheet is in use at a time. The unused sheet, the one on the windward side of the boat is left slack. Whentacking, turning the boat so that the wind comes from the other side, the sheet in use is released and the other is hauled in andmade fast. At times, the jib is held aback, or not allowed to attempt to fill on the new tack so that the bow of the boat isforced around until the wind is on the desired side of the vessel.

Sails

The development of Dacron, or Terylene as it is called in Britain, has had a great impact on sails and sailors. Notonly are sails now made from this material but rope is spun from it as well. It is chosen for sheets and halyards since it isextremely strong and long lasting. Nylon is another material used; not for sails except for every small or very light ones, butfor rope where its qualities of strength and the ability to stretch make it very popular for anchor and dock lines.

Sails used to be made of cotton that requires special attention when new so that they could be broken in properly.

Also, cotton shrinks when wet, so constant attention had to be given it. Cotton mildews but Dacron does not shrink, mildewor stretch appreciably and is smoother than cotton so that the wind passes more easily over it. It is less permeable thannatural fibers so air does not pass through the weave of the material..

Names of Sails

Headsails: all sails set forward of the forward mast.

Staysails: any sail set fastened to a stay. Sails set without being fastened to a stay are said to be set flying.

Jib: The single headsail of a sloop and he outer most sail on rigs with two or more headsails.

Staysail: this term usually refers specifically to the inner of two headsails. In Nova Scotia, this sail is called the

Jumbo. It often has a boom at its foot.

Mainsail: the sail set on the mainmast.

Foresail: the sail set on the foremast of a schooner.

Mizzen: the sail set on the mizzenmast of a ketch or yawl.

Topsail: a triangular sail above the gaff on a topmast.

Fisherman staysail: a quadrilateral sail set between the main and foremasts of a schooner.

A large variety of other sails with many names such as ballooner, genoa, mizzen staysail, spinnaker etc. exist.

Parts of the Sails

A three-sided sail, i.e.: a Bermudan mainsail or mizzen, or a jib or staysail, has three sides and three corners.

Sides: The front edge is called the luff. This runs up the mast on a mainsail and up a stay on a staysail and usually on a jib.

The bottom edge is called the foot; running along the boom on a boomed sail and loose on others.

The trailing or after edge of the sail is called the leech. On Bermudan or triangular sails, the leech,is usually rounded and thin pieces of wood or plastic that are called battens are inserted into pockets in the sail to keep theleech flat.


7/55

7

7

Corners: The top corner is called the head. The halyard fastens here.

The forward bottom corner is called the tack, attached to the gooseneck.

The trailing or after bottom corner is called the clew which is lashed to the endof the boom.

Gaff sails: the only difference is that there are two corners to the top or head of the sail. The corner attached to thegaff at the jaws at the mast is called the throat. (Hence throat halyards). The after corner at the end of the gaff is called thepeak. (Hence peak halyards.

Securing the Sails to the Rigging

Staysails and most jibs attach to their stays by clips called hanks that have a spring-loaded release so that the sailmay be attached or released quickly.

Bermudan mainsails and mizzens usually have a track up the after edge of the mast, and slides are fastened to theluff on the sail. The slides are inserted into the track from below, at the bottom end of the track, there is usually a stop ofsome sort so that once all the slides are in the track, they wont fall out when the sail is lowered.

Some small Bermudan-rigged boats have a groove cut in the back of the mast in which the boltrope on the luff of the

sail runs. This is not a very good rig on larger boats.

Gaff rigged vessels cannot have tracks and slides because the heel of the gaff presses against the back of the mast.This would damage the track, as well as interfering with the movement of the gaff. Some small boats have the gaff runningin a track as well as the sail, but this most un-seaworthy owing to the stresses involved.

Gaff sails are secured to the mast either by hoops that encircle the mast and are fastened to the luff of the sail, or bya lacing; a line passed around the mast and through the grommets in the luff of the sail. This is the arrangement used onKeewatin.

Conclusion

By now, you ought to be completely swamped in terms. But, believe it or not, you have been introduced to only the

essential ones. We will have to use other ones as we go along but we promise that you wont be inundated with jargon at thesame rate in the future. It is difficult to explain sailing and seamanship to you without you being aware of the termsinvolved.

There is nothing like a first hand acquaintance with the parts of a boat to make their names easy to remember. Bythe end of your second day on Keewatin you may sound a bit like Long John Silver yourself.

The general Properties belonging to the common Mariner is to hand, reef, steer, Knot and Splice, with which Qualificationshe may safely value himself upon the Calling of a good Seaman.

A Naval Repository, 1761.


8/55

8

8


9/55

9

9

SAILING AND SEAMANSHIPLESSON TWO

Introduction

Now lets get sailing. Well first look at the theory of sailing and examine the all-important concept of the points ofsailing and look closely at two of these points, reaching and running. We can finish off with the maneuver called the jibe;

how not to do it and then how to do it properly.

A couple of terms first:

Windward or weather side: the side of the boat toward the direction wind comes from.

Leeward or lee side: the other side of the boat.

The Theory of Sailing

Points to Note

1. When sailing to windward, close-hauled, the ideal sail combination acts very much like an airfoil with a slot to

ensure that the air moves without turbulence across the back of the sail.2. The jib tends to guide the air across the back of the mainsail or in the case of a rig with multiple sails across

the back of the sail immediately aft of it, producing greater efficiency in it. The modern preference is for largejibs called genoa jibs that are very efficient at this task and posses a large driving force of their own.

3. When sailing to windward, very little of the force of the wind is used to drive the boat forward. Most of theforce is lost in friction on the sail and between the hull and the water and some produces leeway, a sidewaysmovement of the boat away from the wind. All boats make some amount of leeway when going to windward,especially if there is a sea running, for the waves tend to knock the boats head down to leeward.

4. As the boat is steered farther off the wind, that is, not to windward, but at right angles to the wind, the relativeefficiency of the sails increases and leeway becomes negligible. It follows that this is the most efficient point ofsailing. When sailing off the wind in this way, the boat is said to be on a reach.

5. When running directly before the wind, the airfoil property of the sails is not in evidence and the airfoil shape isnot necessary. A large sheet of plywood of the same area as the sail would be just as efficient in propelling the

boat; in fact, it would probably be more efficient.

The Points of Sailing

This diagram on the following page illustrates various possible relationships that can exist between thesailing vessel and the wind. These are called Points of Sailing.


10/55

10

10

Points of Sailing 2-1

Lets start at the upper right-hand side of the diagram Fig.2-1, at point No. 1. The wind comes over the port (left)side of the boat, so the boat is said to be on the Port Tack. Here we see a vessel that is closehauled or on the wind or beating.The boat is shown sailing on a course that is at 45 degrees to the direction from which the wind comes. A modernBermudan-rigged sloop ought to be able to point that close to the wind or higher if there is not much sea running. In this

point of sailing, the sheets are pulled in quite tightly, and the sails lie almost parallel to the fore-and-aft line of the boat.

When the boat is allowed to fall of a little (pointed away from the wind slightly), so that it steers a course some 20 or30 degrees further away from the direction of the wind, it is said to be on a close reach. This point of sailing is not illustratedin the diagram but it falls between positions 1 and 2. The sheets are eased somewhat and the vessel makes a little betterspeed through the water.

When the boat is steered to bring the wind over the side of the vessel and at right angles to the course steered, it issaid to be on a beam reach. The sheets are eased still more and the boat moves faster.

When the boat is steered to bring the wind anywhere from on the beam to a dead run (the wind directly aft), the boatis said to be on a broad reach. The sheets are eased still more. This is thought to be the fastest point of sailing.

Position 4 on the diagram shows a boat dead before the wind. It is said to be running or on a run. If nothing is doneto the jib, it will flap idly, as the mainsail steals all the wind from it or blankets it. On the diagram, it is shown held out onthe side opposite the mainsail by a boom or a pole (whisker pole). The sheets are eased as far as possible.

On a run, it is evident that it does not matter which side the sails are set on; one side is as good as another (if thewind is dead aft). On the diagram, the mainsail is shown set on the starboard side, so the wind is said to be coming from the

port side and the boat is on the port tack. However, when running, it is possible to pull the mainsail and boom over to theother side. This operation is called a jibe (gybe) in England) and then the boat would be said to be on the starboard tack.

If we assume that a jibe has been performed and the boat is steered as shown in position 5, then we are back on abroad reach but on the starboard tack. The diagram illustrates, on the left side, a broad reach, a beam reach and closehauledon the starboard tack.

Those are the points of sailing. You can see that a sailing vessel must be on one of those points at any time.


11/55

11

11

Reaching

Probably the best way for a beginner to learn to steer a boat under sail is to put the boat on a reach. Then let him sitat the wheel or tiller until he gets the knack of keeping the boat headed towards a landmark or on a set compass coursewithout too much use of the helm.

Reaching is undoubtedly the most pleasant point of sailing. On the wind you are always watching to take advantageof wind shifts and steering into a head sea is uncomfortable and sometimes wet. When on a run, you are usually fighting the

boats tendency to yaw, to swing off course. Also you are watching for an accidental jibe. Not too much can go wrong on areach; the boat is not being pressed over by the wind and steering across the waves is dry and comfortable.

The exact positions of the sheets when reaching depends upon, which reach you are on. In other words, the exactangle between the wind and the boats course.

NOTE: The rule for a close reach to a beam reach, with the wind anywhere forward of the beam, is to ease thesheets until the luff of the sails just begin to shake (called luffing) and then pull in on the sheets until the luffing ceases. Thiswill usually result in a good sail balance and the helm will feel light and responsive. This condition will eliminate a tendencyfor the boat to head up into the wind (called having a weather helm), or to fall off onto a broach reach (called having a leehelm).

The problem with having a badly balanced helm in either direction (a-weather or a-lee), is that you must constantlyfight the boats tendency to swing off course either into the wind or away from it. Aside from being tiring, this also has the

effect of acting as a brake and slowing the boat since the rudder is constantly on one side or the other rather than at deadcenter.

If a strong weather helm is experienced, it usually means that the mainsheet has been sheeted in too much. Easingthe sheet will ease the helm. If not, it may be necessary to sheet in the jib to balance the rig or shorten sail. This will usuallyresult in a better-balanced helm but it will decrease the efficiency of the jib. Only experience will tell you whether this is

better than putting up with the increased drag of the rudder as it counteracts the badly balanced sail plan.

The more sails you have, the better you can balance your boats helm. A schooners jib is not as large a proportionof the total sail area as is a sloops. Decreasing its efficiency by sheeting it in is not, therefore, as great a detriment to speed.Also, we can set either a larger or smaller jib, in some cases, to assist in balancing the helm.

NOTE: With the wind abaft the beam, the correct position of the sheets is such that the average position of the sail

from head to foot (the sail twists outwards slightly from foot to head) is at right angles to the apparent wind. The apparentwind is the wind direction as felt on board the boat. The apparent winds direction can be seen by watching ribbons(telltales) tied to the shrouds or a wind vane or pennant at the masthead. The apparent winds direction is not greatlydifferent from that of the true wind direction. It is simply the direction of the true wind plus the effect of the boatsmovement through the air. The apparent winds direction is always forward of the true winds direction; so on a broad reach,the sails ought to be sheeted in a bit more than you would expect from watching the direction of the true wind on the water.

Running

A run is a course directly before the wind, or nearly so. It is the slowest point of sailing for a modern yacht,although older boats may do as badly when close-hauled. A run was the desirable point of sailing for the square-riggedsailing ships, since their sails were designed to act mainly as vast areas of canvas set directly across the wind and not used asairfoils.

The correct adjustment of the mainsheet when running is that which allows the average position of the sail (fromhead to foot), to be at right angles to the wind. When running before the wind, the true and apparent wind have the samedirection but the apparent wind has a velocity of less than the true wind by an amount equal to the boats forward speed.Makes sense, doesnt it?

The mainsail of a Bermudan-rigged sloop when running establishes a large difference in angle between the clew andthe head. The upper part tends to be blown forward. The optimum sheeting arrangement is such that the average position ofthe sail (about half way up) is at right angles to the winds direction.

As the wind increases in strength, there is a tendency for the upper part of the sail to be blown even farther toleeward. This usually causes the boom to lift vertically and effectively reduces the area of the sail and slows the boat. This


12/55

12

12

can be controlled and the sail area effectively increased by the use of what is known as a vang. A vang is a tackle or a springor hydraulically loaded spar that is set up between some point on the boom and the base of the mast at deck level. When thistackle is hove taut (sorry, that means pulled tight: Long John Silver strikes again!), the boom is pulled downwards. The sailthen flattens and pulls the gaff aft a bit, decreasing the angle between it and the boom. This increases the sail area and speed.A vang is a standard piece of gear on racing boats for that reason.

Vangs can also be seen on schooners. In fact, they were used even aboard the old fishing schooners that sailed to theGrand Banks. The Bluenose, the Nova Scotian fishing schooner, sports a monstrous tackle under her main boom that can

be fitted to a large ringbolt in the rail of the vessel near the mast and hove taut. In the Lunenburg dialect, this is called awang. This is not surprising since they say things like werry good wessel. The main boom of the Bluenose is 85 feetlong and about 2 feet thick, so the tackle and the crew have to be large.

When running, the jib is commonly blanketed by the mainsail and does no work. On most racing and some cruisingboats, the jib is often set on the opposite side of the boat from the mainsail and held out by a whisker pole. One end of thepole clips onto a fitting on the forward side of the mast and the other end has a point that is pushed through the clew fitting onthe jib. Then the weather jib sheet is pulled taught and the jib acts like a miniature mainsail in the free wind on the sideopposite the mainsail.

Racing boats always set a triangular sail made of nylon called a spinnaker when running and often on a reach. Thespinnaker is a large spectacular sail set flying; that is, not fastened to a spar or stay. On the weather corner of the sail,however, a boom called a spinnaker boom, runs to the fore side of the mast. Various lifts, downhauls and guys control the

boom. The spinnaker is not usually seen on the average short-handed cruising yacht since a good deal of muscle is needed to

handle a large spinnaker. On larger racing yachts, the spinnaker is several thousand square feet in area and the half-dozenfore deck hands resemble gorillas in size.

When on a dead run, schooners often set their mainsail on one side and the foresail on the other. The jib and jumboare pretty well blanketed, but this technique presents a lot of area to the wind. Usually, vangs or preventers are rigged to holdthe booms in position. When running this way, schooners are said to be wing and wing or wung out.

The Jibe

Accidental

One of the dangers to look out for when running is letting the boat wander off course to the extent that the windbegins to come over the side of the boat that the boom is out on. This is called sailing by the lee. When this occurs, the windgets in front of the mainsail instead of behind it where it ought to be and blows the sail, gaff, and boom over to the opposite

side of the boat with impressive speed and a dreadful crash. This is called an accidental jibe and unwary sailors have beenkilled in this way. The boom is a formidable weapon, even in a small boat. On a large boat, it is devastating. The main

boom on Keewatin is a piece of solid wood 6 thick and 25 long. While cruising downwind, every person on deck must beaware of the booms stability or lack of it and take the necessary precautions. On board Keewatin, the main boom is abovehead level but the fore boom is not and is always rigged with a preventer when on a long run. In addition to the dangers ofthe booms, the sheets fly across the decks and may entwine an unwary sailor and carry him overboard.

There is a strong tendency for the boom, sail, and gaff to lift during an accidental jibe. In gaff rigs, this usuallybreaks the jaws of the gaff and on Bermudan rigs, entangles the sail with the masts standing rigging, tearing the sail andoften breaking the gooseneck on the boom. If a running backstay is set up, it- can break that as well and has been known to

bring down the mast. Moral: dont jibe accidentally!

One always has some warming before such a catastrophe occurs. As soon as sailing by the lee begins the jib and

jumbo jibe, before the main. Thus, when you see this, its time to put the helm down and bring the wind over to the properside of the boat. If you dont notice the headsails jibing, the main booms slight lifting is often a warning. You are then veryclose to a jibe.

The very best way to prevent such a jibe is not to sail by the lee. The next best way is to secure the boom in positionso that it cant jibe. If the vang is fastened to the side of the vessel, rather than to the base of the mast, it will prevent a jibe.Another way is to fastened a line from the end of the boom to some point on the boat forward of the mast. This is known as a

preventer or a boom guy. It is an invaluable piece of gear anytime you are sailing with the wind abaft the beam. Not onlydoes it prevent jibes when running, it acts as a vang and flattens the sail when reaching, increasing the sail area and lesseningthe possibility of the upper part of the sail chafing on some part of the standing rigging.


13/55

13

13

The Intentional Jibe

Executed purposely, the jibe is a maneuver in which the boat is turned with her stern passing through the eye of thewind. As we have seen, doing this without attending to the sails and sheets is dangerous and can have disastrous results.

The trick in executing a safe jibe is to trim in the mainsheet. The crew then takes a half turn around a cleat or pin orbollard. When the boom comes over on the new tack, there is very little sheet out and the mainsheet crew, keeping the boomunder full control, may ease the sheet gradually.

Jibing the Keewatin

Lets jibe the Keewatin: were on a broad reach on the starboard tack with the sails out to port. We decide to alterour course some 90 degrees to port and we know, therefore, that our point of sailing after completing the jibe will be a broadreach on the port tack. It will be necessary to jibe.

We have four sails to manage: the jib, the jumbo or staysail, the foresail and the mainsail, each with its sheet to tend.Also we have the running backstays and we need someone at the wheel. If we have a large crew, we can put a man on eachsheet and two on the mainsheet. Another is necessary for the backstays and another to steer. We will assume that the wind ismoderate.

The skipper calls ready to jibe and the helmsman turns the wheel so that Keewatin alters course to port but not somuch that she goes into a dead run; we must keep the wind slightly on the starboard side so that we dont accidentally jibe

before we are ready.

At this point, the sailors haul in on the sheets. The jib probably needs to be trimmed only slightly, but the other sailsshould be trimmed pretty well right in. When this is done, the helmsman is hard pressed to maintain a steady course since theweather helm increases considerably. When the sails are trimmed in (and this is hard work for the men on the mainsheet), thesheets are made fast to the belaying pins or to the after sampson posts where the main is secured. The main sheet is not quitemade fast but given sufficient turns on the post so that the crewman can readily control it. In a small boat, it is possible tohold the sheet in ones hand, as the boom comes over, but not in a large boat. When the main boom is sheeted well in, theman on the backstays can set up the port stay and prepare to release the starboard backstay.

The skipper calls jibe Ho and the helmsman slowly puts the helm up, (turns to port, in this instance). As the boatturns downwind, the sails will jibe and the booms will come over without any problem, since the sheets are well in. Thehelmsman, however, will be hard pressed to settle the schooner on the new course until the sheets are adjusted and the set of

the sails is corrected for the new course. As the main boom comes over, the man on the backstays releases the stay on thestarboard side, which is now the lee side. Then the sheets can be released slowly as the boat settles on the new heading andtrimmed for best efficiency.

When short handed, the actions may be done in sequence. The jib may be ignored until the jibe is completed. Thejumbo or staysail sheet need not be hauled in tight, since the boom wont harm anything as it jibes unless you happen to bestanding on the foredeck with other things on your mind! The foresail should be hauled in fairly tightly and the main has to

be sweated in. After the jibe, the sheets are eased on the new tack in reverse order; the main first and finally the jib sheetschanged. The weather sheet is eased and the lee sheet trimmed and made fast.

If Keewatin had been running with the foresail wung out on the starboard side, jibing that sail would have beenunnecessary as it would have already been in position for reaching on the new tack.

Jibing a sloop or a cutter is identical to jibing a schooner except that you at least have fewer sails to worry about.

Nothing to it with a little practice: youll soon be jibing Keewatin back and forth easy as pie.


14/55

14

14

SAILING AND SEAMANSHIP

LESSON THREEIntroduction

In this lesson well look at sailing to windward, closehauled, and the operation of tacking.

Sailing to Windward

The average small cruising yacht with a Bermudan rig will sail as close as 45 degrees to the direction of the truewind, providing that there is not a big sea running to knock her off course. A gaff rig is less efficient and a small cruiser withthis rig will probably not point closer than 50-55 degrees while a gaff schooner like Keewatin is happiest about 60 degrees tothe wind direction.

Sailing to windward calls for the utmost in helmsmanship, for even in the Trade Winds, the wind strength anddirection are not constant. It is the job of the helmsman to take advantage of every shift and puff to work the boat up towindward and to avoid being set down to leeward during adverse shifts and lulls in the wind. Therefore, when sailing toweather, the helmsman steers more by the wind and sails than by the compass.

The trim of the sheets, when sailing to weather, is usually a one time operation and then largely forgotten, since theboat itself is steered to ensure that the proper angle between the wind and the sails is maintained. This is in contrast to theprocedure when reaching. On a reach, the boat is put on the desired course; the sails trimmed accordingly and adjusted as

conditions change.

It is important that the sails are not sheeted in too tightly. This is one of a beginners greatest failings, trimming tooflat and trying to point too close to the wind. This is usually called pinching. The sails do not luff and the boat appears to bemoving, but feels lifeless. Easing the sheets a bit and heading the boat off the wind a little will improve her performanceconsiderably.

Usually, the jib is trimmed most carefully and set so that the first indication that the boat is pinching, is thebeginning of a luff on the jib. Watch the jib closely, a few feet above the tack, close to the stay. As the boat comes too closeto the wind, the sailcloth will begin to tremble and bulge inwards a bit as the wind begins to get around to the wrong side ofthe sail. This is the time for the helmsman to put the helm up slightly and turn the boats head downwind, keeping the jib fulland drawing. While racing, this is what a helmsman does constantly. Many skippers sit to leeward when sailing towindward, the better to watch the jib.

Only practice makes perfect helmsmen!

Tacking

We are all aware that sailing directly to windward is impossible. Using a maneuver called tacking; however, avessel can sail to a destination that is to windward though not directly. As is obvious to you by now, it does this by headingas closely into the wind as it can on one tack, then turns through the wind and sails closehauled on the other tack and so on,thus zigzagging back and forth, getting closer to the destination each time. The distance traveled in tacking to a destinationthat is directly to windward will be approximately three times that of a direct course.

Tacking the Boat

This is an easier and safer procedure than jibing in a fore and aft rigged boat. All the sails are secured to spars orstays at their luffs, their forward edges, and although they flap noisily as the boat passes through the eye of the wind, they dono harm.

Lets assume that Keewatin is booming along in a fresh breeze in the Northwest Providence Channel, in theBahamas, with the Berry Islands under her lee. Shes closehauled on the starboard tack and we decide to bring her round tothe port tack and head south down the chain of the Berry Islands.


15/55

15

15

On the starboard tack, the disposition of the booms and sheets is as follows: the starboard or weather jib sheet isslack and the jib is out on the port side with the port jib sheet taking the strain. The jumbo, foresail and mainsail are out onthe port side, with their sheets made fast. The starboard backstay is set up.

To bring her about, the skipper hollers ready about! and turns the bow away from the wind for a minute so that shepicks up a bit of speed. Then he calls hard alee! and turns the wheel to the right. As she comes up into the wind, with allher sails luffing, the man on the jib sheets releases the port sheet and prepares to heave in on the starboard sheet. As the

booms swing amidships, the man on the backstays tightens up the port stay and prepares to release the starboard stay, which

he does as soon as the boom begins to move to that side.

Keewatin continues to turn and the man on the jib sheet tightens the starboard sheet and makes it fast as the sails fillon the new tack. We square on the best course we can make on the port tack. Thats all there is to it, unless the seas aresuch that they stop the schooner in mid tack and put her in irons. If this happens, there are two options available to theskipper. He can either wear ship that is simply jibing through the wind to come on the new tack or have the crew back the jiband jumbo at the appropriate time to force her bows through the wind and onto the new tack. The latter course of action ismuch less work that the first and if space is limited, the preferred alternative.

When going from closehauled on one tack to closehauled on the other tack, it is not necessary to pay any attention tothe sheets on the boomed sails. The proper setting on one tack is fine for the new tack. Only the jib sheets and the backstaysneed any attention.

Missing Stays

There are things to look out for. In light airs, or with a big sea running, a big schooner with her bluff bows mayneed some help in sailing from one tack to another. She may not have enough speed (way) to complete the turn and cansometimes only get halfway around. There she hangs in the eye of the wind with her sails luffing madly and begins to drift

backwards. This is called missing stays or being in irons. It is most often seen performed by beginners in dinghies, usuallyjust off of the Yacht Club dock for the joy and entertainment of dockside loafers.

A larger boat, with a deep keel aft, will usually turn on her heel after a bit and the sails will fill again. But to ensurethis, on any boat, we back the jib on whatever side we do not wish to sail off on. If we wish to sail off on the port tack, withthe sails out on the starboard side, we heave in on the portjib sheet. Since the boat is heading directly into the wind, the windfills the jib on the forward edge of the sail and pushes the bow away to the starboard. One the sails have filled, the port jibsheet is released and the starboard sheet trimmed. See Fig. 3-1.


16/55

16

16

On Keewatin, in those conditions where missing stays is possible, we usually do not touch the jib sheets until thevessel has come around past the eye of the wind. That is, when turning to starboard, we keep the port jib sheet tight andallow the sail to back as we make the turn. Also we rig a tacking lanyard to the end of the jumbos boom and secure it to theleeward fore shroud to prevent the jumbo boom from swinging amidships as the bow turns into the wind. Thus both the jiband the jumbo will be backed one the schooner is in the eye of the wind. As a result, the bow is forced around onto the newtack and once there, the jib sheet and jumbo lanyard may be released and sheeted on the new tack.

Forereaching

When tacking in good conditions, that is with a minimum of sea and enough air to drive the boat, it is good practiceto make a long slow turn, allowing the momentum of the boat to carry it directly into the wind before completing the turn andfilling the sails on the other tack. This coasting into the wind is called forereaching and provided that sufficient way is kepton the boat to avoid missing stays, it is a wise maneuver, for it allows the boat to run up to windward, which is where wewant to go. Jamming the helm down quickly tends to make the rudder act as a brake that kills the boats forward momentum.When the boat is on the other tack, it is moving so slowly that it sags off to leeward, where we dont want to go. Figure 3-2illustrates this.

When tacking to a distant destination, we have the choice of making two or more long tacks, or several shorter ones.Assuming there are no navigational obstructions, it is better to make several short tacks than a single long one. You shouldfirst place the boat dead to leeward of your destination, however, rather than well off to one side of it.

Have a look at Fig. 3-3 on the next page. Here a boat leaves Port A for Port B, some 25 miles away, roughly towindward. The solid track is the recommended one. You sail first on the starboard tack until the destination bears abut 20degrees or less forward of the beam, then come about and sail on the port tack until the destination bears about 20 degreesforward of the beam then come about again. Always tacking so that you remain within the dashed triangle formed with its

apex at B.

There are two reasons why this is a more satisfactory procedure. The first is that if any wind shift occurs, you are ina better position to take advantage of it. When you sail outside the triangle, you are in a way investing or gambling, sometime and distance on the possibility that the wind wont shift more to the east. If for instance, you get to point X and the windshifts into the northeast, you will not be able to fetch Port B on the next tack and will have wasted the time taken to sail fromW to X without getting any return from it.

Another reason is that, if you are tacking correctly, and allowing the boat to forereach on each tack, then each timeyou tack you make good ground to windward. This is not terribly important when you have miles to go but in more restrictedquarters, as in a race; it is an advantage to tack frequently, always providing you do it correctly.


17/55

17

17


18/55

18

18


LESSON FOURIntroduction

In this lesson well take a look at some common maneuvers which we often have to perform in yachts and whichmany people consider to be more difficult than simply sailing about. They are: getting underway from a mooring or youranchor, picking up a mooring and coming up to or leaving a dock under sail or power.

Getting Underway

The majority of cruising yachts these days have auxiliary engines, placed in the boat for the purpose of enabling youto maneuver in close quarters. If you have an engine and are crowded into a maneuvering situation where you doubt yourability to sail out clear of all other craft, use the engine. It is anything but seamanlike to foul half the boats in the anchoragein an attempt to sail out. As you gain experience in handling the boat in close quarters, you will attempt increasingly difficultmaneuvers, but practice handling the boat under sail in uncrowded conditions until you feel confident that the boat will

behave as you expect it to.

In a situation where we have no tidal current, or the wind and tide come from the same direction; we have lots ofroom and are riding to a mooring: just back the jib on the side you dont want to sail out on, and slip the mooring. This iseasy. If you are anchored in the same situation, haul up to the anchor; that gives the boat a little steerage (the ability to steer)When the anchor rode is up end down and the wind is on the correct side of the boat, break out the anchor and back the jib.

In both of the above cases, you can set both main and jib before releasing the mooring or breaking out the anchor.

If you are boxed in but without anyone behind you, rather than backing your jib, relax for a minute. The boat willbe in irons and will drift backwards. When you are in the clear, back the jib and you are off. When there is a tidal stream inthe same direction as the wind, it will guarantee that you move backward.

In a small boat of say 5 tons or less, if there is no tidal stream and if you are on a mooring, you can sometimes getenough way on the boat to sail out in front of the blocking boats beside you. Release the mooring line at the bow, but hold onto it and walking down the deck, pull the boat ahead past your mooring. If you do this hard enough, the boat will havesufficient way on to be far enough ahead of the boat beside you to fall off and get the sails drawing. Youll then be able tosail out ahead of the blocking boats.

Using lines fastened to other boats, buoys, or docks, is called warping yourself into position. You can use your light

anchor in a similar manner by taking it out in a dinghy, dropping it in an advantageous position, and hauling out to it afterslipping your mooring. Using anchor after anchor to haul yourself along is called kedging after the light kedge anchoremployed.

In the situation where the wind and tide are opposed, the boat is likely to be riding to the tide. If so, hoist sufficientheadsails to stem the tide and when conditions permit, round up and hoist the main.

If the tidal current is strong and the wind fresh, the boat may be lying at some angle to the wind as the wind and tidecompete to control her. This is a common situation. The answer is to see what the wind is doing. If the wind is forward ofthe beam, then you can probably hoist the main. Be careful to see that the boom can swing out freely so that there is no drivein the main until you are ready for it, and that parts of the sail will not entangle themselves with the lee shrouds. It is best tohoist the main only when the wind is well forward of the beam. You can hoist the jib anytime, and you would have no choiceif the wind were anywhere aft of the beam.

When anchored with the wind against the tide, you can have quite a merry-go-round going. Often the boat will beheading up tide, with the wind behind her, and you will find that your anchor is also behind you. The tide steers the boat sothat it is aligned with the current but the wind pushes the yacht forward so that she sails ahead of the anchor. Figure 4 1illustrates this.

When you pull in the anchor cable, you often turn the boat around so that you find you are heading into the wind. Ifyou are confident that the anchor will break loose instantly, as you pass over it, (as it usually will in sand, but not always inmud), then keep hauling on the cable. Hoist the mainsail, since you are heading into the wind, and sail off, breaking youranchor out of the ground as you pass over it.


19/55

19

19

In mud it is wise to pull the boat back gently on the anchor cable until she is right over the anchor. Wait awhile,

until the boats head turns around and faces up tide. Then hoist the jib and break out the anchor. Sail out to where you havesome room before rounding up and hoisting the main.

In the Bahamas, tidal anchorages are usually very narrow, so the engine is used in almost every case. The Bahamianconch smacks, which were not equipped with engines, generally avoided the narrower parts of these anchorages andremained where there was room to maneuver. The fishermen did not seem to mind the motion in these exposed locations butyachtsmen do; its difficult to pour a drink.

Some Thoughts about Getting Underway

1. Remember not to hoist a mainsail, foresail, or mizzen if the wind is abaft the beam.

2. A jib can be hoisted with the wind in any quarter.3. A boat will not answer to her rudder until she is in motion, except under power or in a current.4. Long-keeled boats take a long time to turn, and need more room to do so than do short- keeled boats.5. Always know where the anchor is relative to the boat.6. Use a warp (line) to another boat or buoy, if you have to.7. Use an anchor to get clear of obstructions if you have to.8. Use the engine if you have to.9. Use your head all the time.

Picking up a Mooring

With no tide, the trick in picking up a mooring is to approach the mooring buoy from downwind, with the sailsluffing, and the boat gradually losing way until it is stopped dead in the water and the mooring pick-up buoy within reachfrom the foredeck. Easier said than done.

It is essential that you know how much the boat will forereach when head to wind. The best way to practice is tofind some anchorage with lots of room. Anchor a small mooring buoy, and practice bringing the boat up to the buoy. Afterdoing this a few dozen times, you will have a basis on which to judge the boats behavior in different situations. In strongerwinds, the boat will travel faster initially, but will also slow down faster when head to wind. In a lumpy sea, she will slowdown faster. If you make a sharp turn before shooting up to the buoy, you will kill some of the boats speed in the turn. Ifyou turn up slowly to the buoy, she will carry her way farther.

In small boats, it is not necessary to have your forward motion completely gone when you come up the buoy,provided that there is a good mooring line, with a loop on the end, fastened to the buoy. Often these lines are made ofpolypropylene, which floats. In this case, providing you are not moving too fast, you can pick up the line as you pass, head


20/55

20

20

to wind, and drop it over your bow cleat or post. You must be sure to get your sails down instantly after doing this. The boatwill charge on past the buoy and eventually bring up somewhere to windward of the normal position of the buoy. If the sailsare down, she will drift docilely back. If they are up, she will begin to sail around the mooring, providing great entertainmentfor the dockside loafers, but not for you. When getting the sails down, get the mainsail down first, as once it is full of wind,it is next to impossible to get it down without damaging it. The boat wont sail around much if the jib is still up, and anyway,you can lower the jib with the wind in any quarter.

Dock Work

Leaving a Dock

As in mooring and anchoring, the situation depends on the direction of the wind and tide in relation to the boat thedirection you wish to go.

If the wind and current are parallel to the dock and the boat is bow to both, the mainsail and jib may be set; the bowpushed or sprung off, perhaps with the jib backed and provided you have room to leeward you are off. (Docking situationsare seldom this simple). Avoid getting the mainsheet entangled with something on the dock. This is always good for alaugh, when it happens to someone else.

If you are stern to the wind and tide, and there are absolutely no obstructions ahead, set the jib, or whateverheadsails needed to give the boat way, cast off and sail out into the clear where you can round up and hoist the mainsail. Ifyou are uncertain whether the sail area you are able to set is sufficient to drive the vessel, and the current is better than a half

a knot, start the engine and back off the dock or wait until the tide changes. If the wind and current are opposed, unless thewind is fresh, plan your strategy based on the direction and strength of the current.

If the wind is across the dock, and you are on the lee side, it again depends on whether the wind is forward or abaftthe beam. If forward, you can probably set your main, but do not if there is someone tied up directly in front of you. Withthe main and jib set, you will sail parallel to the dock for a few yards before you have sufficient steerage to turn away. If thewind is abaft the beam, set the jib, sail out until you have room and round up to hoist the main. You can always cast off fromthe dock before you hoist any sail and the wind will push you away. If the tidal stream is running perpendicular to the dock(there are marinas built in this deplorable fashion) and is very strong, wait until you feel confident that your boat will stem it;leave a doubled bow and stern line attached to the dock. By slowly easing on the stern line, your bow will turn to the tide andyou will be able to hoist sufficient sail to sail away. None of these maneuvers is recommended in tight or crowded situations.Either wait for the tide or get the assistance of a small skiff or dinghy with sufficient power to get you clear or use youranchor or warps.

If the wind is blowing onto the dock, and you are on the windward side, if it is at all fresh, you are likely in trouble.There is only one way you can get away under sail or power.

The average auxiliary doesnt have the power to get away from the dock in this situation without using assistancefrom another boat or setting an anchor out to windward. Be certain that you lay out sufficient scope on the anchor so thatwhen the bow is turned toward it, it will not break out unexpectedly. Anchoring and docking are not usually associated withone another, but at a pier in Montreal, a strong current sets on to it. Ships of 2000 tons or so come alongside here, but as theydo, they drop an anchor out in the stream and let the cable run free as they dock. When they wish to sail, they haul out to theanchor, weigh, and proceed.

Coming to a Dock

As a general rule, no sailing yacht large enough to cruise in should be sailed up to a dock, unless the wind isextremely light and the speed of the boat is minimal. In days past, fishermen sailed to docks all of the time but their boatsdidnt have the fancy finish of yachts. If you have to sail to a dock, have all of your lines prepared and make certain there issomeone on the dock that knows how to make them fast. It is best to sail close to the dock and either heave a long line ashoreto the dock assistant or anchor on short scope and row a line ashore. Then you may row ashore and pass a line. If the wind is

blowing on to the dock, and then anchor off and the stern will gradually swing to the dock, at which time you can pass a line.

Under Power

Docking is much easier under power since you have the ability to reverse the engine and stop the boat. An hour ortwo spent watching boats come to the average fuel dock, however, will show you that many yachtsmen dont know how to

bring their boat alongside properly despite the luxury of an engine or even two


21/55

21

21

The best technique, used by all professionals but seldom by small yachts is to use an amidships spring line leading

aft on the dock. It is the only line that is essential to get ashore until you are alongside the dock. Many modern sailing boatsdo not have a cleat or a chock located amidships, so it is often necessary to rig a block on the rail or jib track to lead a linethrough and back to a cleat or a winch.

To do this, bring the yacht slowly alongside the dock within reaching distance of the dock or a short throwingdistance. The loop on the end of the spring line is dropped over a convenient post or cleat on the dock. Almost all the way is

taken off the boat before this spring line is made fast since once secured the bow most likely will want to turn toward thedock. Once secured, the helmsman turns the wheel away from the dock and applies power. The line tightens and the boatwalks toward the dock. A conveniently placed fender will absorb any shocks or scrapes. Leaving the engine in gear will

pin the boat to the dock. Having placed the yacht in the desired location, the forward spring, bow and stern lines are riggedand the exercise is complete.

Figure 4-2 illustrates this use of the amidships spring.


22/55

22

22

SAILING AND SEAMANSHIPLESSON FIVE

Introduction

In this lesson, well take a look at the subject of anchors and anchoring. Well discuss three common types ofanchor and their good and bad points; types of anchor cable or rode; scope, and some techniques of anchoring and weighinganchor under power and sail.

Among cruising people, the subject of anchors is a favorite topic of conversation and debate. Everyone has his pettype of anchor and to him, most other types are practically useless. Dont you believe it!

Types of Anchor

The Fisherman

This is probably the most common name for what the English call the Admiralty pattern anchor. Its a standard old-fashioned anchor and is quite common especially in the larger sizes. It is the recommended type Down East anchor inMaine and Nova Scotia where the bottom is often rocky and thick weed abounds.

The shape of the flukes changes a bit in different patterns of this type. Probably, the best all-round type is shown inFig. 5-1. Here the flukes have a broad diamond shape, the advantage being that the anchor rode is less likely to foul on themand it holds well in sand and mud than the narrower fluke patterns. It is called the Herreshoff pattern.

There are three major disadvantages to this type of anchor:1. There is an upturned fluke on the anchor when it is set, and it is possible for the anchor cable to take a turn

around the fluke. This allows the anchor to be broken out unintentionally very readily and this usually happensin the middle of a rainy night.

2. The shape of the anchor makes it rather cumbersome and awkward, both to handle and to stow on deck. Manypeople, who use the anchor, keep it lashed under the bowsprit where it is out of the way and ready to use at all timesYou need a bowsprit; however, to do this and few people would fit a bowsprit solely for that purpose.2. Its holding power to weight ratio is low, compared to other types of anchors, perhaps as little as 1/3 that of the

CQR. As a result, a cruising boat of 5 tons or more ought to carry one not less than 50 lbs. in weight.

The CQR

This anchor is a British design but it is available in America. It is similar to two plowshares back to backand was designed to have greater holding power than the Fisherman and to be non-fouling. There is no upturnedfluke for the anchor line to catch upon. If fulfills both requirements very well and it is the most popular anchor inBritain and rapidly becoming so elsewhere. A CQR of 35 pounds will hold amazingly well, especially in clay andmud bottoms. It is much less cumbersome than the Fisherman, but is not quite as easy to stow as is the Danforthanchor.

The CQR Anchor


23/55

23

23

The Danforth

This anchor, an American design, was developed during WWII for use aboard landing craft. It has the advantage that it stows flat on deck or against the hull with a minimum of protrusions. Its holding power is equal to orgreater than the CQR by virtue of its large fluke size, it is non-fouling, although it will occasionally pick up a largeconch or tin can between the flukes on the bottom. The anchor comes in three types of construction: the standard,welded galvanized steel; the Hi-Tensile, of high tensile steel with larger and sharper flukes, and the cast Danforth,cast out of steel in the larger sizes, above 65 lbs.

Every yacht ought to carry more than one anchor. The choice of which type of anchor you buy depends

upon availability, preference and the size of your pocketbook. Anchors are inordinately expensive, so rig a trip lineand buoy in case yours gets fouled and you need to retrieve it.

Anchor Size

There is a school of thought that feels that the best anchoring technique is to use a light Danforth anchor, arelatively small nylon line (3/8 or thereabouts) and a great amount of scope. Scope is the term that describes theamount of anchor cable you have let out. This school, which includes such prestigious yachting figures as BobBavier, the publisher of Yachting magazine and ex-America Cup helmsman, feels that a light Danforth is almost asefficient as a heavy one. They feel that the use of the thin nylon line, which is very strong and elastic, relieves theanchor of the direct tugs and stresses that a thicker, less elastic line would place on it, thus improving the anchorsholding power.

While this is probably true, there are serious disadvantages. The first is that the light nylons strength isdrastically reduced with the slightest chafe and small imperfections in the condition of the line that can easily gounnoticed. There is also the problem of handling line this small since under extreme loads its diameter could bereduced by one third. The lighter anchor, while probably having the fluke area to hold satisfactorily, is seriouslyaffected by grass and other irregularities on the bottom, preventing it from digging in and allows it to skate alongthe bottom. The rule of thumb is: use the heaviest anchors you can weight (get back aboard the boat), and afford to

buy an appropriately sized line (1/2 nylon or better) unless you are a racer and weight is a consideration.


24/55

24

24

Anchor Cables

Anchor cables are also called anchor lines or anchor rodes. They are all the same thing: the rope or chainthat attaches the anchor to the boat.

By far the most common anchor line used today is made of nylon. This is tremendously strong. It is quiteelastic, and for this reason, is beloved by the light anchor and line school. These properties also endear it to the

heavy anchor school as well. It is impervious to rot and mildew, so it can be stowed wet without harm. It iscommon on all sizes of vessels. Most cruisers use a length of chain leader between the anchor and the nylon line.While this complicates stowage, it eliminates the possibility of chafing the nylon on a rocky or coral strewn bottom.Also, the added weight is of help to the anchors holding ability.

Some small and many larger yachts use anchor chain. The biggest drawbacks to its use are weight and theneed for a winch to handle it. In small yachts using lightweight chain, a large roller at the bow equipped with a pawmakes it possible to bring the chain in by hand, especially if someone is at the wheel easing the yacht toward theanchor under power. Chain has the advantage of being chafe free, is strongly constructed and is heavy. The weightcontributes largely to the anchors ability to hold and also creates a catenary arc between the yacht and the anchorthat acts as a spring or shock absorber. This eliminates direct pulls on the anchor. The Moorings (the worldslargest bareboat charter company) uses chain as the main anchor rode on all of their yachts. Chains majordisadvantages are that it ultimately rusts; it collects mud, sand and whatever is available on the bottom and brings itaboard and is heavy and difficult to handle

Scope

All anchors are designed to dig in and hold when the strain transmitted along the anchor cable is applied ina horizontal direction and at an acute angle. This is why a length of chain between the anchor line and the anchorhelps the anchor to hold. It is also the reason that that the scope (or length of line) is very important. The morescope you have in relation to the depth of water in which the boat is floating, the flatter will be the angle at whichthe pull will be transmitted, and the better the anchor will hold.

Try to anchor in shoal water (15 feet or less) and you will nearly always have enough line to provide thescope necessary to make the anchor hold. A ratio of eight to one is common and in the Bahamas, it is sometimesnecessary to add to that. Remember to take the tidal range into account when anchoring. Anchoring in eight feet ofwater at high tide in the Bahamas will result in grounding at low tide, if your vessel draws five feet.

In some parts of the world, there are extreme tidal ranges. In an anchorage in the Bay of Fundy, you mightput out fifty feet of scope in ten feet of water and feel secure at low tide. But since the tidal range is sixty feet, athigh water your vessel would be floating free. So remember, calculate the state of the tide when anchoring and

paying out scope.

Buoying the Anchor

It is generally good practice to attach a piece of polypropylene line to the crown of your anchor and a buoyof some sort tied to the other end. When the anchor is down, the buoy floats on the surface, telling where the anchoris. More importantly, if the anchor should foul, you have this trip line to heave on and bring the anchor to thesurface with the crown uppermost. Upending the anchor in this way usually clears it.

Anchoring

Before we get into the procedure of anchoring itself, lets look at some things to note before you actuallyput the hook down. The question is where exactly will we place the anchor? Look out for the following:

Other boats: dont anchor too close. Remember the wind may change. Although all the boats in theanchorage will swing around in response to the wind change, the relative position of the boats may not remain thesame. Some may be on moorings and swing on a small radius, others may have a great amount of scope out andswing in a wide arc. Try to envision a wind shift bearing in mind the location of your neighbors anchor.

The shore: dont anchor so close that if the wind changes, youll find the boat ashore,


25/55

25

25

The height of the tide: you wouldnt be the first yachtsman to find himself aground at low water.

Any obvious channels or rights of way: its embarrassing to find youve anchored in the channel used bythe ferryboat.

Obstructions: there is usually a sign on the shore if there are underwater cables or other obstructions nearyour intended anchoring location. The chart will also show such obstructions.

Procedure

Anchoring under Sail

You are asking for trouble if you just let the anchor plunge to the bottom with the anchor line on top of it,especially if you are using a fisherman anchor. Fouling is certain to occur, and can happen when using a Danforthanchor as well. Bring the boat into the wind or into the tide, let go the anchor and as the boat gathers sternway, payout scope until there is sufficient to allow the anchor to grab. Watch the anchor line as the strain is applied and if it

jumps, provide additional scope until it holds. Unfortunately, if it continues to drag you have two choices: eitherselect another location, or try another type of anchor.

Anchoring with the wind and tide opposed can be a complex and uncertain procedure under sail.

If it is absolutely necessary to do so, get rid of the main if the wind is at all fresh, and leave only the

headsails to drive you up tide. Drop the anchor, paying out scope as the boat slowly sails forward against the tideand if desired, drop a second anchor. Secure the first anchor rode and, as the boat turns to it, drop the headsails.You may then haul the boat toward the first anchor and pay out scope on the second anchor.

Anchoring under Power

Anchoring under power is usually very simple. You have the capability of stopping the headway of the boatwith the engine, dropping the anchor, backing the boat down, and making the anchor rode fast (checking that theanchor is holding).

Setting Two Anchors

In crowded anchorages, setting two anchors is mandatory in a sloop with a fin keel that loves to tack

around her anchor rode. Set the second anchor at about 60 degrees from the first with about the same amount ofscope. This will limit the boat's movement so that your neighbors won't be uneasy about your boat's livelymovement. Having two anchors to weigh can be a major problem if the wind shifts and a fouled hawse (the anchorrodes are wound around each other) occurs.

Commonly, an anchor is set upwind and one down wind. This will keep the bow of the boat almost alwaysin the same place.

In the Bahamas, the Bahamian moor is common. Since so many anchorages are in tideways between thecays, one anchor is set up tide and the other down tide. Both rodes are hauled in tightly.

There are a couple of ways to set the anchors. One anchor is set first, and then you can carry the other outby dinghy. Or, you can set one, assuming you put it out ahead of the boat, and let out twice as much scope as you

think you need. Then drop the other one and haul the boat back to a point midway between the two anchors.

The Bahamian conch smacks used to practice the Bahamian Running moor by sailing to the anchorage,dropping one anchor and sailing on. The line runs out freely and the boat heads into the wind and drops the secondanchor. The sails are lowered and the boat is hauled back toward the first anchor and all is made fast in the midway

position. This can be done under power, but watch the line nearing the propeller!

There are occasions when anchoring with one anchor from the bow and another from the stern is very wiseas in a canal or narrow waterway. Never do it in a tideway since boats behave very erratically with their sterns tothe tide.


26/55

26

26


LESSON SIX

Introduction

This lesson is a simple but practical one. We'll investigate the Tides and how to predict their heights.

The Tides

In school, you probably learned that the tides are caused by the moon pulling on the waters of the earth through theforce of gravity. You likely saw a diagram that showed the earth and the moon, and two bulges of water on the earth, oneright under the moon, and the other on the opposite side of the earth, like this:

The bulge shown nearest the moon is the result of the moon's gravitational force or pull on that point nearest theearth. The bulge opposite, is due to the centrifugal force of the earth's rotation against the near zero gravitational effect

perpendicular to the moons line of force.

Any given point on the earth passes under two bulges and two non-bulges per day. This is the basic reason whythere are two high and two low tides each day in most places in the world. This 'day' is not an earth day, but a lunar day andis the time taken by any point on earth to go from directly under the moon until it is directly under the moon again. Since theearth is moving as well, a lunar day is equal to about 24 hours and 50 minutes.

The Sun adds its effect as well. As the moon travels around the earth once a month, or approximately 29 days, thesun and moon are twice in line with the earth. Once we have earth-moon-sun and once we have sun-earth-moon. At both ofthese times, the effect is to increase the total pull, and at these times, we have higher and lower tides than usual. Thishappens every two weeks, and we call these tides Spring Tides, which have nothing to do with the season.

In between times, the sun is at right angles to the earth-moon system, and cancels out some of the moon's pull, andthen we have smaller tides than usual, that are called Neap Tides.

In the course of a lunar month, we have springs, neaps, springs and neaps again. Since they are associated with themoon, you can tell roughly whether it is a time of springs or neaps by the moon's phase. When it is full, and when it is new,(not visible), we have springs, and when it is in either the first or last quarter (when half of the moon is visible), we haveneaps.

The height of the tide at any given place is governed by many complicated factors in addition to the phases of themoon. In the open ocean, the actual height of the tidal bulge is probably not more than one foot, but close to shore, its heightcan range from zero to over 50 feet. The height near shore has to do with the configuration of the coastline and the seabednear the shore.


27/55

27

27

Figure 6-2 above shows how the depth of the water at a location changes with the rise and fall of the tide. You will

note that, at springs, not is high tide very high, but the low tide coming about 6 hours later is very low. The total range of thespring tide is greater than the range at neaps. The neap tide, having a smaller range, has lower highs and higher lows, so thedepth of water doesn't fluctuate as much at neaps as it does at springs.

On the chart, the depth of water, called soundings, is shown in many places. You may ask what purpose this serveswhen we've just seen that the depth of water is changing constantly because of the tides. The chart makers choose a reference

point, called the chart datum, and all depths are reduced to that datum. For instance, depths on modern American charts arereduced to mean low water or lowest low water.

If you went sailing and took soundings when it was a low spring tide, you would find that the depths charted nearlymatched the depths you determined with your sounding line or echo sounder. At all other times, the depths will be greaterthan charted. You will add the rise of the tide at that time to the charted depths to find the real depth.

Tide Tables

How do we find out how much the tide changes, and when, at any given place? We make use of Tide Tables. Theseare published annually by the United States, Britain and Canada. One volume covers the East Coast of North and SouthAmerica. About the same format is used in both the U.S. and Canadian volumes.

All tide tables give the date, times, and depth for a series of reference stations and sub-stations. Times are given in24-hour format and depths given in feet and tenths of feet. In time, all depths will be given in metric values. Many cruisingguides also publish tide information and include similar content. On the next page is a sample of a simplified table for the

Bahamas.


28/55

28

28

Fig 6-3

Courtesy Tropical Isle Publishers Fig. 6-4

Interpolation for Time

There is an interpolation table given in many tide tables that will enable you to calculate the height of the tide at anygiven time of its ebb and flow. During the approximately 6 hours that elapses between high and low tide, the height changesas follows: 1/12 of the total change occurs in the first hour, 2/12 in the second hour, 3/12 in the third, 3/12 in the fourth, 2/12in the fifth hour and 1/12 in the sixth hour. This means that the water level changes fastest in the third and fourth hours.

Here's a simple system to determine how much actual change, in inches occurs each hour.

Hour Formula Range/ft Change/inches1 1 x 4.0 = 42 2 x 4.0 = 83 3 x 4.0 = 124 3 x 4.0 = 125 2 x 4.0 = 86 1 x 4.0 = 4

The formula is 123321 for hours 123456 of the tidal change.


29/55

29

29

Some useful knots you might learn.

Some old sailors axioms:

Red sky at night is a sailors delight.Red sky in the morning, sailors take warning.

Mares tails (cirrus) make tall ships carry short sails.

A stitch in time saves nine. (Refers to sail repairs)

Ability

He is the best sailor who can steer within the fewest points of the wind, and exact a motive power out of the greatestobstacles.

Henry David Thoreau (181762), U.S. philosopher, author, naturalist.A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers,Friday (1849).


30/55

30

30


LESSON 7

Introduction

This lesson deals with a simple subject, the Mariner's Compass. This is the one navigation instrument that the sailorfinds most difficult to do without. It pays to know your compass, the corrections you must make to its readings to so that it isuseful to you.

The Compass

The mariner's compass is a bar magnet pivoting on a jeweled point. The largest magnet in our neighborhood is theearth itself. By some process not yet understood, the earth creates a magnetic field. The two poles of the earth magnet are atopposite ends of the earth. The North magnetic pole is in the Canadian Arctic islands.

As a Boy Scout, you were probably told that the needle of your Pathfinder Compass pointed to the North Magnetic

Pole, but this is not strictly correct. In fact, the needle of the compass aligns itself with the lines of force within the earth'smagnetic field. This is not quite the same thing, as the lines of force do not everywhere point exactly to the magnetic pole.

The Boy Scout compass, with its needle, is a difficult compass to navigate by. The mariners compass is a moresophisticated instrument. Firstly, there are several needles, not just one in the mariners' compass. Secondly, the magneticneedles are all mounted parallel to one another on the bottom of a disc that is known as a card. The card rotates on a jeweled

pivot, and on the upper surface of the card, a compass rose is printed. A modern card is shown on our Fig. 7-2 on the nextpage. Note that the circle is marked clockwise to 360 degrees, and that the 32 points of the old system have been reduced toa mere 8; the 4 cardinal points of N,E,S,W, and the 4 inter-cardinal points.

Many yacht compasses are even simpler, showing no points at all, and only every fifth degree. This type is quitesufficient for yacht navigation, where the motion of the yacht makes the compass card whirl around like a dervish most of thetime. It is difficult to read to better than 5 degrees in these conditions in any case, even if the card were marked every degree.

If your course is 037, simply try to keep the lubber line (the post at the forward and after edge of the compass) halfwaybetween 035 and 040.

The card of the compass is pivoted on a jeweled post in the bowl of the compass that is mounted in pivots known asgimbals, so that it will remain more or less steady no matter how the ship moves. In modern yacht compasses, the gimbalsare internal, and the card is suspended inside a hemispherical dome filled with fluid to damp out the motion.

On the inside of the bowl, on the back of it as you look at it from the helm, is a post or line that is aligned with thefore-and-aft line of the yacht. This is called the lubber line. The compass heading of the boat is the direction in degreesdirectly in front of the lubber line on the card. It is important to remember that the card of a compass remains stationary andis aligned permanently with the earth's magnetic lines of force. The lubber line and the compass bowl revolve around it asthe heading of the boat changes.

To steer a compass course, the boat is turned until the lubber line is aligned with the desired number on the card.The important thing to remember while steering, is that turning the wheel moves the lubber line and not the card. If the linemoves off to the right, relative to the card, then turn the wheel to the left and bring it back in position. If it moves to the left,turn the wheel to the right. As long as you envision controlling the position of the line and not the card, you'll get the hang ofit quickly.


31/55

31

31

Fig. 7-2 A Modern Compass Card

2 Variation

The direction of the earths lines of magnetic force varies over the surface of the earth, so that the quantity known tomariners as variation the amount by which the direction of the lines of force differs from the direction of the true NorthPole (the North end of the earths axis of rotation) changes with distance on the earth, sometimes by quite a bit over ashort distance. The variation in any given locality is shown on charts.

Fig. 7-3, on the next page, shows how variation is shown on charts. The Compass Rose is composed of three rings;the outer is aligned with the true N-S direction on the chart, which is always portrayed as being straight up and down, and iscalled the true rose; the middle ring is aligned with the magnetic lines of force in that locality and is known as the magneticrose; and the innermost ring another magnetic rose, aligned with the first magnetic rose, but stepped off in the old-fashioned

point system of compass nomenclature. On a chart covering a fair sized area, the magnetic roses shown on the chart theremay be for or five roses in different corners probably differ slightly in variation, and when using the chart, use the rosenearest to the part of the chart your vessel is on.

Variation changes slowly with time by a small amount. When using an up-to-date chart, the change is not worthworrying about, but an older chart may have accumulated enough change over the years to make quite adifference. Alwaysuse current charts if you can, for this and many other reasons. In the example on Fig. 7-3, the variation is shown as 3 degreeswest in 1973, increasing 8 annually, so that in 1974, the variation would have been 3 degrees 8 minutes west. However, thisis not enough to worry about for a few years but in this current year, 2000 the variation would be 27 x 9 /60 or a total of 7degrees plus 18 minutes west.

Westerly variation means that the North or zero point of the magnetic rose is offset to the west of the True Northpoint. Easterly variation is when the magnetic North point is offset to the east of True North. On the east coast of NorthAmerica and in the Great Lakes, variation is westerly, ranging from about 25 degrees at the eastern end of Nova Scotia to 0degrees in Florida. On the west coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico, variation is easterly.


32/55

32

32


33/55

33

33

3 Finding the Magnetic Course

In a couple of lessons, well show you how to find the true course between any two points on the chart. However, asyou know, the compass reacts not to true north but the magnetic north, so the magnetic course will not be the same as the truecourse. It differs in amount and direction from the true course by the amount and direction of the variation.

The rule to convert from TRUE to MAGNETIC is simple:

1. MAGNETIC = TRUE PLUS WESTERLY VARIATION.

2. MAGNETIC = TRUE MINUS EASTERLY VARIATION.

If you do your sailing on the east coast, you can forget the second rule for now, and memorize the first. When yougo to Mobile or Galveston, just remember to treat the variation in the opposite way you handle the westerly variationin your home cruising grounds. After youve done it a few times it becomes an automatic calculation for you.

Here is an example:

True course 090Variation 015W (Add West)Magnetic 105

Pretty simple, right? If you look at the rose on Fig. 7-3 on the preceding page, which shows a westerlyvariation of 003 degrees, you can find the magnetic course right away. If our true course is 090, find 090 on the outer TRUEring, and directly inside this figure, on the MAGNETIC ring, youll see 093, which is the magnetic course. You can see itsthe same thing as the calculation above, which would become:

True course 090Variation 003 WMagnetic 093

Lets try some more examples:

True Variation Magnetic000 15 W 015355 15 W 010 (355 + 15 = 370 = 10)265 22 W 287000 02 E 358 (Subtract E}105 05 W 110

3.1.1

sailing and seamanship

Documents