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CHAPTER I

SCOPE OF SEMANTICS

A. Naming

Give label for things to identify what they denote.

Example: John = Person‟s name

Library = Place to store book

B. Concept

Example:

C. Sense and reference

Sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic

elements themselves.

Example: John is snake in the grass

Traitor

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Reference is a term which is used when we are talking about the denotation of word.

Example: I like Rose. It is very beautiful.

It refers to Rose

D. The Word and The Sentence

Words are not the smallest semantics units but are built up of smaller components of

meanings which are combined differently to form different words.

Example: Function words

Article (a, an, the)

Pronouns

Preposition

Content words

Nouns

Verbs

Adverbs

Adjective

Sentences is an expression in natural language, and often defined to indicate

grammatical units consisting of one or more words that generally bear minimal syntactic

relation to the words that precede of follow it. A sentence can include words grouped

meaningfully to express a statement, question, exclamation, request, command or

suggestion.

Example: Joyce goes to campus

Does Joyce go to campus?

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CHAPTER II

ACQUISITION OF SEMANTICS

Acquisition of semantics defined as how children acquire the meaning of words and

sentences.

A. Lexical Semantics

Lexical semantics defined as the meaning of individual word. There are three ways

children acquire the meaning of word:

1. Overgeneralization

Here, children use of a word to refer more than one thing.

Example: Cookie when saw coin or thing that brown colored and round

2. Basic level term

Here, children know intermediate word between too general or too specific.

Example: Vehicle Car Avanza

Animal Cat Anggora

Plant Flower Rose

3. Positive member than negative in acquiring apposite words

Because children are given positive words first, so they learn positive words.

Example: Fat Thin

White Black

Tall Short

B. Sentence Semantics

Sentence semantics mean how children interpret the entire words (sentence). It

divided into three ways:

1. Passive sentence

If they heard passive sentence they interpret as active sentence.

Example: John was pushed by Marry

Interpret as John pushed Marry

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2. Interpretation of bare infinitive

It is a subordinate clause with no overt subject. It analyze with MDP (minimum

distance principle) that the closes NP from bare infinitive.

Example: I told you where to eat

I told you where you should eat

3. Sentence that are linked a by temporal connective (before and after)

Example: He come home before he eat lunch

Before he it lunch, he come home

He eat lunch afterhe come home

After he come home he eat lunch

It may interpret by children in several ways below:

a. Interpreted via order of mention (i.e events is reportted in the first clause

interpreted as happening before the second clause).

b. Before interpreted correctly, after via order of mention.

c. Before and after interpreted as “before”.

d. All sentence interpreted correctly.

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CHAPTER III

SEVEN TYPES OF MEANING

A. Conceptual Meaning/ Denotative Meaning

Literal meaning of the word indicates the idea or concept to which it refers.

Corresponds to the primary dictionary definition.

Example: Woman = adult female + human being = human + female + adult

Boy = male child; young man = human + male – adult

B. Connotative Meaning

Additional meaning to the conceptual/denotative/ base meaning.

Example: Woman: experienced in cookery, having maternal instinct,

compassioned, gregarious, talk active, etc.

Man: strong, playboy, etc.

C. Affective/ Emotive Meaning

Related to the feeling and attitude of the speaker/ writer when communicate.

Example: Interjection!

Sweetheart, shut up, damn, etc.

D. Thematic Meaning

Meaning that is conveyed from a message in terms of ordering focus and emphasis.

Example: Active and passive sentence

Rangga books the ticket

Ticket is booked by Rangga

E. Social Meaning

Related to the situation/ social circumstance which an utterance is used. Can include

illocutionary act.

Example: I haven‟t got a knife (requesting)

Don‟t be a chicken

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F. Collocative Meaning

The meaning which a word acquires in the company of certain words. Words

collocate or co-occur with certain words only.

Example: Pretty = girls, woman, garden, flower, village

Handsome = boy, man

Sexy = voice, body, lips, eye

G. Reflected Meaning

Meaning arises when a word has more than one conceptual meaning or multiple

conceptual meaning.

Example:

In a church service, the synonymous expressions the Comforter and the Holy Ghost,

one may react according to the everyday non-religious meanings of comfort and

ghost.

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CHAPTER IV

SEMANTICS CHANGE

Semantics change defined as change the meaning of words through the time. Divided into

four types, i.e.:

A. Widening/ Extension

The process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or more

inclusive than its historically earlier form.

Example:

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Bird „Small fowl‟ Any winged creature‟

Barn „Place to store barley‟ Farm building for storage and

shelter‟

Aunty „Father‟s sister‟ Father or mother‟s sister‟

Crop „Young shoot or plant‟ „Plant that is grown in large

quantities‟

Place „Broad street‟ „Particular position or area‟

B. Narrowing/ Specialization

The process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or less

inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.

Example:

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Hound „Any dog‟ „A hunting breed‟

Meat „Any type of food‟ „Flesh of animal‟

Disease „Any unfavorable state‟ „An illness‟

Forest „Countryside‟ „Large area of land covered

with trees‟

Starve „To die‟ „Suffer or die from hunger‟

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C. Amelioration

The process by which a word's meaning becomes more positive or favorable than

it originally referred to.

Example:

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Pretty „Tricky, sly, cunning‟ „Attractive‟

Knight „Boy‟ „A special title or position‟

Luxury „Lust, licentious-ness‟ „Great comfort esp. in

expensive surrounding‟

Jolly „Arrogant, wanton‟ „Happy and cheerful‟

Dreary „Gory, bloody‟ „Dull or boring, making you

fell depressed

D. Pejoration

The process by which a word's meaning becomes less positive or less favorable

than it originally referred to.

Example:

Word Old Meaning New Meaning

Silly „Happy, prosperous‟ „Foolish‟

Wench „Girl‟ „Wanton women, prostitute‟

Crafty „Skilled‟ „Clever at getting what you

want by dishonest method‟

Silly „Happy, fortune‟ „Foolish‟

Lust „Pleasure, delight‟ „Strong desire for or sexual

desire‟

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CHAPTER V

DIMENSION OF MEANING

A. Lexical Meaning

The meaning is expressed by the words itself.

Example: Woman = adult female human being

Boy = male child; young man

B. Grammatical Meaning

The meaning is expressed by bound morpheme, functional words and form of

sentences.

Example: The cat

A cat under the table

I like that cat

C. Morphemes

The smallest unit of meaning. Divided into two free and bound morphemes.

Example: Unbelievable

Misunderstanding

D. Lexical Ambiguity

It happens when homonym can occurs in the same position in a sentence.

Example: My sister saw a bat last night

He lost the match

E. Homonym

Word that is spelt and pronounced like another word but with different meaning.

Sameness in pronouncing (homophones). Sameness in spelling (homograph).

Example: Sea, see; Bee, be; Two, to, too

Saw, watch, bank

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F. Polysemy

Word has more than one meaning but relatedness.

Example:

Chip = It may mean "electronic circuit", "a kind of food" or "a piece of wood".

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CHAPTER VI

SENSE RELATION 1

A. Lexical Field

Where the words belong to.

Example: Red, blue, white, black belong to colors.

Badminton, tennis, football, golf belong to sports.

B. Kinship

The relationship of meaning through blood ties and through marriage. In analysis

divided into spouse, parent, sibling, and offspring. For sex male (M), Female (F).

Example: Husband = M spouse

Grandmother = parent‟s F parent

Uncle = parent‟s M sibling

C. Hyponym

A more specific term: a subordinate grouping of words. The meaning of word

includes the meaning of general word (hypernym).

Example: Rose is hyponym of flower

Piglet is hyponym of pig

BlackBerry is hyponym of Hp

D. Synonym

The similar meaning/ sameness in meaning between two or more words.

Example: Buy = Purchase

Pretty = beautiful

Slim = Slender = Thin

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CHAPTER VII

SENSE RELATION 2

A. Antonym

Opposite in meaning between two words.

Example :

- Female/male

- On/off

- Adult/young

B. Converse Antonym

Reversal antonym; there is feedback relation between two words.

Example :

- Give/receive

- Buy/sell

- Student/teacher

C. Symmetry

Kind of converseness; likeness in shape, size between opposite side. There is

feedback relation.

Example :

Line AB is parallel to line CD

Line CD is parallel to line AB

- The truck is similar to the bus

- The bus is similar to the truck

D. Reciprocity

There is not necessarily true that there is feedback relation.

Example :

Ana agreed with Tom

- Reciprocal verbs : argue-with, conflict-with, fight-with, collide-with.

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E. Binary Antonym

There is no intermediate terms between two opposite words.

Example :

- Died/alive

- Male/female

- On/off

F. Nonbinary Antonym (Gradable Antonym)

There is intermediate terms between two words.

Example :

- Hot – cold

- Morning – night

- Tall – short

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CHAPTER VIII

SEMANTICS ROLE

Semantic role is a role that is played by the entity in a sentence. In analysis of a sentence

in semantics, a sentence consists of a predicate and a varying number of referring expression

(NP) or it also can be called as argument. Predicate may be a verb, an adjective, a

preposition, or a noun phrase.

Example: Roberts writes a letter

Argument Predicate Argument

Sinta cooks the fried chicken

Argument Predicate Argument

A. Predicate

Predicate can shows:

1. Action.

Example: Betty washed the plates yesterday.

2. Event. A change in the condition of the entity named by the argument.

Example: The cakes fall from the table.

3. Identity. Provides an identity for the entity named by the subject.

Example: Mary is a doctor.

4. Description. Adjective phrase that entity named by subject.

Example: She is beautiful girl.

5. Affect. Does not express action. Tell how one entity affects or fails to affect–

another.

Example: The content of the box puzzled Cassandra.

6. Link. Act as a link between a theme and its associate. The predicate is linking

or relational predicate.

Example: Danny is the brother of Jim.

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B. Argument

The role of an argument in a sentence can be as:

1. Actor. Performs an action without affecting any other entity.

Example: We waited = we (argument, actor), waited (predicate, action).

2. Affected. Undergoes a change due to some event or is affected by some other

entity.

Example: The cake fell = the cake (argument, affected) and fell (predicate,

event).

3. Affecting. Affect some other without any action.

Example: The decision surprised us all = the decision (argument, affecting),

surprised (predicate, affect), us all (argument, affected).

4. Agent. By its action affects some other entity.

Example: My mother makes a birthday cake = my mother (argument, agent),

makes (predicate, action), a birthday cake (argument, effect).

5. Associate. Tells the status or identity of a theme.

Example: The books are on the table = the books (argument, theme), are on

(predicate, link), the table (argument, associate).

6. Effect. Comes into existence through the action of a predicate.

Example: Riana cooked fried noodle = Riana (argument, actor), cooked

(predicate, action), friend noodle (argument, effect).

7. Place. Names the location in which the action of the predicate occurs.

Example: The baby cries in the bedroom = the baby (argument, actor), cries

(predicate, action), in the bedroom (argument, place).

8. Theme. the topic of a predicate that does not express an action.

Example: The water is hot = the water (argument, theme), is (predicate, link),

hot (argument, associate)

C. Valency

Valency defined as the number of arguments that a predicate may have in one

sentence.

1. Valency zero. There is no argument in the sentence.

Example: It's summer

It is winter

It is raining

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2. Valency one. There is one argument in a sentence.

Example: The baby is sleeping

Kelsey cried

My watch broken

3. Valency two. There are two arguments in a sentence.

Example: Tom breaks a window

Joyce is Alex‟s sister

Walls cut the paper

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CHAPTER IX

REFERENCE

Reference defined as the relationship between language form and some physical identity,

which is the referent of that sign.

A. Referring Expression

A piece of language or linguistic form that is used and linked to something outside

language. Can be NP, Proper Noun, or Pronoun.

Example: A can under the tree eats fish.

A beautiful lady comes to the party.

*The underline phrase called referring expression.

B. Referent

A real object or the entity identified by the use of a referring expression called

referent.

Example: Referent of a beautiful lady is the real body of woman /lady

C. Extension

The set of all referents which is denoted by a referring expression said as extension.

Examples: The extension of flower is all jasmines, all roses, all orchids, etc.

D. Intension

Intension defined as set of properties/ characteristics shared by all members of

extension.

Example: The extension of flower is all orchids, all jasmines, and all roses.

Their intension is fragrant, has leaves, has pollen, has pistil.

E. Deixis

Deixis defined as linguistic expression that has one meaning but has different

referents according to the context. It should be face to face interaction. There are three

kinds of Deixis:

1. Person deixis (pronoun)

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2. Spatial deixis (location)

3. Temporal deixis (time)

Example: I will wait you here tomorrow

Person spatial temporal

F. Anaphora

Anaphora defined as linguistic expression that has antecedent. Antecedent is word

that comes before pronoun. Or anaphora may define as linguistic expression that refers to

another linguistic expression.

Example: Mary is sick. She wants to see a doctor.

Mary is antecedent, she is anaphora

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CHAPTER X

SENSE RELATION AND TRUTH

Sentence relation defined as the study about the relation that holds between sentence and it‟s

truth.

A. Logic and truth

Logic can help us to represent the meaning and the truth of sentence.

Examples :

1. a. If Jack is not in the bar, then he is in the lounge.

b. Jack is not in the bar

c. Jack is in the lounge (conclusion)

2. a. All man are mortal

b. Socrate is a man

c. Socrate is mortal (conclusion)

B. Necessary Truth, A Priory Truth and Analyticity

Necessary truth : a truth that cannot be contradicted.

Example : all bacheles are unmerried

Contingent truth : a truth that can be contradicted based on the fact.

Example : all bacheles are unhappy

A priori truth : truth that can be known without experience.

Example : my father is my father

A posteriori truth : only be known by using empirical testing.

Example : my father is the man who invented the telephone

Anlytical truth : a truth that comes from the meaning of the word within the

sentence.

Example : bachelor is unmerried man

Synthetic truth : a truth because it accords definition to the fact.

Example : my next door, Mr Jack is a director

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Analytical Necessary A priori truth

The word What the Based on

within the word is like experiences

sentence

all misers Jack‟s living I am manager

are stingy room has four

right angles

C. Presupposition

Something that speaker assumes to be the case prior in making an utterance.

Background belief of speaker.

Example : (p) John loves his wife

(q) John has wife

D. Entailment

Something that logically follow from what is inserted in the sentences utterance.

Example : (p) the anarchist killed the emperor

(q) the emperor died

Truth Table

p q

T T

F T

F or T T

Truth Table

p q

T T

F T or F

T F

F or T T

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CHAPTER XI

SPEECH ACT

Speech act is an utterance that constitutes some short of act.

Example: You should take a rest

Don‟t do anything!

1. Assertive utterance

An utterance that is used by speaker to tell what they known or believe concern with

the fact, the purpose to inform.

Example :

The open window disclosed a beautiful view

- The verbs that are used in assertive utterance such as : announce, declare, disclose,

proclaim, affirm, guarantee, expose, mention and reports.

2. Performative utterance

An utterance that brings about the state of affairs. It includes bet, blessing, firing,

beptism, arrest, marying.

Example :

I declare the meeting is adjurned

- The verbs that are used such as : bet, declare, beptism, name.

3. Verdictive utterance

Speech act in which a speaker make assessment or judgment about the act of another.

Example :

I congatulate you for performing so well

- It include rangking, assessing, appraising, blaming, accusation, praise,

condolence, congratulation.

- The most common expressive verbs are accuse, change, excuse, thank,

congratulate.

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4. Expressive utterance

An utterance that presents a result from the previous failure action of the speaker.

Example :

I apologize my appearance

- The most common expressive verbs are acknowledge, admit, convess, deny,

apologize.

5. Directive utterance

Speech act in which a speaker tries to get the addressee to perform some acts for

refrain from performs an act.

Example :

I ask you to wait

- It include command, request, suggestion.

6. Commisine utterance

Speech act that commit a speaker to a course of action.

Example :

I promise to pick you up at 7.00 clock.

- It include promise, pledge, threats.

7. Phatic utterance

Utterance that is used to establish social contact. Include greeting and farewell.

Example :

Good bye, good morning.

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CHAPTER XII

FACTIVITY, IMPLICATION, MODALITY

A. Factivity

A factive predicate has a predication as one of its arguments (a full clause, gerund

clause or an abstract noun phrase) and whether affirmative or negative, it presupposes the

truth of that predication.

Example:

1. We forgot/didn‟t forget that the meeting was canceled

>> The meeting was canceled

2. I resent/didn‟t resent John‟s decision

>> John decided something

3. It‟s (not) surprising that the baby woke up

>> The baby woke up

4. I regret/don‟t regret that smoking can cause cancer

>> Smoking can cause cancer

B. Implication

Some predicates do not presuppose the truth of a proposition that occurs as one of

their arguments but carry some implication about the truth or non-truth of the proposition

an interesting variety of implications and can recognize different kinds of implicative

predicates (called conditional factives). The symbol should be read “implies”. Six

groups of predicates according to what they imply about the truth value of included

clause.

1. Group 1

Affermative implies affirmative and negative implies negative.

Example:

a. We happened/chanced to see your brother

We saw your brother

b. He chose/condescended to wait for us

He waited for us

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2. Group 2

Affirmative implies negative that the embedded proposition is not true and

negative has an affirmative implication that the embedded proposition is true.

Example:

a. We didn‟t neglect/fail to make reservations

We made reservations

b. I avoided/missed/escaped appending that party

I didn‟t attend that party

3. Group 3

Example:

a. Henry acknoeledged/admitted starting the fire

Henry started the fire

b. Henry didn‟t acknoeledged/admitted starting the fire. ?

a. Circumtances forced us to cancle our plans

We canceled our plans

b. Circumtances forced us to cancle our plans. ?

4. Group 4

Affermative implies negative but negative has no implication

Example:

a. Mary pretented to be sleep. Mary was not sleep. ?

b. Mary didnt pretend to be sleep. ?

a. We forgot to make reservations. We didn‟t make resrvation. ?

b. We didn‟t forgot to make reservation. ?

5. Group 5

Affirmative has no implication, while the negative implies negative.

Example:

a. We tried to answer. ? (did we answer?)

b. We didn‟t try to answer. We didn‟t answer

a. We risked theirseeing us. ?

b. We didn‟t risk their seeinf us. They didn‟t see us

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6. Group 6

Affirmative implies nothing, negative implies affirmative.

Example:

a. Joel denied drawing the caricature. ? (did he draw it?)

b. Joel didn‟t deny drawing the caricature. Joel draw the caricature

C. Modality

Modality is the expression of necessity, possibility and probability, often through

modal verbs. Modality can be expressed in nouns like duty, obligatio, probability,

likelihood; in adjective like necessary, possible, likely; in adverbs such as obviously,

probably, perhaps; but for description of how modality is expressed in english we need to

concetrate on modal verbs, like ought and may. Semantically, the following are modal

verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, must, should, ought, need, have, and have to.

Example: We must leave immediately

We have to leave immediately. We have got to leave immediately

We need leave immediately

We ought leave immediately

We should leave immediately