simondon on the mode of existence of technical objects

8/4/2019 Simondon on the Mode of Existence of Technical Objects

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On t h e Mode of Ex is ten ce of T ech nic a l Ob je c t sby

Gi lber t S imondonP a r i s : A u b i e r, E d i t i o n s M o nt ai gn e, 1958

T r a n s l a t e d f ro m t h e F r en c h byNinian Mellamphyw i t h a P r e f a c e by

John Hart

U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s te rn O n t a r i oJune 1980

Work o n t h i s p r o j e c t w as s u p p o r t e d t h r o u g ht h e E x p l o r a t i o n s P r og r am o f T he C an ada C o u n c i l


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Conten ts

CHAPTER ONE-----------THE GENESIS OF THE TECHNICAL OBJECT: THE PROCESS OF CONCRETIZATIONI. Ab s t r ac t Techn ica l O b j ec t and Conc r et e Techn i ca l Ob j ec t ..... 111 . C o n d i t i o n s o f T e ch n i ca l E v o l u t i o n . . ........................ 17111. The Rythm o f Technical Progress ; Cont inuou s and MinorImprovement and Discont inuous and Major Improvement. . .......... 34CHAPTER TWO-----------THE EVOLUTION OF TECHNICAL REALITY: ELEMENT, INDIVIDUAL AND ENSEMBLE...... H y p e r t e l i a and S e l f - c o n d i t i o n i n g i n T e c h n ic a l E v o l u t i o n 5111. Techn i ca l I nv en t i on.......n v e n t i v e T ho ug ht1 1 1 . T e c h n i c a l I n d i v i d u a l ,I V . Evo l u t i ve Cha i ns and.............e l axa t i on . .

Form a nd C o n te n t i n L i f e a nd i n.................................... 60i z a t i o n ................................ 68T e c h n i c i t y C o n s e r v a t i o n s - The Law o f.................................... 75

V. T e c h n i c a l i t y and t h e E v o l u t io n o f T e ch ni cs : T e c h n i c a l i t y.........................s a n I n s t r u m e n t o f T e c h n ic a l E v o l u t i o n 82


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PREFACEby

John Hart

S im on do n' s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s , o f w hi ch t h e E n g l i s ht r a n s l a t i o n of P a r t I i s g i v e n h e r e , h a s a t w o- f ol d v a l u e ,f i r s t l y f o r r ea s o ns i m p l i c i t i n t h e i n i t i a l r e c og n i t i on i tre c e iv e d two de c a de s a go , and se c on d ly fo r i t s r e l e v a n c ei n con nec t io n wi t h themes which have s in c e become moree v i d e n t . Slow a s i t h a s b ee n t o o b t a i n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n i td e se r v es , t h e book r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n o r i g i n a l l y a s ani n t r o du c t i on t o a new way of understanding technology.A s a s c h o l a r l y work e x p l a i n i n g t h e h u ma ni ty c o n t a i n e d i nt h e m a ch in e, t h e r e was n o t h i n g l i k e i t i n t h e e n t i r e p hi lo -s o p h i c a l c o r p u s d e v ot e d t o t h e m ac hi ne , n o t h i n g t h a t i s ,which combined a ph i l o s op h i c a l t r e a tm e n t w i th th e samep ro xi m it y t o t h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t . The o u t s t a nd i n g q u a l i t yof S imondon 's t r ea tm en t i s t h a t f o r a l l t h e d i f f i c u l t i e sof c r o s s i n g s e p a r a t e d d om ai ns o f m ea ni ng h i s w r i t i n g i se s s e n t i a l l y , de ep down, a work of p r a i s e . When, a t t h esecond mechanology co nf er en ce , he commended t h e Co al Boardof E n glan d f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f a Newcornen E n g i n e , heo b s er v e d t h a t t h e o b j e c t i v e o f c o n s e r v a t o r i e s a nd museumsi s t o p ut t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s ba ck i n t o w orking c o n d i t i o n ."There i s , " he s a i d " so meth in g e t e r n a l i n a t e c h n i c a l


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schema . . . And i t i s t h a t ( q u a l i t y ) w hich i s a lwaysp r e s e n t a nd w hi ch c a n b e c o n s er v e d i n a t h i n g . " The onlyo t h e r w r i t e r who p l a c e d t h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t o n t h e same h i g hp l a n e w as J a c q u e s L a f i t t e whose book p u b l i s h e d i n 1 93 2f i r s t recom mended t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s c i e n c e o f m a ch in eso r mechanology .2

I f as I b e l i e ve , t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i tha seco nd moment i n th e emergence of m echanology, i t nonethe-l e s s r e sponds s t i l l t o t h e e x ig e n ci e s o f t h e f i r s t . We maye n v i s a g e a new g ro up o f r e a d e r s , n ot n e c e s s a r i l y d i s t i n c tb ut e n c or p o ra t in g i n t e r e s t s which d i d no t e x i s t b e f o r e .The f i r s t group we re s c h o l a r s and p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n t h e s o c i a ls c i e nc es ; f o r t hem mechano logy i s a much needed di sc ou rs eo n t e c h n i c s , w h i c h i s t o s a y , a s c i e n t i f i c t re a t m en t h av in gt e c h n i c a l o p e r a t i o n s a s o b j e c t . The new g r ou p w ou ld b e t h o s ewho, a n t i c i p a t e d by t h e a u t h o r , p e r c e i v e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y ofe n c o r p o r a t i n g t h e m ac hin e i n t o t h e f a m i l y o f t h i n g s humana s p a r t o f a g l o b a l c u l t u r a l re n n a i s sa n c e .

Between t h e e a r l i e r and l a t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h et e c h n o lo g i c a l o b j e c t t h e r e is no i n c o m p a t a b i l i t y . A so c c i d e n t a l t e c hn o l og y e xp an ds t h ro u g h ou t t h e w o r l d , r e f l e c -t i o n on i t s m ea nin g m ust r e a c h down p a s t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t o

G . Simondon, i n C a h i e r s d u C e n t r e C u l t u r a l C a na di en - No.4 , Deuxiem e C o l l o qu e S u r l a M e c an o lo g ie , P a r i s , 1 9 7 6 , p . '8 7.J . L a f i t t e , R e f l e x io n s s u r l a s c i e n c e d e s m ac hi ne s, Bloude t Gay, P a r i s , 1932 .


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t h e m os t f u n da m e n ta l , most u n i v e r s a l i n t e n t i o n s i n d e p e n d e n to f e t h n i c r o o t s and n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s . The c r e a t i v e fl ow e r-i n g of some p a r t of human ex pr es s io n i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l yc o n fi n in g o r r e s t r i c t i n g . But t e ch n o lo g ic a l c r e a t i v i t y i sc o n f i n i n g u n l e s s i t i s a l l i e d w i th o t h e r human a s p i r a t i o n s .T e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s a l i e n a t e u n l e s s t h e y a r e somehow b a p t i z e d ,t h a t i s , u n l e s s t h ey become a t t a c h e d t o i n t e n t i o n s w hichr e s p o n d t o t h e c on te m po ra ry l e v e l o f t h e h i g h e s t human h op e .I t i s v a l u e which g i v e s t e c h n i c a l c r e a t i v i t y i t s c u r r e n c y ,i t s t r a n s c e n d a n c e i n vie w o f c o mm u ni ca ti on , a d d i n g t o p r a i s et h e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i ty o f t h e g i f t .

R e f er r i n g t o t h e n eed f o r q u a l i t y ( i . e . v a lu e )P e r s i g g i v e s t h e e xa mp le of a c o u p l e w hose a t t i t u d e t ow a rda b ro ke n m o t or cy c le o r a l e a k i n g f a u c e t a l t e r n a t e d b etw eeno u t r i g h t h o s t i l i t y a nd a p p a r e n t u n co n ce rn . He d i s c o v e r e dt h a t t h e u n co nc er n was a mask f o r s u p p r e s s e d a n g e r , h e l db ac k b e ca u s e t o r e v e a l i t w ould b e t o g i v e t e ch n o lo g y t o omuch imp orta nc e. He conc luded t h a t i t was not t h e motor-c y c l e ma in te na nc e, n o r t h e f a u c e t r e p a i r n o r any o t h e rannoyance o r mal fu nc t i on bu t t h e whole o f t echno logy whichi s t h e enemy.' The i n d iv id ua l machine o r mach ine e lemen tbecomes a d i s t a s t e f u l s ym bol f o r t h e e n t i r e d ehu manizedw o r l d , b e s t s y m bo li ze d by t h e b a r b e d w i r e f e n c e a r o u n d

R . M . P e r s i g , Z en an d t h e A r t of Motorcyc le Maintenance ,Bantam, New York, 1975, p . 15.


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a f a c t o r y . P e r s i g s a y s t h a t h e i s s e n s i t i v e t o t h e h o s t o fd e h u m a n i z i n g i n f l u e n c e s . H e d i s a g r e e s w i t h t h e c o up l ea b o u t c y c l e m a i nt e na n c e, " n o t b e c u a s e I am o u t o f sympathyw i t h t h e i r f e e l i n g s a bo ut t e c h no l og y . I j u s t t h i n k t h e i rf l i g h t f ro m a nd h a t r e d o f t e ch n o lo g y i s s e l f - d e f e a t i n g .The B ud dh a, t h e G odhead, r e s i d e s q u i t e a s c o m f o r t a bl y i nt h e c i r c u i t s o f a d i g i t a l computer o r t h e g e a r s o f a c y c l eas h e d o e s a t t h e t o p o f a mo un ta in o r i n t h e p e t a l s o f af l o w e r . To t h i n k o t h e r w i s e i s t o d emean t h e B ud dh a, w h i chi s t o demean o n e s e l f ." I

I n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e g r ou p o f p e o pl e e nv i s ag ed i n t h i ss e c o n d moment o f me ch an ol og y s c a r c e l y e x i s t s . T he y a rep e o pl e p o s s es s ed o f t h e i d e a t h a t t h e mac hine is i n as e n s e s e p a r a t e b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d i vo r ce d f ro m v a l u e .Knowing t h a t i t a r i s e s o u t o f a p u r e Di on ys ia n a s p i r a t i o n ,c a p a bl e o f e x i s t i n g i n r a d i c a l i s o l a t i o n f rom o t h e r a s p e c t so f l i f e , a nd t h a t a lo n gs i d e i t , a l on g s id e i t s mechanologyt h e r e mu st e x i s t wh at D a ly c a l l s a m e t a e t h i c s , a w a re n e sso f v a l u e b eyo nd t h e c u r r e n t p e r c e p t i o n o f h u ma n it y, a d v an c in gt o g e t h e r w i th it i n a p r o c e s s o f c o n v e r g e n c e .2

B e f o re making t h e jump t o t h e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s , l e t

'M. D a ly , G y n e c o l o ~ y ; h e M e t a e t h i c s o f R a d i c a l F em in is m,B ea co n P r e s s , B o s t o n , 1 9 7 8 .


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us co ns i de r t h e way S imondon 's work was pe rc e iv ed i n 1958 .T h e F r e n c h e d i t i o n i s i n t h r e e p a r t s , c or re sp on di ng t o t h r e emodes o f e x i s t e n c e o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l o b j e c t . P a r t I ,e n t i t l e d Ge ne si s an d E v o l ut io n o f T e c h n i ca l O b j e c t s , i sd ev oted t o i n t r i n s i c machine r e a l i t y , t o t h e p r i n c i p l e sa nd c o r re s p o n d i n g e xa mp le s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e t e c h n i c a lo b j e c t . P a r t I1 i s c a l l e d Man a n d t h e T e c h n i c a l O b j e c t .I t may be cons ide red commentary, i n t h e l i g h t of mechanology,

1of t h e work of Wien er: Human Use of Human B e in g s. Thec o n c ep t o f i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e n a t u r e o f p r o g r e s s , t h e m eanin gof a ut om a ti on an d o t h e r d e r i v a t i v e s of t h e s c i e n t i f i c ande n g i n e e r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s o f th er mo dy na mic s a r e i m p o r t a n tt h e m e s . P a r t I11 i s c a l l e d G e n es is o f T e c h n i c a l i t y . I fP a r t I may b e s a i d t o b e d e vo te d t o t h e m achine i t s e l f , i t si n t r i n s i c s t r u c t u r e and e v ol u t io n , and P a r t I1 t o t h e man-m achin e r e l a t i o n s h i p , P a r t I11 i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n e ss a y ont h e m a ch in e a nd p h i l o s o p h y . I n i t t h e a u t h o r e x p a n d s o nt h e i d e a t h a t p h i lo s o p hi c a l t ho u gh t , i n o r d e r t o s e i z e t h es i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e e x i s t e n c e of t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s , mustb e d i r e c t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n of t h e s e o b j ec t sand t o t h e c o n d i t i on s of t h e i r g e n e s i s a r i s i n g o u t of t h er e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n h um an it y a n d t h e w o r l d .

I n a t t e m p ti n g t o i n t r o d u c e t h e i d e a s o f Sim ondon, I

N . W ien er, Human Use of Human B ei ng s: C y b e r n e t ic s andSo c i e t y , Houghton and Mu f f l i n , B os ton , 1950.


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a m f a c e d w i t h a t a s k s i m i l a r t o h i s when h e o r g a n i z e d ac on fe re nc e i n t h e s e r i e s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o l l o q u i a a tRoyamount i n 1 9 6 4, d e v o te d t o c y b e r n e t i c s a nd f e a t u r i n gWiener as key spe ak e r . S imondon was c a l l e d upon t op r o v i d e t h e c o n t e x t i n wh ic h t h e a ss em b le d p h i l o s o p h e r sa nd s c i e n t i s t s m ig ht h e a r w hat t h e f o u nd er of c y b e r n e t i c shad t o s a y on t h e t o p i c a nd t i t l e o f t h e p r o c e e d in g s :The Concept o f I n fo r ma t io n i n Con tempora ry Sc i e nce .R e f e r r in g t o t h e f a c t t h a t c y b e r n e t i c s grew ou t o f t h er e f l e c t i o n s o f a g ro up o f s c i e n t i s t s a t MIT ( m a t h em a t ic i an s ,b i o l o g i s t s , p h y s i o l o g i s t s , e t c . ) h e com pared i t t o t h ew ork of N ew ton, t h e l a s t man o f s c i e n c e t o c o v e r t h e e n t i r edomain o f o b j e c t i v e r e f l e c t i o n , a nd w ent on t o s a y , " I nf a c t , h i s t o r i c a l l y , c y b e r n e t i c s a pp ea re d a s s om e th in g newd i r e c t e d t o a c h i e vi n g a s y n t h e s i s ; i n sum, we f i n d o u r s e l v e sb r ou g ht h a ck t o t h e t i m e o f N ew ton, o r t o t h e t i m e whent h e g r e a t p h i lo s o p he r s w ere m a th em at ic ia ns o r s c i e n t i s t si n t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s and i n v e r s e l y . T h i s i s d o u b t l e s st h e c o n t e x t i n w hic h i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o l i s t e n t o whatP r o f e s s o r W iener h a s t o p r e s e n t t o u s . 1 , 1

A r e s u r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t i n S im o nd o n' s m ain t he m es

G . Simondon, i n t r od uc t i on o f N orbe r t Wiener i n Le Conceptd e l ' i n f o r m a t i o n d a ns l a s c i e n c e c o nt e mp o ra in e , L e sC a h i e r s d o Rovaumont. C o l l e c t i o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l e s o u s l ad i r e c t i o n de M . ~ o u i k ouf f i g n a l , G a u t ie r -V i l l a r s , P a r i s ,1965, p . 99 .


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w ould show up t h e c o n t r a s t be tw ee n t h e s c i e n t i f i c p h i l o s o -phy of c yb er ne ti cs and mechanology. Mechanology i s n o t ,l i k e W i en e r' s c y b e r n e t i cs , a k in d of s u c c e s so r t o t h en a t u r a l ph il os op hy o f Newton, b u t , i n s o f a r a s t h e p a r a l l e li s v a l i d , a s u c c e s s o r t o t h e Anatom ia U n i v e r s a l i s o f~ a r v e ~' W hereas t h e c e n t r a l n o t i o n o f c y b e r n e t i c s wassy s t e m, th e c o mpa rab le c o n c e p t i n mechanology i s m.I t is t h e human body wi th i t s b a l a n c e , i t s r a p p o r t , a n d i t semana t ions which g iv es t o mechanology a d e g re e o f u n iv e r -s a l i t y w hich p u t i t i n t o l e g i t i m a t e c om pa ri so n w i t h t h eb r oa d e x t e n s io n o f s c i e n c e . A lth ou gh t h i s r e f e r e n c e t ot h e b ody i s n o t e x p l i c i t i n Si mo nd on , t h e new i m p o r ta n c ea t t a c h e d t o h i s i d e a s may be s e e n t o a r i s e be ca us e of t h ec o n t r i b u t i o n t h e y make t o t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e .

The s y n t h e s i s w hich c y b e r n e t i c s a t t e m p t e d , o f t e nd e s c r i b e d a s a new c r o s s r o a d s o f s c i e n c e , was v er y i n s t r u c -t i v e b o t h i n how i t f a i l e d a nd how i t succeeded . UsingK u h n ' s t e r m i n o l o g y , i t was t h e l o c u s o f a p ar a di g mc ha ng e w h ic h , i n s o f a r a s s c i e n c e was c o n c e r n e d , w as b o t h ac he ck an d a b a l a n c e, a c o n s t r a i n tw a s d i r e c t e d to wa rd new a nd f r e s h

and a r e n e w a l . S c ie nc ep a t h s w h i l e b e i n g

W . Harvey , The Ana tomica l Le c t ur es o f W il l iam Harvey ,G . W h i t t e r i d g e , E d . , E . & S . L i v i n g s t o n e , E d i n bu r g h , 1 9 6 4 .

'T.s. Kuhn, T he S t r u c t u r e o f S c i e n t i f i c R e v o l u t i o n s ,U n i v e r s i t y o f C hi ca go P r e s s , C h i c ag o , 1 9 62 .


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c a u t i o n e d t o ab an do n i t s P ro m et he an a m b i t i o n . C y b e r n e t i c shad begun w i th a p l e a t o r e t u r n t o i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r ys t u d i e s , t o t u r n away f ro m n ar ro w f r a g m e n t a t i o n t o a modeo f p e r c e p t i o n l i k e t h a t of N e wto n's . I n t h e b e s t m in ds,t h a t i s what happened . The cy be rn e t i c con cep t s o f f eed-b ac k a nd i n f o r m a t i o n be ga n t o r e a c h o u t a c r o s s t h e n a t u r a ls c i e n c e s and i n c l u d e t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s a s w e l l . A t t h esame t i m e , c om p ut er a n d i n f o r m a t i o n s c i e n c e was r e c o g n i z e da s a welcome newcomer s i n c e i t s i n d e p e n d e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n so f i n f o r m a t i c s and a l g o r i t h m i c s we re f ou nd t o b e v a l u a b l ei n t h e o t h e r s c i e n c e s . F i n a l l y , i n a d r am a t i c e x t e ns i o nbeyond p r e v i o u s l y c h a r t e d d om ains o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h es tu d y of A r t i f i c i a l I n t e l l i g e n c e of and w i th t h e a i d ofm ach ines op en ed v a s t h o r iz o n s f o r o b j e c t i v e , s c i e n t i f i ci n v e s t i g a t i o n .

T hese p r o j e c t s w ere a l l l a t e r a l h o r i z o n t a l expan-s i o n s , t h e l e g i t i m a t e r e p r o d u c ti o n i n k i n d o f t h e domainof o b j e c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A t t h e s ame t i m e t h e o v e r-w ee ni ng a m b i t i o n o f s c i e n c e s i n c e l o n g b e f o r e Newton w h ic hg a v e s c i e n c e i t s v e r t i c a l a sc en s i on was t e r m i n a t e d ,p ro b ab ly ne ve r t o r e t u r n . S c i e nc e , meaning t h e e n t i r edom ain o f o b j e c t i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , h ad become t h eP r o c r u s t i a n m e a su re o f k no w le dg e. I t s proponents made i ti n t o a k i nd of b e l i e f s ys te m , o r a t l e a s t t h e p r o m i n e n th a lf o f t h e two i n t e l l e c t u a l c u l t u r e s , A r t s a n d S c i e n c e .


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C y b e r n e ti c s , i n i t s s h o r t c a r e e r a s s y n t h e s i s o r u m b re l l ao f s c i e n c e , was d r i v e n by t h e s am e i m p e r i a l i s m . A t t h eRoyaumont Co nference , one of th e spe ak er s , Fra nqo is Bonsack ,a t t e m p t i n g t o d e s c r i b e i n f o rm a t i o n a s s om et hi ng t o b es o u g h t f o r i t s own s a k e and as componen t o f f i n a l i z e da c t i o n , r e f e r s t o t h e c r u c i a l s t u d y o f R uyer d e vo te d t ot h e p ro bl em of d e f i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n i n d ep e n d en t o fc o n s c i ~ u s n e s s . ~ n h i s book o n c y b e r n e t i c s a nd t h eo r i g i n of i n f o r m a t i o n , R uyer q u e s t i o n s t h e a bs e n ce i nc y b e r n e t i c s of an ax i ol o g y, t h a t i s , o f a r e f e r e n c e t ov a l u e . He a s s e r t s t h a t w hat i s o m i tt e d from a l l of t h em e c h an i st i c e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e t h e " v al ue s o r v a l e n c e sc o n t r o l l i n g a c t i o n s by a k in d o f a x i o l o g i c a l f ee db ac ka n a l o g o u s , b u t n o t r e d u c i b l e t o t h e m e ch a ni ca l f e e d b a ckof a u t o m a t a " . C l a s s i c a l s c i e n c e a nd t ec h n o l o g y ha d b eg unt o r e co g ni ze t h e i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f a s c i e n t i f i c s p ec u la t io nfrom which v alu e i s a b s e n t i n t h e e x p l o s iv e d a n g er s ofe x c e s s i v e p r o d u c t i v i t y : n u c l e a r a rm am en t, a u t o m o b i lep o l l u t a n t s , i n d u s t r i a l wa st e , a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e .R uyer, l o ok i n g a t t h e i n t r i n s i c d ev elo pm en t o f s c i e n c e asi t d e a l t w i t h t h e c on ce pt o f i n f o rm a t i o n , p i c k s t h ep re c i s e moment where a not i on o f v a l ue i s e x c l u d e d . I ndoifag s o h e was b r i n g i n g t o b e a r t h e r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e o f

R . Ruyer , L a C y be rn et iq ue e t l ' o r i g i n e de l ' i n f o r m a t i o n ,F l a m m a r i o n , P a r i s , 1 9 5 4 .


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c o nt e mp o ra r y E ur op ea n t h o u g h t i n s o f a r a s i t owed i t s b a s i st o c l a s s i c a l Greek c u l t u r e . A s e x p r e s s e d i n t h e phenome-n ol og y o f H u s s er l a n d o t h e r s , t h i s d e p a r t u r e be ga n b yd en yi ng t h a t s c i e n c e h a s a p r e f e r e n t i a l s i t u a t i o n w i t hr e s p e c t t o t h e r e a l i t y which s u r ro u n ds human l i f e . Thec r y s t a l i z a t i o n a nd p er h a ps t h e most d e c i s i v e moment o f t h i sr e v o l u t i o n a r y mode o f t h o u g h t i s g i ve n i n Max S c h e l e r , as t u d e n t o f H u ss e r l , i n h i s d o c t o r a l t h e s i s a t J e n a i n 18 9 7 .T h i s t h e s i s a t t a c k e d t h e r a t i o n a l i s t i c b a s i s o f a l l t h a t i si m p l i e d i n t h e N icomachean E t h i c s o f A r i s t o t l e a n d s t a t e di n e f f e c t t h a t e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a nd l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e sb e l o n g t o d i f f e r e n t d om ai ns o f m ea ni ng .1

A ro un d t h e m a c h in e c i r c l e t h e ma in t he m es o f o u ra g e : t e c h n o l o g y i s i m p l i c i t i n t h e i r c au se s as w e l l a sb e i n g an e le me nt i n t h e i r e v o l u t i o n . But s i n c e c y b e r n e t i c sh a s s u f f e r e d a c h e ck t o be co mi ng t h e m eans o f u n d e r s t a n d i n gt h a t t e ch n o lo g y , w h er e c a n w e t u r n ? I f s c i e n c e a nd i t sa s s o c i a t e d p h i lo s o ph y c a n n o t do s o b e c a u s e i t s b a s i s i nn a t u r a l p h il o so p hy i s n o t s u i t a b l e , c an we c a l l upon am ec ha no lo gy i n v e n t e d p r e c i s e l y t o b r i n g t h e m ean in g o f t h a tr e a l i t y i n c o n t a c t w i t h o t h e r domains o f knowledge? We

M . S c h e l e r , B e i t r a g e z u r F e s t s t e l l u n g d e r B ez ie hu ng enz w is c he n den L o g is c h e n un d E t h i s c h e n P r i n z i p i e n , J e n a ,1 89 7. The most a c c e s s i b l e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o S c h e l e r ' se t h i c s o f v a l ue s is g i v e n i n h i s b ook The N a t ur e o fSympathy, t r . by P e t e r H e a t h , New Haven , 1954 .


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r u n h e r e i n t o a o b s t a c l e which h a s n o t t o d o w i t h a pp ro -p r i a t e n e s s b u t t o t h e f a c t t h a t S imondon's t h e s i s ( an dL a f i t t e ' s ) is p r e s e n t e d i n a l an g ua g e w hi ch i s by andl a r g e i n a c c e s s i b l e t o most r e a d e r s .

Simondon i s n o t u naw are o f t h e t e r m i n o l o g i c a ld i f f i c u l t i e s . H e a tt em p te d t o r e c t i f y t h e i n a d eq u a ci es o ft h e w r i t t e n word w it h d iagram s b e t t e r a b l e t o i l l u s t r a t et e c h n o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n and c o mp o si ti on . The f i r s t e d i t i o nwas p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t t h e s e d i a g ra m s , an o m i s si o n by t h ep u b l i s h e r due t o c o s t b u t s i g n i f i c a n t f o r o t h e r r e a s on s .W ith ou t t h i s n on -v er ba l p r e s e n t a t i o n , deemed e s s e n t i a l , 1t h e book a s i t f i r s t ap peare d i n t h e A n al ys e e t R a is onc o l l e c t i o n o f Aub ie r , b o re t h e st amp and manner o f ap h i l o s o p h i c a l s t u d y . The p r e s e n t a t i o n i m p l i e d t h a t t h ework w as t o b e s e e n , a s i t had been la unc hed , among t h ep ro gen y of t h e f a m i l i a r Fr en ch p h i l o s o p h i c a l t r a d i t i o n ,r a t h e r t h a n a r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e . When t h e book a p pe a re d i n1958 i t w as n o n e t h e l e s s w e l l r e c e i v e d . T y p i c a l o f i t sr e c o g n i t i o n was t h e r e f e r e n c e t o i t i n Volume 11 0 o fC a h i e r s d e 1 I .S .E . A . (1 96 4) d ev ot ed t o ' P r o g r e s s ' , a f t e ri t a pp e ar ed . C o ns id er ed a s "a s o l i d a nd b r i l l i a n t e s sa yon t h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e ct , " t i s p r a i s e d a s a p h i lo s o p h ic a l

s e e t h e d ef en ce of n on -v er ba l t h i n k i n g and n o n - s c i e n t i f i cmodes of thought i n E . S . Fer gus on, The Mind 's Eye: Non-ve rba l Though t i n Techno logy , S c i e nc e , Vo l . 197 , August1977, pp. 827-836.G . G ra ng er , i n Le P r o g re s s , C a h ie r s d e l T I n s t i t u t d e S c ie n c eEconomique Applique N 1 10 , F e v r i e r 1 9 6 1, p . 2 3 .


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i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n w hich t h e m o d a l i ti e s o f p r o g r es s a r ed e s c r i b e d . I t i s n o te d t h a t " t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g p r o pe r t ot e c h n o l o g y c o n s i s t s i n p a s s i n g fr om t h e ' a b s t r a c t ' m achinet o t h e ' c o n c r e t e ' m achine wh e re in t h e o r g a n s a r e more o rl e s s i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e w ho le . The a nt ag o ni sm s an dr e c i p r o c a l l i m i t a t i o n s a r e p r og r es s iv e ly e f f a c e d , t h ef u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e ma ch in e t e n d i n g t o become a g l o b a lf u n c t i o n i n g , and i n sum, t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l o b j e c t a p p ro a ch e st h e n a t u r a l o b j e c t b u t by o t h e r ways t h a n t h o s e of n a t u r e . , 1V a l o r i z i n g t h e same theme and making i t more impor tan t ,v a n L i e r , i n 'Le Nouvel Age' , a book d e v o t e d t o t h e newchances o f humanism, p ropos es th a t " t h i s new v i sa ge ( o f t h em ac hi ne ) e x p l a i n s o r i n any c a s e r e i n f o r c e s m ost o f t h ee s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e c on te mp or ar y w o r ld ; t h a ti t su g g e s t s a sy s t e m o f v a l u e s su c e p t i b l e o f pr o mo ti ng anew humanism. 1?2

And y e t , a l th oug h t h e rev iews and commentar ies weref a v o r a b l e , i t h a s no t happened t h a t t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u reof t h e machine ac co rd in g t o Simondon has become p a r t andp a r c e l o f c on te mp or ar y t e c h n i c a l d i s c o u r s e an d i n d e e d i sn ot a s w e l l known a s t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h o u g h t f u l w orksa p p e a ri n g a t t h e s ame time o r l a t e r . The r ea so n f o r t h i s ,

2H . van L i e r , Le Nouvel Age, Casterman, T ou rn ai , 1964.


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th ou gh c r e d i t a b l e somewhat t o t h e s p e c i a l o p t i c o f t h es o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , p hi lo so ph er s and l i t e r a r y c r i t i c s whos i g n a l e d i t s a d v e n t , i s t h a t t h e l a n gu a g e i n w h ic h mecha-no logy is w r i t t e n i s an o b s t a c l e f o r a l l bu t t h e r a r ei n d i v i d u a l s i n whom t h e r e i s a c om b in a ti on o f s c h o l a r l y a n dm e ch a no lo g ic a l e x p e r i e n c e , e n a b l i n g them t o b r i d g e t h e g a pbetween domains of meaning which u n t i l now have beens e p a r a t e d .

Cons ide r t h e concep t which has been r ecogn iz ed a sk e y . I n t h i s t r a n s l a t i o n we h av e a l lo w e d t h e word' c on c r6 t u de ' t o b e t r a n s l a t e d a s ' c o n c r e t i s a t i o n ' knowingt h a t t h e t r u e s e n s e o f m achine g e n e s i s i s t he re b y l o s t .T h e e q u i v a l e n t i n En gl i sh o f t h e mechano log ica l mean ing i sc l o s e r t o ' co n c re s ce n s e' b u t i t t o o i s i nadequa te . Wha twe a r e d e a l i n g w i t h i s a n o n - p e j o r a t i v e b u t d i s t a n c e d modeo f e x p r e s s i o n ; i t i s l a t i n i n o r i g i n and c h oi ce o f s e n s e ,w i t h c o ns e qu e nt d i s t a n c e b et we en t h e r e a l m a ch in e a nd o u rc o n c e p t io n . T h i s u s a ge a nd t h a t o f t h e c o r r e sp o n d i n ga n t o n y m , a b s t r a c t , i s not an i s o l a t e d phenomenon; nor i si t i n d i f f e r e n t . E x c e l l e n t wo rd s a s t h e y a r e , n ou ns s uc ha s c o n c r e t e an d a b s t r a c t g i v e im ag es wh ic h a r e rem oved f ro mt h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t . They c a n b e t o o r e a d i l y a s s i m i l a t e di n t o t h e a n t i t e c h n o l o g i c a l b i a s , t o j o i n o t h e r w ord s wheret h a t b i a s i s cem ented i n t o t h e i r c o n n o t a t i o n . Th us t h e ydo no t e s c ap e t h e p e r e n n i a l d i s t r u s t embedded i n c l a s s i c a l


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humanism where th e word machine i t s e l f hav ing a meanings i m i l a r t o m a ch in at io n , i s de r i ve d f rom th e Greek machine ,m eaning ' a t r i c k a g a i n s t n a t u r e ' .

What i s needed i s n o t s o much a t r a n s l a t i o n as at r a n s d u c t i o n . To go d i r e c t l y fr om F re nc h t o E n g l i s h t r a n s -p o s i n g o n e word f ro m l a t i n o r g r e e k by a n o t h e r h a v i n g t h esame o r i g i n u s u a l l y w o r se ns t h e i n t e n d e d me an in g w he rete c hno logy i s c o nc e rn e d . H av in g r e co g n iz e d t h a t l i t e r a r yla ngua ge i s n ot s u i t a b l e , t h e q u es t io n i s wha t s t e p s mus tbe tak en t o re nd er mechanology i n a mode cap ab l e o f convey-i n g f o r a b ro a d a u di e nc e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e mach in ef o r t h e g l o ba l c u l t u r e i t i s c a l l i n g f o r t h .

The f r e s he n in g o f l a ngua ge i s t a k i ng two main ro u t e s ,t h e one con ne c te d t o c r a f t s , t h e o t h e r t o A r t i f i c i a lI n t e l l i g e n c e . T h is l a t t e r r o u t e r e l a t e s t o computerl a ngua ge a nd compu te r g r a p h ic s c o ns i de re d a s a fo rm o fe x p r es s i o n w hi ch , l i k e f i l m , r e n d e r s t h e e s s e nc e of t h em ach in e a c c e s s i b l e i n s o f a r as o p e r a t i o n s a r e c o n ce rn ed .L ik e h a n d i c r a f t s , i t w i l l h e l p t o a r t i c u l a t e i n a way t h a tt h e g e n e ra l p u b l i c w i l l und e rs ta n d , t h e h idde n humane le me nt s i n t h e m achi ne. I n p a r a l l e l w i t h t h a t , r e c e n tl i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e s have t h e i mp or ta nt f u nc t io n t o b r i n gf o rw a rd t h e g r a s p o f t h e ma ch in e fr om e a r l i e r t e c h n o l o g i e sp a r t i c u l a r l y t h os e o f t h e a r t i s a n .


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F or p e o p le to d ay t o u n d e r st a n d , t o u s e and t ohumanize t h e machine , i t i s n ec es sa ry t o s t a r t w i t hc r a f t s b o t h o l d and new. F or t h e c r a f t s show , w i t h ad e p th o f s o n an c e c om p ar ab le t o t h e s ym pa th y o f i n t e r -s u b j e c t i v i t y , t h e image of a l i f e t i m e o f d i a l o g u e betw eent h e s e l f and t h e o t h e r . The c r a f t s h av e had t o b e k e p ta l i v e by M o r r i s an d o t h e r s t h ro u g h a k i n d o f D ark A ge s,much a s w r i t i n g i s s a i d t o h a v e b ee n p r e s e r v e d by m onks.The c r a f t s d i d no t go u ns ca th e d i n t h e p r o c e s s , s i n c e t h e ysometimes had t o masque rade unde r i nap pr op r i a t e l a b e l s .R e s ur re c te d a s a d e fe n ce a g a i n s t t h e w or s t f e a t u r e s o fi n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , t h e y s om et im es as su med a d e g r e e o fa r t i f i c i a l i t y n ot i n k ee pi ng w i t h t h e i r o l d e r pu rp os e o rf u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . 1 T h i s was e v i d e n t i n t h e e s t a b l i s h -ment o f h i e r a r c h y among d i f f e r e n t c r a f t s p e o p l e , a c t i n g a sa k i n d of c a s t e s y s te m . Even G han di c a l l i n g on t h et r a d i t i o n s of I n d i a , was n o t a b l e t o r e s t o r e t h e c r a f t st o t h e i r f u l l v a l ue i n t h e c as e o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .

The c r a f t s ca n a c t t o p r o v i d e c o n t i n u i t y of m eaningt h r o u g h d i r e c t kn ow led ge of f u n c t i o n m ade s p e c i f i c by t h eu n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g e s t u r e . N o nv er ba l k no wle dg e a r t i c u l a t e dby t h e h a n ds a nd f e e t i s t h e b o d y ' s way o f t h i n k i n g j u s t ast h e c h i s e l l i n g of w ords fr om so un d i s t h e mind ' s way of

s e e t h e p e r t i n e n t d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e A rts -a nd C r a f t sMovement i n J . A . A r g u e l l e s , The T r a n s f o r m a t i v e V i s i o n ,Shambhala , Berk ekel , 1975, p . 182 .


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x v i

making co n ta c t . Noth ing so much pr ev en ts t h e harmoniousi n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e human i n d i v i d u a l a s t h e d o wn gra din g o fo ne i n f a vo u r o f t h e o t h e r u n l e s s i t i s l o s s o f h a b i l i t yi n b o t h . I t i s t h e a s s e r t i o n by R i c ha r ds o f t h e i nc on -ve r t ab l e s t r e n g th and symmetry o f t h e combina ti on wh ichmakes h e r c o m bi n at i on o f p o t t e r y a nd w r i t i n g s o i m p o r t a n t . 1Her c on c ep t of c e n t e r i n g a nd f u s i o n a s f ou nd i n t h e p o t t e r ' sc r a f t h a s t h e b e s t c ha nc e of p r o v i d i n g a l a n gu a ge f o rm ach in e ' c o n c r e t u d e ' i n Sim ondon . T h i s a s s o c i a t i o n b e l o n g st o t h e same p r o c e ss of re ne wa l a s t h e l i n g u i s t i c s t u d i e si n B r i t a i n by E va ns w here t e rm s u se d by a r t i s a n s i n t h ev i l l a g e s h a s l e d t o t h e d i s co v e ry of u ne xp ec te d t r e a s u r e si n t h e a n g lo s ax on w ords a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c r a f t s . 2

The con t empora ry i n t e r e s t i n t h e body o r i g i n a t e d ,not s o much a s a r e a c t io n a g a i n st t h e c e n t u r i e s o fr a t i o n a l i s m , b u t a s a r e s u l t of t h e d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t s oft h e shock caused by t h e adven t o f au tom a t i c machinery .A s Marx w a s a c u t e l y a w a r e , i t was t h e r e pl a c e m e n t of t h ehuman hand by t h e mach ine t o o l , wh ich caused t h e r up tu re .A s l ong a s man pe rce iv ed h imse l f a s demiurge , a s mas t e rwhose hands r emode l led na t u r e , h i s s e l f - image was s e cu re .

1 1 . C . R i c h a rd s , C e n t e ri n g i n P o t t e r y , P o e t r y , a nd t h e P er s onWes leyan Uni ve r s i t y P r e s s , Midd le town , 1962 .2G . E . Evans, The Days That We Have Seen, Faber and Faber ,1975.


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B ut when t h e m ac hi ne o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e c h n i c a l o b j e c tw a s a v a i l a b l e n o t m e re ly as t o o l b u t s t a nd i n g i n f o r himi n e x e c u t i o n a s a s e p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l , i t w a s e q u i v a l e n t t ot h e l o s s f o r man, i n a s i n g l e s t e p , o f a c r u c i a l p a r t o fh i s i n h e r i t a n c e . 1

T h a t s ho c k h a s f a r fro m b ee n r e s o l v e d . Th e e n t i r em yth ol og y o f t h e r o b o t , more p o p u l a r t h a n e v e r d u e t o t h ed i f f u s i o n by f i l m an d t e l e v i s i o n , i s w i t n e s s t o i t sc o n t in u e d c on c er n i n t h e min ds o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e .Bu t wher eas mass m ed ia h a ve k e p t a l i v e a n d e nh a nc e d t h ei r r a t i o n a l f e a r of t e ch n ol o gy , t h e se qu en ce o f a c t u a le v e n t s h a s n o t f o l lo w ed t h e same r e g r e s s i v e r o u t e . Byn e c e s s i t y a n d t h ro u gh g e n u in e c o nc e rn , t h e e a r l y p a t r o n so f i n d u s t r y r ec o gn i ze d t h a t p r o d u c t i v i t y , g o a l o f t h ef a c t o r i e s p a r e x c e l l e n c e , demanded a sound body as muchas a n e f f i c i e n t m ac hi ne . G u il le r me s a y s t h a t Du pin , o n eo f t h e o r i g i n a t o r s o f F r e nc h i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y , w ast y p i c a l o f s u c h men i n t h a t w h i l e h e s o ug h t t o i m pro vet h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e wo rk e r s , h e b e l i e v e d t h a t s o c i a lharmony c o u ld o n l y b e r e a l i z e d by t h e p e r f e c t i o n i n g o f a l lt h e f a c u l t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . The i mp or ta nc e o fa t h l e t i c s , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a l a r t s as or namen twere t h e outcome o f t h e s e a t t i t u d e s . I n t h e m id s t of t h i s

' ^ K . Marx, C a p i t a l , Volume 1, V i n t a g e B o ok s, 1 9 77 , p . 4 9 7 .


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was t h e nee d t o s e e t h e body t o t a l l y . 1

The body t h a t was p er ce iv ed was known v ery imper-f e c t l y a nd f ro m a s t a n d po i n t of t h e v ery r a t i o n a l i s m t owhich i t would be opposed. I t was a body image t h a tevo lve d from "pseudo-mathematized enigma" t o "anim atedmotor" t o " thermodynamic e x c h a n g e r " . And such models ,however va lua b l e t h ey may have been i n g i v in g an impe tus t op h y si o lo g y a nd t o t h e m odern s c i e n t i f i c mo de ls of t h e bo dy ,a r e n o t t o b e c o n fu s e d w i t h t h e so ma, t h e b odyw hic h i n d u s t r y i n i t s g r e a t e r c o n c r e t e n e s s was ap p r o a c h i ngand which i s a l s o i t s e l f f a r from t h e r e a l i t y . Withre sp ec t t o t h e t r u e human body which i s a s s e r t i n g i t s e l fb e n e a t h a n d b ey on d t h e s e m ovem en ts, t h e s c i e n t i f i c an dt e c h n o l o g i c a l m od els a r e l i t t l e b e t t e r t h an ru mours andt h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e m an /m ac hin e r e l a t i o n s h i p o n l yand ind ex o r a name.

Along wi t h i nad equa t e knowledge o f t h e t ec hn i c a lo b j e c t , t h e c r i s i s of v a l u e cl o ud s t h e p r es en c e o fh um an it y i n t h e m ach in e a nd p r e v e n t s t h e c a l l i n g - f o r t h o fnew c r e a t i v e r e s p o n s e s . F o r some, t h e a c h ie v e m e nt s o f t h ep a s t p r o v i d e b a s i s e n ou gh f o r h o pe . Memories of Chart res

J . G u i l l e r m e , V a r i a t i o n s s u r l e s r e v e r i e s d u B aro n D up in ,i n Mgcano log ie 2 , p . 5 4 .


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o r C hambord i n F r a n c e , o f S t o n e h e n g e a n d t h e F l y i n g S co ts me ni n E n g la n d , o f t h e g e o d e s i c dome a n d t h e B oe in g 747 i nAmerica a r e s u f f i c i e n t p ro of o f t h e b e s t i n t h a t c r e a t i v ei m p u l se . T h es e i n d i v i d u a l t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s d o n o t comea b o ut s i m p ly t h r ou g h r e s p o n s e t o n e c e s s i t y b u t b e c au s e t h e ya r e c a l l e d f o r t h by a nd s u pp o r t ed by c r e a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s .They a re o ne o f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s t a t e s o f r e v e r y a ndp l a c e s o f h a p pi n es s as a n c i e n t a s t h e r i n g i n g a n v i l o ft h e b l a c k sm i t h a nd as r e c e n t a s t h e s mooth s p i n n i n g o f t h eS t i r l i n g e n g i ne , s t a t e s d i s c o v e r a b l e on t h e o ne ha nd w i t hB a c h e l a r d t h ro u g h a n a rc h e o l o g y o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n f o u ndi n p o e t ry , 1 a nd on t h e o t h e r w i t h LeMoyne i n t h e " r e v e r i e smach inques" o f t h e men who work w i t h mach i nes t o be f oundi n s u ch p l a c e s as t h e " c a t h e d r a l s o f e l e c t r i c i t y " . Whati s t h i s c r e a t i v e p r o c e s s when i t i s o p e r a t i v e ? How i s i ta r t i c u l a t e d an d w ha t f o rm s do e s i t t a k e ? A n t i c i p a t e d i nt h e t h e s i s d ev ot e d t o t h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t i s a l a t e r s t u d yby Simondon i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f i n v e n t i o n . I n t h e c o u rs e o fh i s t o r y i n v e n t i o n h a s shown up i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t ways

G . B a c h e l a r d , L a t e r r e e t l e s r e v e r i e s d e l a v o l o n t 6 , J o s eC o r t i , P a r i s , 19 48 .J . LeM oyne, R ev e r i e s M ach i nques , i n La M gcano l og i e , Ca h i e rNo. 2 , C e n t re C u l t u r e 1 C a na d ie n , P a r i s , 1 97 1.

his i n f o r ma t i o n comes f r om G . S im on do n, L 1 i n v e n t i o n d a n sl e s t e c h n i q u e s , i n La Mg ca no lo gi e o p . c i t . , a l s o f ro mc o u r s e n o t e s , u n p u b l i s h e d , S o r b o nn e , 1968.


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In ne twork t echno logy , a s exe mp l i f i e d by t h e mine , improve -m en ts come from t h e c e n t r a l i s a t i o n of t a s k s r e l a t i v e t o t h e

p i t s . C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f men a nd a p p a r a t u s , f l o w o f m a t e r i a l su nd er gr ou nd a nd t o t h e s u r f a c e , o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e e ns em bl ei n view o f im prov ed o p e r a t i o n a r e t h e o b j e c t i v e s t o w hicht h e i n v e n t i v e p ro c e s s i s d i r e c t e d . T h i s k i n d o f te ch n ol og yi s s ym b ol iz ed i n t h e p i c t u r e s sh ow in g t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f am u l t i t u d e o f p eo p le , h o r s e s , an d p u l l i e s t o r a i s e a n o b i l i s k ;i t i s t y p i c a l of a r c h a i c t e c h n ol o g y . C r e a t i v i t y comes f ro mr e s o l v i n g t h e p ro bl em s c o n ne ct ed w i t h t h e d i v i s i o n b etw eent h e c e n t r a l command and t h e t e r m i n a l s l e a d i n g t o f u n c t i o n a lu n i c i t y o f t h e t e r m i n a l s . Component t e c h n o l o g y , t h ee xa mp le s b e i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m e r , t h e g a s p i s t o n e n g i n e , i sc h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a t e r t i u m q u i d;i n v e n t i o n a d d s a new t h i r d r e a l i t y l i n k i n g pr ev io us lyu n co n ne c te d c om p on en ts . The p r i m a r y e f f e c t o f c r e a t i v i t yi n t h i s o rd er i s t o p ro du ce a d e v ic e su ch a s t h e a l t e r n a t i n gc u r r e n t t r a n sf o r m e r w hich l i n k s t h e power o f t h e e l e c t r i cm o to r t o a v a s t a r r a y o f e qu ip m en t s u c h a s t o o l s , h e a t e r s ,r a d io s e t c . T h i s i s d on e by e n v i s a g i n g , b e f o r e m a n u f a ct u r e ,a u n i t w h ose f u n c t i o n i s t o c o n n e ct two m i l i e u x p r e v i o u s l ys e p a r a t e d . I n d i v i d u a l i z e d t ec h no lo g y i s t e c h n o l o g y f o c u s s e don t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e c o mp le te i n d i v i d u a l machine o fwh ich t h e house, t h e au tomob i l e t h e computer a r e examples .I n v e n t i o n p r o c e ed s m a in ly by e v o l u t i o n o f s y n e r g i e s t h r o u g ht h e p r o c e ss of c o n c r e t i z a t i o n .


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x x i

Sim ondon h a s o b s er v e d t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l i z e dt e c h n i c a l o b j e c t c o rr e sp o nd s most d i r e c t l y t o t h e humandimensio n . The human in d i v i du a l i s not domina ted by i ta s he i s i n t h e m i n in g o r any o t h e r n et w o r k. Nor d o e s h ed om i na te i t , m aking i t an e x t e n s i o n o f h i s h an ds orp r o s t h e t i c d e v i c e , a s h ap pe ns i n c om ponent t e c h n o l o g y .He ne i t h e r domina te s no r i s d om in at ed b u t e n t e r s i n t o ak i n d o f d i a l e c t i c . To u nd er st an d t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f t h i s

exchange , i t i s v a l ua b l e t o s e e t h e t r i p a r t i t e d iv i s i o n ofL a f i t t e a s t h e b a s i s o f t h e m echanology of t h e i n d i v i d u a lt e c h n i c a l o b j e c t , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s d ep en di ng on w h et he r t h emachine is p r i m a r i l y d e vo t ed t o m a i n t a i n i ng a h o m e os t a ti cc o n d i t i o n ( h o us e , b r i d g e ) , o p e r a t i n g in d e pe n d en t l y ( o nm achine t o o l s , s a t e l l i t e s ) , p r o vi d in g i n fo r m at i on ( c o m pu te r ).

T h i s m i l l e n i a l i t i n e r a r y of t h e e v o lv i n g human s p e c i e sw hich ke ep s t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n c r e t i s a t i o n b e f o r e u s f i n d sc o r re sponde nc e s i n t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e h ar mo ni ou s bodyf u n c t i o n i n g w hi ch i s t h e g o a l of p h y si c a l h e a l t h . I np s y c ho t h er a p y a l s o , t h e human soma a s p e r c e i v e d i n t h eb i o e n e r g e t i c s o f R ei ch a nd L o w e n , i s t h a t which c o n c r e t i z e si t s e l f , t h a t i s , w hich e ng ag es i n a s e a r c h t o remember t h ebody in to a s t a t e o f u n i t y c o rr e s po n d in g t o t h e m agic u n i t yo f t h e c h i l d .

1A . Lowen, B io en er ge ti cs , Pengui n, Hanmondsworth , 1971


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x x i i

The s t u d i e s o f t h e c r a f t s and of l i n g u i s t i c s asp r e l u d e t o m echanology t a k e u s c l o s e r t o t h e c e n t r e o fs o m a ti c r e a l i t y . They h av e t h e e f f e c t o f j o i n i n g t h ed i s t a n c e t h a t h a s l o n g s e p a r a t e d o c c i d e n t a l man fr om t h ework o f h i s h a n d s . B ut t h e y t o o a r e p r e p a r a t i o n ; meanswhereby th e animated body may beg in t o be made t r u l yp r e s e n t . The f i n a l s t e p i s t a k e n t h r ou g h t h e e m an a t io n so f t h e body r o o t e d i n t h e most a n c i e n t b i o l o g i c a l s o u r c e s .The cl o s e s t we can come i s no t t h rough th os e mode ls whicha r e s o u s e f u l t o s c i e n c e no r t hr ou gh t h e i n d i c e s o ft e c h n o l o g y , n o r t h r o u gh t h e e l em e n t s r e v e a l e d by c l o s ec o n t a c t w i th t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e c r a f t s and t h e names o fl an gu ag e bu t o n ly t hr o ug h t h e o r i g i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o nassumed by t h e body by way of what Leroi-Gourhan c a l l" Ie g e s t e e t l a p a r o l e " w hich i s t h e e m a na t io n o f t h e bodyi n e v e r renewed an d c r e a t i v e fo rm s. I n t h i s r e g a r d t h eh i s t o r y of t h e s p e c i e s i s one w i t h th e moment of up r i gh ts t a t u r e when t h e r e t o o k p l a c e t h e s i m u l ta n e o us l i b e r a t i o nof t h e hands f rom locomot ion and th e mouth f rom nour i shm entThe e a r l i e s t v e r s i o n s o f o u r hu ma nity s u c h a s t h eA u s t r o l an t h r o p e , " p os se s se d h i s t o o l s a s a k i n d o f p i n c h e r .H e seem ed t o ha ve a c q u i r e d them n o t i n a s o r t o f i l l u m i n a -t i o n w i th which t o arm h i ms e lf b u t a s i f h i s b r a i n andbody exuded them pr og re s s iv e l y . Thus t hose marve lous

A . L er oi -G ou rh an , Le g e s t e e t l a p a r o l e , A l b in M ic h el ,P a r i s , 1 9 6 4 .


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x x i i

p o l i s h e d s t o n e s which m i r r o r f o r u s t h e c o n c ep t io n s o f t h a to l d e s t h u m a n i t y a re f i r s t e ma na ti on s o f t h e b od y. I f w ec o n t i n u e t h e same p r o c e s s i t i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h ee v e r - i n c r e a s i n g human f a c u l t y o f s y m b o l i z a t i o n a n d i n c a r -n a t i o n b es pe ak t h e v i t a l i t y o f t h e same s om a t ic so u r c e .

I t i s because S i mondon has sounded a c a l l t o a l l o wt h e m ea nin g o f t h e ma ch in e t o r e s o n a t e a t t h i s p ro fo un dl e v e l t h a t h i s work g a i n s s p e c i a l v a l u e i n t h e c on te mp ora ryr e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t e c h n ol o g y .


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I n t r o d u c t io n

The purpose of t h i s s tudy i s t o a t t e mp t t o s t imu la t e aw a re ne ss of t h es i g n i f i c a n c e o f t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s . Cu ltu re has become a sy stem of de fen sedesigned t o safe guar d man f rom tech nics . This i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a ss ump tiont h a t t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s c o n t a i n no human r e a l i t y . We s ho ul d l i k e t o show t h a tc u l t u r e f a i l s t o t ak e i n t o a cc ou nt t h a t i n t e c h n i c a l r e a l i t y t h e r e i s a humanr e a l i t y , and t h a t , i f i t i s f u l l y t o p l ay i t s ro le , cu l t u r e mus t come to te rmsw i th t e c h n i c al e n t i t i e s a s p a r t of i t s body of knowledge and va lu es . Recogni-t i o n o f t h e modes of e x i s t e n c e of t e c h n ic a l o b j e c t s mu st be t h e r e s u l t o f p h i lo -s o p h ic c o n s id e r a t i o n ; w ha t p h ilo so p hy h a s t o a c h i e v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s ana lo-g ou s t o w ha t t h e a b o l i t i o n o f s l a v e r y a c h i ev e d in a f f i r min g t h e wo rth of t h eindividual human being.

The oppo s i t io n e s tab l i s hed between th e c u l tu ra l and the te chn ica l and betweeman and machine i s wrong and has no foundat ion. What und er li es i t i s mere ignor-a n ce o r r e s e n tme nt . I t u s e s a mask of f a c i l e humanism to b l ind us to a r e a l i t y

t h a t i s f u l l o f human s t r i v i n g and r i c h i n n a t u r a l f o r c e s . T h is r e a l i t y i s t h eworld of te ch ni ca l ob je c t s , the media t ors be tween man and nat ure .

Cul tur e behaves towards the te ch ni ca l o bj ec t much i n t he same way a s a mancaught up i n p r i mi t iv e xenophobia behaves towards a s t r a ng e r . This kind ofmisone ism d i rec ted aga ins t machines does no t so much rep res en t a ha t r ed o f t h enew a s a re fu sa l t o come t o te rms wit h an unf am il i ar r e a l i t y . Now, howevers t r a n g e t h i s r e a l i t y may b e , i t i s s t i l l human, and a complete c ul tu re i s on et h a t e n a b le s us t o d is c o ve r t h a t t h i s s t r a n g e r i s indeed human. S t i l l , themachine i s a s t r a n g e r t o u s; i t i s a s t r a n g e r i n wh ic h wh at i s human i s lockedi n , unrecognized, mat er ia l i ze d and ensl ave d, bu t human none thel ess . The mostp o we r fu l c a u s e o f a l i e n a t io n i n t h e w o rld o f t o da y i s based on misunderstanding o


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the machine. The a l i e n a t i o n i n q u es t i o n i s no t caused by th e machine but bya f a i l u r e t o come t o an unders tand ing of the na tu r e and essence o f th e mach ine,by th e absenc e of th e machine from th e world of meanings, and by i t somission from the t ab l e o f v a l u es and co ncep ts t h a t a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o fc u l t u r e .

Cu l t u r e i s unbalanced because, whi le i t g r a n t s r ec o g n it i o n t o c e r t a i no b j e c t s , f o r ex ample t o t h i n g s ae s t h e t i c , and g i v es them t h e i r d u e p l ace i n t h eworld of meanings, i t b a ni s he s o t h e r o b j e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h i n g s t e c h n i c a l ,in t o th e uns t ruc tu red world o f th ings th a t have no meaning bu t do have a us e ,a u t i l i t w a r i a n f u nc ti on . Faced wi th such a marked defens ive nega t ive a t t i tudeon the p ar t of a b iase d c ul tu re , men who have knowledge of te ch ni ca l obj ec tsand a p p r e c i a t e t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e t r y t o j u s t i f y t h e i r j udgment b y g i v i n g t ot h e t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t t h e o n ly s t a t u s t h a t t od ay h a s any s t a b i l i t y a p a r t f romt h a t g r an t ed t o ae s t h e t i c o b j e c t s , t h e s t a t u s o f so me th in g s ac red . T h i s , ofcourse , g i v es r i s e t o an i n t emp era t e tech n i ci s m t h a t i s n o t h i n g o t h e r t h anid o l a t ry o f the mach ine and , th rough such id o l a t ry , by way o f id en t i f i ca t i on ,i t l ea ds to a t echnoc ra t i c yearn in g fo r uncond i t iona l power. The de s i r e fo rpower con firm s t h e machine a s a way t o supremacy and makes of i t the modernp h i l t r e ( l o v e -p o t i o n ) . The man who wishes t o dominate h i s f el low s c re a te sth e android machine. He abdi ca tes in favour of it and de le ga te s h i s humanityt o it. He t r i e s t o co ns t ru c t the th ink ing mach ine and dreams o f be ing ab let o co n s t ru c t t h e w i l l i n g machine o r t h e l i v i n g machine , s o t h a t h e can l a gbehind i t , withou t anx ie ty , f r eed f rom a l l danger and exempt f rom a l l fee l in gsof weakness , whi le enjoying a v i c a r i o u s triumph through what he has invented.I n t h i s ca se, then, once through an imagin at ive proces s th e machine has becomea ro b o t , a d u p l i c a t e o f man, b u t w i t h ou t i n t e r i o r i t y , i t i s q u i t e e v i de n t ly

and i ne v i t ab ly no th ing o the r than a pure ly myth ic and imaginary be ing .


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3Our precise a im i s t o show th a t t he re i s no suc h th ing a s a robo t ; t h a t a

robo t i s no more a machine than a statue i s a l i v i n g b e in g ; t h a t i s merely aproduc t of th e imagina t ion , of man 's f i c t iv e powers, a produc t of th e a r t ofi l l u s io n . Ne ve r the le s s , t he no t io n of t he mach ine i n p resen t -da y c u l tu r e i n -c o rpora t e s , t o a c ons ide ra b le e x t e n t , t h i s mythi c r e p re se n t a t i on o f t he robo t .No c u lt i v a te d man would al lo w him sel f spea k of th i ngs o r pe rsons pa in ted on acanvas a s v e r i t a b l e r e a l i t i e s w it h an i n t e r i o r l i f e and a w i l l , good o r bad.D e s p i t e t h i s , th e c ul t i va te d man does a l low himself t o speak of machines whichthr ea t en mankind, a s i f h e w ere a t t r i b u t i n g t o t h e s e o b j e c t s a so ul and ase pa ra te and autonomous ex is te nc e which gran ts them th e poss essio n of fe el in gs

and of in te n t i on s towards mankind.Our c u l t u r e t h us e n t e r t a i n s two c o n t r a d i c t o r y a t t i t u d e s t o t e c h n i c a l

ob je ct s. On th e one hand, i t t r e a t s them a s pure and s imple assembl ies ofm a t e r i a l t h a t a r e q u i t e w it h o ut t r u e meaning a nd t h a t o n l y p ro v i de u t i l i t y .On th e ot h er hand, it as sume s th a t t he se ob j e c t s a re a l so robo t s , and th a tt he y ha rbour i n t e n t i ons ho s t i l e t o man, o r t ha t t he y re p re s e n t fo r man ac o n s t an t t h r e a t o f a g g r e ss i o n o r i n s u r r e c t i o n . Thinking i t b e s t t o p r e se r vet h e f i r s t c h a r a c te r , c u l t u r e s t r i v e s t o p r ev e nt t h e m a n i f e st a t i o n o f t h e s ec on d,and spea ks of pu t t i n g t h e mac hine i n t he s e r v i c e o f man, i n t h e be l i e f t h a treducing i t t o s l av e r y i s a su re means of preve nt ing re be l l i on of any k ind.

I n f a c t , t h i s i n h e r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n o ur c u l t u r e a r i s e s from an am bi gu iti n o u r i d e a s a bo ut a u t o m a t i s m ~ a n d h i s i s where t h e hidde n lo g i c a l fl aw l i e s .Id ol a t or s of th e machine gener a l ly assume th a t the de gree of p e r fe c t i on o f amachine i s d i re c t l y p ropor t i ona l t o t he de gre e of a utomat ism. Going beyond whac an be l e a r n t f rom e xpe r i enc e , t he y suppose t h a t a n i n c re a se i n and improvementof automat ism would lead t o th e br ing ing i n t o oneness and mutua l in te rconnec t iono f a l l m a c h i n e s ~ t h e r e a t i n g o f a machine made up o f a l l m ach in es.

Now, i n fa c t , automatism i s a f a i r l y low de g r ee of t e c h n i c a l p e r f e c t i o n .In ord er t o make a machine auto matic , i t i s ne c e s sa ry t o s a c r i f i c e many o f i t sfunc t i ona l po s s ib i l i t i e s and many o f i t s p o s s i b l e u s e s . Automatism, and t h a t


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use of it in the form of industrial organisation which we call automation,has an economic or social, rather than a technical, significance. The realperfecting of machines, which we can say raises the level of technicality, h

t ^ t*-c- - i-itlZz-XLS. a p e m d - t e an increase in automatism but, on the contrary, relatto the fact that the functioning of the machine conceals a certain margin ofindetermination. It is such a margin that allows for the machine's sensitivto outside information. It is this sensitivity to information on the part omachines, much more than any increase in automatism that makes possible atechnical ensemble. A purely automatic machine completely closed in on itsein a predetermined operation could only give summary results. The machinewith superior technicality is an open machine, and the ensemble of open machassumes man as permanent organizer and as a living interpreter of the inter-relationships of machines. Far from being the supervisor of a squad of slavman is the permanent organizer of a society of technical objects which needhim as much as musicians in an orchestra need a conductor. The conductor cadirect his musicians only because, like them, and with a similar intensity,he can interpret the piece of music performed; he determines the tempo oftheir performance, but as he does so his interpretative decisions areaffected by the actual performance of the musicians; in fact, it is throughhim that the members of the orchestra affect each other's interpretation; foeach of them he is the real, inspiring form of the group's existence as grouhe is the central focus of interpretation of all of them in relation to eachother. This is how man functions as permanent inventor and coordinator of tmachines around him. He is among the machines that work with him.

The presence of man in regard to machines is a pe,rpetual nvention. Huasreality resides in machines human actions fixed and crystalized in function\

structures. These structures need to be maintained in the course of their


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functioning, and their maximum perfection coincides with their maximum openness,that is, with their greatest possible freedom in functioning. Modern calculatingmachines are not pure automata; they are technical beings which, over and abovetheir automatic adding ability (or decision-making ability, which depends on theworking of elementary switches)possess a very great range of circuit-commuta-tions which make it possible to programme the working of the machine by limit-ing its margin of indetermination. It is because of this primitive margin ofindetermination that the same machine is able to work out cubic roots or totranslate from one language to another a simple text composed of a small numberof words and turns of phrase.

It is also by the medium of this margin of indetermination, and not byautomatisms, that machines can be grouped into coherent ensembles so as to ex-change information with each other through the intermediacy of the human inter-preter as coordinator. Even when the exchange of information between twomachines is direct (such as between a pilot oscillator and another oscillatorsynchronized by impulses), man intervenes as the being who regulates the marginof indetermination so as to make it adaptable to the greatest possible exchangeof information.

Now, we might ask ourselfves who can achieve an understanding of technicalreality and introduce it to our culture? It is only with the greatest diffi-culty that a man attached to a single machine by his work and the routine actionsof every day could arrive at such an understanding; an accustomed relationshipdoes not promote this understanding, because doing the same thing over and overblurs, in the sterffotypy of acquired gestures, any awareness of structures andfunction. The fact of managing a business that uses machines, or of owning one,offers no greater likelihood of understanding than does working in one; it createabstract attitudes towards the machine, causing it to be viewed, not in its own


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right, but in terms of its costs and the results of its operation. Scientificknowledge, whichtheoretical law,

COuURather, it would seem that the attainment of the understanding in question, bethe achievement of an organization engineer who is, as it were, a sociologistor psychologist of machines, a person living in the midst of this society oftechnical beings as its responsible and creative conscience.

In order to restore to culture the really general character which it haslost, it must be possible to reintroduce an understanding of the nature ofmachines, of their mutual relationships and their relationships with man, andof the values involved in these relationships. This understanding necessitatesthe existence of the technologist or mechanologist, side by side with the psy-chologist and the sociologist. Furthermore, the basic systems of causality andregulation which constitute the axioms of technology should be taught universalin the way that the basics of literary culture are taught. An introduction totechnics should be put on the same level as scientific education. It is asobjective as the use of the arts and it influences practical applications asmuch as does the theory of physics: it can arrive at the same degree of abstraction and of symbolization. A child should know the meanings of self-regulationor positive reaction as well as he knows mathematical theorems.

This cultural reform carried out by a process of broadening rather thandestroying, could give back to present-day culture the real regulating power ihas lost. As the basis of meanings, modes of expression, proofs and forms, aculture establishes regulatory communication among those who share that culturA particular culture arises from the life of the group and, by furnishing normand systems, informs the actions of those who insure the exercise of authorityNow, before the great development in technics, culture incorporated by virtue


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systems, symbols, qualities and analogues, the main kinds of technics that arethe source of living experience. Present-day culture does no such thing; itdoes the contrary. Present-day culture is ancient culture incorporating as

dynamic systems artisanal and agricultural techniques of earlier centuries, anddoing so in such a way that these systems mediate between groups of people andtheir leaders and give rise to a basic distortion which results from our inade-quacies vis-a-vis things technical. Power becomes literature; it has to do with

nLvCb it-&the manipulation of opinion, with pleading based on appearances rhetoric. The'^exercise of authority is false because there no longer exists an adequate codeof relationships between the reality governed and the beings who govern. Thereality governed is made up of man and machines; the code is based on the ex-perience of man working with tools; this very experience is both weakened andremote, because those who use the code have not, like Cincinnatus, just left thehandles of the plough. To put is simply, the symbol is weakening and the realityis absent. A regulatory relationship of circular causality cannot be establishedbetween the whole of governed reality and the function of authority: informationno longer achieves its purpose because the code has become inadequate for thetype of information it should transmit. The type of information which expressesthe simultaneous and correlative existence of men and machines should involvethe systems by which machines function and the values which they imply. Culture,which has become specialized and impoverished, must once again become general.Such an extension of culture is of value both politically and socially because itsuppresses one of the main causes of alienation and because it re-establishesregulatory information: it can give man the means of thinking about his existencand his situation in terms of the reality that surrounds him. The task of en-larging and deepening culture has an especially philosophical function, becauseit leads to a critique of a certain number of myths and stereotypes, such as the


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idea of the robot and the notion of automata catering to a lazy and fullysatisfied humanity.

To bring about the understanding of which we speak, we might attempt

to define the technical object in itself by a method of concretization andof functional over-determination, proving that the technical object is theend-product of an evolution and that it is something which cannot be con-sidered as a mere utensil. The modalities of this genesis make It possibleto grasp the three levels of the technical object and their temporal, non-dialectic coordination: the element, the individual, and the ensemble.

Once the technical object has been defined in terms of its genesis, itis possible to study the relationship between technical objects and otherrealities, in particular man as adult and as child.

Finally, considered as the object of an assessment of values, the tech-nical object can give rise to very diverse attitudes, depending on whetherit is considered at the level of element, individual, or ensemble. At theelement level, its improvement does not lead to any upset that causes anxiety

arising out of conflict with acquired habits: it leads to an eighteenth-century climate of optimism, with its introduction of the idea of continuedand limitless progress and the constant betterment of man's lot. On the otherhand, the machine as technical individual becomes for a time man's adversaryor competitor, and the reason for this is that man centralized all technicalindividuality in himself, at a time when only tools existed. The machine takesthe place of man, because man as tool-bearer used to do a machine's job. Tothis phase corresponds the dramatic and impassioned idea of progress as therape of nature, the conquest of the world, the exploitation of energies. Thewill for power is expressed in the technicist and technocratic excessivenessof the thermodynamic era, which has taken a direction both prophetic and cata-clysmal. Then, at the level of the technical ensembles of the twentieth centur


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themodynamic energeticism is replaced by information theory, the normativecontent of which is eminently regulatory and stabilizing: the developmentof technics seemed to be a guarantee of stability. The machine, as an elementin the technical ensemble, becomes the effective unit which augments thequantity of information, increases negentropy, and opposes the degradation

n u tof energy. The machine is a of organization and information; itlife and cooperates with life in its opposition to disorder and to the levellingof all things that tend to deprive the world of its powers of change. Themachine is something which fights against the death of the universe; it slowsdown, as life does, the degradation of energy, and becomes a stabilizer ofthe world.

Such a modification of the philosophic view of technical objects heraldsthe possibility of making the technical being part of culture. This integrationwhich was not possible in a definitive way either at the level of elements orat the level of individuals, is possible and has a greater chance of stabilityat the ensembles level. Once technical reality has become regulatory, it canbe integrated into culture, which is itself essentially regulatory. Such anintegration could only have been possible by addition at the time when techni-cality resided in elements, or by effraction and revolution at the time whentechnicality resided in new technical individuals. Today, technicality tendsto reside in ensembles. For this reason, it can become a foundation for culturto which it will bring a unifying and stabilizing power, making cultured~respto the reality which it expresses and which it governs.


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PART ONE

The Genesis and Evolution of Technical Objects

CHAPTER I

"THE GENESIS OF THE TECHNICAL OBJECT:THE PROCESS OF CONCRETIZATION"

I. Abstract Technical Object and Concrete Technical ObjectEvery technical object undergoes a genesis. It is difficult, however,

to define the genesis of each technical object, because the individualityof technical objects is modified in the course of the genesis. What we candaice is to define technical objects with reference to the technical speciesAto which they belong, but we can only do so with difficulty. Species areeasy to identify summarily for practical purposes, in so far as we are willingto understand the technical object in terms of the practical end it is designedto meet. But such specificity as this is illusory, for no fixed structurecorresponds to its defined use. We can get the same result from very different

/{^v^Jfunctionings and structures: steam-engines, petrol-engines, turbines,enginespowered by springs or weights are all engines; yet, for all that, there is amore apt analogy between a spring-engine and a bow or cross-bow than between thformer and a steam-engine; a clock with weights has an engine analogous to awindlass, while an electric clock is analogous to a house-bell or buzzer.Usage brings together heterogeneous structures and functions in genres and.species which get their meaning from the relationships between their particular


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12functions and another function, that of the human being in action. Therefore,anything to which we give a particular name--that of engine, for example~mayperhaps, be multiple even as we speak of it and may vary with time, as itchanges its individuality.

Meanwhile, if we wish to define the laws of the genesis of a technicalobject within the framework of its individuality and specificity, we hadbetter not begin with its individuality or even its specificity but, rather,reverse the problem. If we begin with the criteria of its genesis we candefine the individuality or specificity of any technical object. An indivi-dual technical object is not such and such a thing, something given hie et

1nunc but something that has a genesis. The unity, individuality, and spe--9IScificity of a technical object are thoseits characteristics which are consis-

tent and convergent with its genesis. The genesis of the technical objectis part of its being. The technical object as such is not anterior to itsown becoming but it is present at every stage of its becoming. The technicalobject is a unit of becoming. The petrol engine is not any particular, given

hat is, according to the specific modalities that distinguish thegenesis of the technical object from those of other kinds of objects, forexample an aesthelic object or a living being. These specific modalitiesshould be distinguished from a static modality which could be establishedfollowing the genesis of the object by taking into account characteristics ofvarious kinds of objects. The precise goal in using the genetic method is toavoid the use of established ideas of classification which come into play oncethe genesis is complete and which divide the totality of objects into genus anspecies suitable for discussion. The past evolution of a technical being remaas an essential of this being in its technical form. The technical being, whiis a bearer of technicality according to what we call analytic application,cannot be an object of adequate knowledge unless the temporal meaning of itsevolution is grasped as something essential to it. The adequate knowledge ofwhich we speak is technical culture, as distinct from technical knowledge,which is limited to the understanding in everyday application of isolated systof functioning. Since relationships which exist on the level of technicalitybetween one technical object and another are horizontal as well as vertical,the kind of knowledge arrived at by determinations of genus and species is notsuitable. We shall try to indicate in what sense the relationship betweentechnical object is transductive.


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engine in time and space; it is the fact that there is a sequence, a continuity,which extends from the first engines to those which we know and to those stillin evolution. As a consequence, just as in the case of phylogenetic sequences,any particular stage of evolution contains within itself dynamic structures andsystems which are at the basis of any evolution of forms. The technical beingevolves by convergence and by adaption to itself; it is unified from withinaccording to a principle of internal resonance. The automobile engine of thepresent day is not a descendant of the 1910 engine simply because the 1910engine was the one which our ancestors built. Nor is it a descendent of thelatter because of greater improvement in relation to use. Indeed, for certainuses the 1910 engine is superior to a 1956 engine. For example, it can with-stand a high degree of heating without seizing or leaking, because it is con-structed with a considerably greater degree of looseness and without fragilealloys such as white metal; it is also more autonomous, because of its magnetoignition. Old engines still function on fishing boats without breaking downafter being taken over from worn-out cars. The present-day car-engine can bedefined as posterior to the 1910 engine only through an internal examinationof its systems of operation and of its formal construction in the light ofthose systems of operation. In the modern engine, each critical piece is soconnected with the rest by reciprocal exchanges of energy that it cannot be otherthan it is. The shape of cylinder, the shape and size of the valves and theshape of the piston are all part of the same system in which a multitude ofreciprocal exchanges of energy that it cannot be other than it is. The shapeof cylinder, the shape and size of the valves and the shape of the piston areall part of the same system in which a multitude of reciprocal causalitiesexist. To the shape of these elements there corresponds a compression ratiowhich itself requires a determined degree of spark advance; the shape of the


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14cylinder-head and the metal of which it is made produce, in relation to allthe other elements of the cycle, a certain temperature in the spark plugelectrodes; this temperature in turn affects the characteristics of the

ignition and, as a result, the whole cycle. It could be said that the modernengine is a concrete engine and that the old engine was abstract. In the oldengine each element comes into play at a certain moment in the cycle and,then, it is supposed to have no effect on the other elements; the differentparts of the engine are like individuals who could be thought of as workingeach in his turn without their ever knowing each other.

This is very much how the functioning of thermal engines is explained inthe classroom; each part is isolated from the rest in geometric space partesextra partes, like the lines of the diagram on the blackboard. The earlyengine is a logical assembly of elements defined by their total and singlefunction. Each element can best accomplish its particular function if it islike a perfectly finished instrument that is completely oriented towards theaccomplishment of that function. A permanent exchange of energy between two

elements may be seen as an imperfection if this exchange is not part of theirtheoretical functioning. Also, there exists a primitive form of the technicalobject, its abstract form,in which each theoretical and material unity istreated as an absolute that has an intrinsic perfection of its own that needsto be constituted as a closed system in order to function. In this case, theintegration of the particular unit into the ensemble involves a series ofproblems to be resolved, problems that are called technical but which, in fact,are problems concerning the compatibility of already given ensembles.

These already given ensembles ought to be maintained and, in spite of theireciprocal influences, preserved. Then there appear particular structureswhich, in the case of each of their constituent units, we might call defense


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structures: the cylinder-head of the thermal internal combustion enginebristles with cooling gills specially developed in the valve region which aresubject to intense changes in heat and high pressures. In early engines, the

cooling gills are as it were extraneously added on to cylinder and cylinder-headwhich, in theory, are geometrically cylindrical: they fulfil a single functiononly, that of cooling. In recent engines, these gills have an added functionof a mechanical kind, that of preventing the buckling of the cylinder-headunder gaseous thrust. In these conditions, it is impossible to distinguish thevolumetric unit (the cylinder or cylinder-head) from the heat-dissipation unit.If one were to grind or saw off the cylinder gills in an air-cooled engine, thevolumetric unit constituted by the cylinder alone would no longer be viable, noteven as volumetric unit; it would buckle under gaseous pressure. The volumetricand mechanical unit has become co-extensive with the heat-dispersal unit becausethe structure of the whole is bi-valent. These gills working with currents ofair from outside effect changes in temperature and so constitute a coolingsurface. In so far as they are part of the cylinder, these same gills limitthe size of the combustion chamber by preserving its shape and making it unneces-sary to use as much metal as a non-ribbed shell would require. The developmentof the unique structure is not a compromise but a concomitance and convergence;a ribbed cylinder-head can be thinner than a smooth cylinder-head with the samerigidity. In addition, a thin cylinder-head allows for more efficient thermalchanges than would be possible with a thick one. The bi-valent structure of thegill-rib improves cooling not only by increasing the heat-change surface (thisis the very function of the gill gill) but also by making possible a thinnercylinder-head (and this is the function of the gill as rib).

Therefore the technical problem has to do with the convergence of structuresinto a structural unity rather than with the seeking of compromises between con-


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flicting requirements. If, in the case in question, a conflict between thetwo aspects of a single structure is to continue, it can only be possible inso far as the positioning of ribs in the interests of maximum rigidity is notnecessarily that which best contributes to maximum cooling by facilitatingthe flow of air between the gills while the vehicle is running. In that casethe maker can be obliged to settle for a mixed and imperfect design: if thegill-ribs are arranged for the best cooling possible, they should have to beheavier and more rigid than if they were mere gills. If, on the other hand,they are so arranged as perfectly to solve the problem of providing rigidity,they have a larger surface, so as to compensate, by an extension of the sur-face, for the slowing down of air currents in the heat-change process.Finally, there can even be a structural compromise between the two forms inthe very shape of the gills; this would involve a more complex development thwould be necessary if a single function were taken as the goal of the structu

This kind of divergence of functional aims is a residue of abstract desiin the technical object, and the progress of a technical object is definablein terms of the progressive reduction of this margin between functions inplurivalent structures. It is such a convergence that gives the technicalobject its specific identity because, at any given time, an indefinite pluralof functional systems is not possible. Technical species are a great deal morestricted in number than the destined uses of technical objects. Human needdiversify to infinity, but directions of convergence for technical species arfinite in number.

The technical object exists, then, as a specific type that is arrived atat the end of a convergent series. This series goes from the abstract mode tthe concrete mode: it tends towards a state at which the technical beingbecomes a system that is entirely coherent with itself and entirely unified.


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11. Conditions of Technical EvolutionWhat are the reasons for the convergence manifest in the evolution of

technical structures?--There are beyond doubt a certain number of extrinsiccauses, in particular those which lead to the production of standardized unitsand replacement parts. At the same time, extrinsic causes are no more power-ful than those which lead to the multiplication of types in response to aninfinite variety of needs. If technical objects evolve in the direction of asmall number of specific types it is by virtue of internal necessity and notas a consequence of economic influences or requirements of a practical nature.It is not the production-line which produces standardization; rather it isintrinsic standardization which makes the production line possible. Any attemptto discover the reason for the formation of specific types of technical objectin the movement from manual production to industrial production would be basedon the fallacy of mistaking the consequence for the condition; the formationof stable types is what makes industrialization possible. Manual trade corres-ponds to the primitive stage of the evolution of technical objects~that s,to the abstract stage. Industry corresponds to the concrete stage. There is

Inothing essential about the made-to-measure aspect of the artisan's handcraft.A

This derives from another, though essential, aspect of the abstract technicalobject: its being based on an analytical organization which always leaves theway clear for new possibilities, possibilities which are the exterior manifesta-tion of an interior contingency. In the encounter between the coherence oftechnical work and the coherence of the system of industrial needs, it is thecoherence of utilization that prevails. The reason for this is that the made-to-measure object is one which has no intrinsic limits; its norms are imposed fromwithout: it fails to achieve its own internal coherence; it is not a system of


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the necessary; it corresponds

simondon on the mode of existence of technical objects

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