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Science

Stonehenge is a prehis-toric monument. Stone-henge is composed of earthworks surrounding a circular setting of large standing stones. It is center of most dense complex of Neolothic and Bronze Age monu-ments in England. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the ear-liest phase of monument

Stonehenge

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writing cov-ers many subjects such as physics, po-etry, and politics. Together with Plato and Socrates, Aristotle is one of most important person in Western philosophy. Aristotle’s writings were the first to cre-ate a comprehensive system of Western philosophy. Aristotle’s views on physical science shaped the medieval scholarship and influenced extended well into the Renaissance. All aspects of Aristotle’s philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues, it is thought that majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.

Aristotle

Aristarchus was a Greek astronomer and mathematician born on the island of Samos, in Greece. He presented the first known heliocentric model of solar sys-tem placing Sun, not Earth at center of universe. He was influenced by Pythagorean Philolaus of Croton but identified the central fire with Sun and put the other planet in their correct or-der of distance around Sun. his astro-nomical ideas was often rejected be-cause of fgeocentric theories of Aristo-tle and Ptolemy. The heliocentric theory was revived 1800 years later by Coperni-cus after Kepler and Newton gave ex-planation to it based on laws of physics mostly Kelpler’s law for motion of plan-ets and Newtion’s law on gravitational attractions and dynamics.

Aristarchus

Claudius Ptolemy was a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geogra-pher, astrologer, and poet. He lived in Egypt under Roman rule. He was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of contin-uing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the as-tronomical treatise now known as Al-magest. The second is the Geography which is a thorough discussion of geo-graphic knowledge of the Greco-Ro-man world. The third is the astrologi-cal treatise called the Tetrabiblos in Greek and Quadripartitum in Latin as he attempted to adapt horoscopic as-trology to the Aristotelian natural phi-losophy of his day.

Ptolemy

Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicua was a Renaissance

astronomer and first person to formulate comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displace Earth from center of uni-verse. Hi epochal book, ‘De revolution-ibus orbium coelestium’ published just before his death. His heliocentric model with Sun at center of universe demon-strated that he observed motions of ce-lestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in center of uni-verse. His work stimulated further inves-tigation and becomes landmark in his-tory of science which is Copernican Rev-olution. He was a mathematician, as-tronomer, physician, quadrilingual poly-glot, classical scholar, translator, artist, Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist.

Tycho Brahe was Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. He was well-known as an astronomer and alchemist. In ‘De nova stella’, he refuted the theory of celestial sphere by showing celestial heavens were not in unchanging state of perfection as previ-ously assumed by Aristotle and Ptolemy. He was granted an estate to build instruments and took many careful measurements and later Stherneborg, underground, he discov-ered his instruments in former were not steady. He built the new observatory at Be-natky nad Jizerou. Until his death, he was as-sisted by Johannes Kepler, who later used his astronomical results to develop his own theo-ries of astonomy. He worked to combine geo-metrical benefits of Copernican system with philosophical benefits of Ptolemaic system to his own model of universe, Tychonic system. He was last of major naked eye astronomers working without telescope for his observa-tions.

Tycho brahe

Galileo Galilei was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer and philoso-pher who was one of the people who discov-ered the Scientific Revolution. He made im-provement to the telescope and did conse-quent astronomical observations and sup-port for Copernicanism. He is called the ‘Fa-ther of modern observational astronomy’, ‘Father of modern physics’ and ‘Father of science’. His contributions to astronomy in-clude the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, observation, analysis of sunspots and invented an im-proved military compass and other instru-ments. He was house arrest for the rest of his life because of the heliocentrism. In there, he wrote ‘Two New Sciences’ which is the summarized work of 2 sciences called ‘kinematics’ and ‘strength of materials’.

Galileo

Kepler Johannes Kepler was a German math-

ematicians, astronomer and as-trologer. He is best known for epony-mous laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Har-monices Mundi and Epitome of Coper-nican Astronomy. This provided New-ton’s theory of universal gravitation’s idea. He lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between as-tronomy and astrology but there was a strong division between astronomy and physics. He described his new as-tronomy as “celestial physics’. As “an excursion into Aristotle’s Meta-physics”, and as “a supplement to Aristotle’s On the Heavens”, trans-forming ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.

The word ‘telescope’ was created by a greek mathemati-cian Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo’s instruments shown at banquet at the Accademia dei Licei. In the Starry Messenger Galileo had used the term ‘perspicil-lum’. Telescope is an instrument that is needed in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromag-netic radiation like a visible light. The first known tele-scopes were invented in the Netherlands. They used the glass lenses. They found use in terrestrial applications and astronomy. Few decades after, reflecting telescope which uses mirrors was invented. In 20th century, new types of telescopes were invented which includes the ra-dio telescope and the infrared telescopes. The word ‘telescope’ refers to a wide range of instruments detect-ing different regions of electromagnetic spectrum, some-times there is other types of detectors. A major develop-ment of telescope is the microscope which magnifies things. Classical telescope are optional computer that form image by replicating a Fourier transform in real times using same medium collected for processing and display output.

Telescope

Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian. His monograph ‘Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica’ published in 1687, is the foundations for most of classical mechanics. He described universal gravitation and three laws of motion which dom-inated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. He showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bod-ies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between ke-pler’s laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation. Principia are most important scien-tific books ever written. Newton built first prac-tical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of color based on observation that a prism de-composes white light into the many color that form visible spectrum. He formulated an empiri-cal law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. In mathematics, he and Gottfried Leibniz found the development of differential and inte-gral calculus. He demonstrated the generalised binomial theorem developed Newton’s method for approximating the roots of a function, and contributed to the study of power series.

Newton

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_hengehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_brache

Bibliography