the civil war - liberty union high school district€¦ · the first battle of bull run, depicted...

The Civil WarHow did the Civil War affect the United States and its people?

Introduction

Here, Confederate soldiersprepare for the First Battle ofBull Run in 1861.

Wilmer McLean was about to sit down to lunch with a group ofConfederate officers on July 18, 1861, when a cannonball suddenlyripped through his roof. It landed in the stewpot, scattering stewthroughout the kitchen.

This was more than McLean had bargained for when he moved hisfamily to a farm in the country. McLean had been a prosperousmerchant in Alexandria, Virginia, just outside Washington, D.C. Whenhe retired, he decided to relocate to the countryside for some serenity,so he bought a farm outside the small village of Manassas Junction,Virginia. The farm was comfortable and pleasant, with fields, woods,and a small stream called Bull Run. Unfortunately for McLean,Manassas was also the site of an important railroad junction, whichmade it a strategic location in the Civil War—one that both the North

T H E C I V I L W A R

2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute Level: A

and the South wanted to control.

Since the shelling of Fort Sumter in April 1861, the North and the Southhad been in a state of war. However, there had been no major combatsince that first engagement. Then, in mid-July, the two opposing armiesgathered their forces near McLean’s farm.

Three days after the cannonball landed in McLean’s kitchen, the FirstBattle of Bull Run began. The fighting raged across McLean’s land forhours, but by afternoon, the Union forces were in full retreat. In theUnion army, this embarrassing flight would be remembered as “thegreat skedaddle.” A year later, another battle occurred on McLean’sfarm, at which point, he decided to leave Manassas and find a saferplace to live.

The McLean family relocated to the south in a small Virginian towncalled Appomattox Court House. McLean hoped that the town’s remotelocation would keep the war away from his doorstep, but as you willread later in this lesson, he did not get his wish. Wilmer McLean hadone more important role to play in the Civil War.


Level: A 2019 Teachers' Curriculum Institute

The First Battle of Bull Run, depicted here, was the first major conflictof the Civil War. The battle was fought on Wilmer McLean’s farm inManassas Junction, Virginia. Interestingly, McLean’s next home, inAppomattox Court House, Virginia, would play a key role at the end ofthe war.



When the Civil War began,the Union had blatantadvantages over theConfederacy in terms ofresources. In a short war,these advantages might nothave mattered, but in a longwar, they would provedecisive.

1. Four Long Years of WarAt the time of the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter in April 1861,seven states had seceded from the Union. In the months that followed,the eight slave states in the Upper South faced a difficult decision—tosecede or not. Finally, four of them—Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky,and Missouri—remained in the Union, but not without serious



reservations. The country, now formally divided between the Union andthe Confederacy, braced for war.

The Advantages of the Union and the Confederacy As the warbegan, both sides were confident of a quick victory. Northerners werecertain they could overwhelm the South with their superior resources.Not only did the Union have more than twice as many people than theSouth, but it also had a much more diverse economy. The Northoutstripped the South in farm production, factories, naval force, andrailroad lines, which were crucial for transporting troops and supplies.

Regardless, Southerners were optimistic. They had the advantage offighting a defensive war on their own soil, as well as outstandingmilitary leadership. They believed that all they needed for a victory wasto push back invading Union forces, and before long, the Union wouldtire of battle and leave the Confederacy in peace.

Believing their cause was justified, volunteers on both sides rushed toenlist. The 70,000 new troops that marched into battle on WilmerMcLean’s farm in 1861 were certain the other side would collapse at thefirst whiff of gunpowder. The realities of the First Battle of Bull Run,however, destroyed such illusions. Although the South won the day, itsvictory did not come easily. For the North, the defeat at Bull Run was adisturbing wake-up call.

The Anaconda Plan Begins to Squeeze the Confederacy AfterBull Run, President Abraham Lincoln realized he needed to plan for alengthy war. With General Winfield Scott, he devised a strategy thatcame to be known as the Anaconda Plan. As the name suggests, theidea was to surround the South and squeeze it to death, like ananaconda snake crushing its prey.

To accomplish this goal, the Union planned to set up a navalblockade—a line of ships stopping sea traffic in and out of Southernports. The blockade would prevent the South from trading its cotton inEurope for the war supplies it needed. Next, the Union navy would takecontrol of the Mississippi River, separating Texas, Louisiana, andArkansas from the rest of the South. From there, the Union army wouldhead east to squeeze the life out of the Deep South. Finally, Unionforces would invade Virginia and remove the enemy’s head, in thiscase the Confederate capital of Richmond.

The Union enjoyed early success with the first two steps in the plan.The navy blockaded Southern ports and halted most trade. It alsoseized New Orleans and began to proceed up the Mississippi River. At



the same time, Union forces commanded by General Ulysses S. Grantfought their way south toward the Mississippi. Along the way, Grant wondecisive battles that brought much of Tennessee under Union control.

Not everything went the North’s way, however. The Union navy’smovement up the Mississippi was blocked at Vicksburg, a key city onthe river. Union armies also failed to take Richmond, despite a majoroffensive in the summer of 1862. The Confederate capital remainedsafe from Union forces for two more years.

The one-day Battle ofAntietam in September 1862was the bloodiest single dayof the Civil War. Civil Warphotographer Mathew Bradyshocked Americans bydisplaying photographs ofbattlefield corpses in his NewYork gallery. The New YorkTimes wrote that Brady hadbrought “home to us theterrible reality andearnestness of war.”

Antietam: The Bloodiest Day of the War After Union forces failedto capture Richmond, the South attempted to turn the tables on theNorth. The top Confederate general, Robert E. Lee, decided to invadeUnion territory by crossing into Maryland. He hoped this show ofstrength would persuade Maryland to join the Confederacy and that



major victories on Union soil would encourage Great Britain and Franceto provide aid to the Confederacy.

After crossing the Potomac River, Lee’s army clashed with Union forceson September 17, 1862, at Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, Maryland.The Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest one-day battle in Americanhistory, with more than 20,000 soldiers killed or wounded. One soldierrecalled, “I have never in my soldier[’s] life seen such a sight. The deadand wounded covered the ground.” Despite the enormous human cost,the battle ended in a stalemate, and Lee retreated back across thePotomac into Virginia.

Although the Battle of Antietam was not decisive, it was a turning pointin the war. Not only had Lee’s invasion of the North failed, but he hadalso lost a quarter of his army in the effort. European countriesremained reluctant to recognize or assist the Confederacy.Furthermore, Lee’s failure gave Lincoln the opportunity to take a stepthat would alter the course of the war.

The Emancipation Proclamation Changes Union War AimsAlthough Lincoln opposed slavery, he initially refused to make abolitiona war aim. “My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union,”he wrote, “and is not either to save or destroy slavery.” However, asthe war dragged on, Lincoln realized that linking the war effort toemancipation—freeing the slaves—made sense.

Calling for the end of slavery, Lincoln knew, would connect the war to amoral cause in the North. Freeing the slaves would also win support inEurope, where opposition to slavery was strong, as well as deprive theSouth of part of its workforce. In fact, since the beginning of the war,thousands of slaves had freed themselves by running away to the Unionlines. News of these runaways may have influenced Lincoln’s decisionto call for the emancipation of all slaves.

A few days after Antietam, Lincoln issued a warning to the Confederatestates: Return to the Union by January 1, 1863, or he would free theirslaves. The Confederacy ignored the warning, and on January 1, Lincolnsigned the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared all slavesliving in states “in rebellion against the United States” to be“thenceforward, and forever free.” Slaves living in areas loyal to theUnion or under its control were not affected.

The Emancipation Proclamation had little immediate effect, because theConfederacy ignored it. Nevertheless, it granted the Union a greatmoral motivation and signified that a Union victory would indicate the



abolition of slavery.

Turning the Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg To hasten thatvictory, General Grant continued to battle his way toward theMississippi River. In May 1863, he arrived at the Confederate strongholdof Vicksburg, Mississippi, and settled in for a long siege. For six weeks,his troops shelled the city from one side, while Union gunboats batteredit from the other. The Confederates dug caves into the hillsides andtried to wait it out, but eventually, they gave in. On July 4, theConfederate army at Vicksburg surrendered, and the Union finallygained control of the Mississippi.

The Battle of Gettysburg was the deadliest conflict of the Civil War. Itclimaxed with Pickett’s Charge, a Confederate assault on Union forcesdug in on Cemetery Ridge. The Confederates suffered heavy lossesand were forced to retreat. Today, Gettysburg National Military Parkand the Gettysburg National Cemetery attract more than a milliontourists each year.

Meanwhile, another significant battle was underway in the village ofGettysburg, Pennsylvania. It began when General Lee invaded the Northa second time. On July 1, 1863, his army of approximately 75,000troops met a Union force of about 95,000 just west of the town. TheBattle of Gettysburg lasted for three horrendous days. Initially, Lee’s



troops maintained their position, but on July 3, they suffereddevastating losses and were forced to retreat because more than50,000 soldiers were killed or wounded. Having lost a third of his army,Lee would not attack the North again but would fight a defensive waronly. For the North, this victory marked a major turning point in thewar.

Several months later, President Lincoln visited Gettysburg. There,Lincoln delivered one of the most stirring speeches in American history,the Gettysburg Address, in which he noted that the war was testingwhether a nation “conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the propositionthat ‘all men are created equal’ . . . can long endure.” He then declaredthat the nation would endure and that out of war would come a “newbirth of freedom.”

Total War Forces the South to Surrender After the defeats atGettysburg and Vicksburg, Southerners continued to defend their landfiercely, despite dwindling resources. To force a Confederate surrender,General Grant adopted a policy known as total war, which called fordoing whatever was necessary to undermine the enemy’s willingness orcapacity to fight. To implement this policy, Grant adopted a two-pronged strategy. He would lead his forces into Virginia to engage Lee’sarmy and take the Confederate capital of Richmond. Meanwhile,another Union general, William Tecumseh Sherman, would launch acampaign of destruction through Georgia and the Carolinas.

Sherman was a battle-hardened veteran who advocated total war. “Wecannot change the hearts of these people of the South,” he stated, “butwe can make war so terrible . . . and make them so sick of war thatgenerations [will] pass away before they again appeal to it.” In May1864, he marched his troops southward from Tennessee with orders toinflict “all the damage you can.”

In September, Sherman captured Atlanta and burned much of it to theground. He then continued toward the coast and, during Sherman’sMarch to the Sea, his troops destroyed everything valuable theyencountered. They looted houses, burned fields, and killed livestock.After taking the port city of Savannah, Georgia, Sherman turned northand swept through the Carolinas.

While Sherman waged total war, Grant and Lee were engaged in fiercecombat in Virginia. Despite severe losses, Grant continued on towardRichmond, which he captured on April 3, 1865. With his armysurrounded, Lee was finally compelled to surrender.



On April 9, Lee and Grant met at the village of Appomattox CourtHouse. Bizarrely enough, their meeting occurred in the house of WilmerMcLean, the same man whose farm in Manassas had been the site ofthe first physical battle of the war. As McLean later noted, “The warstarted in my front yard and ended in my parlor.” The terms ofsurrender Grant offered Lee were generous. Confederate officers couldretain their weapons, and any officers or troops who claimed their ownhorses could retain them. Most important, “Each officer and man will beallowed to return to his home, not to be disturbed by the United Statesauthorities.” Finally, the Civil War had ended.

In 1864, General William Tecumseh Sherman waged total war on theSouth in an effort to bring the Confederacy to its knees. During hisinfamous March to the Sea through Georgia, his troops burned farmsand towns, leaving a path of destructions 60 miles wide. Whencriticized for his actions, Sherman replied, “War is cruelty, and youcannot refine it.”

2. Challenges FacingGovernment LeadersWhile the war raged, leaders in both the Union and the Confederacyfaced significant challenges. Not only did they have to mount anenormous military effort, but they also had to find ways to finance a



lengthy war. Additionally, they had to shore up public support for anincreasingly unpopular struggle.

Lincoln’s Balancing Act President Lincoln was elected in 1860without getting a majority of the popular vote. Because his base ofsupport was so meager, he faced daunting political problems as heattempted to hold the Union together. His every move was criticized bypolitical opponents and an often-hostile press.

Early in the war, one of Lincoln’s highest priorities was to keep theborder states of Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, and Missouri in theUnion. Maryland, in particular, was crucial, because it surroundedWashington, D.C., on three sides. At the beginning of the war, pro-secession mobs attacked a Union regiment as it passed throughBaltimore. Lincoln sent in troops and suspended the constitutional rightof habeas corpus—the right of a person to appear in court so a judgecan determine whether the person is being imprisoned lawfully—allowing the Union to jail suspected opponents without charge and tohold them indefinitely. Lincoln’s policy was harsh, but he viewed it asnecessary to keep Maryland and neighboring Delaware from seceding.

This map shows Union andConfederate states at theoutbreak of the Civil War in1861. Two years later, a newstate, West Virginia, wascreated when a portion ofVirginia separated from theConfederacy and joined theUnion.

The question of emancipation posed even more challenges for Lincoln.



Although abolitionists pressured him to abolish slavery immediately, heresisted for fear of alienating the border states or angering those in theUnion who opposed abolition. After it became apparent to him thatemancipation was necessary, he waited until he could make hisannouncement from a position of strength. Even then, he ensured thathis proclamation did not include slaves in states loyal to the Union.Although that decision upset the abolitionists, they still regarded theEmancipation Proclamation as a considerable step forward.

As the war dragged on, Lincoln faced other difficulties. One was findingenough men to fight. Lacking sufficient volunteers, in 1863 Congressenacted a military draft, which required all white men between theages of 20 and 45 to report for military duty. However, the law hadloopholes. For $300, a man who did not want to serve could pay a fee toavoid the draft, or he could hire a replacement to serve in his place.This meant that affluent Northerners could avoid service, while the poorwent off to war.

Anger over the new law triggered rioting in New York and other cities.Bitter about being drafted to free slaves, the New York City riotersdirected their violence toward African Americans. Estimates ofcasualties in the New York City draft riots ran as high as 1,000 killedand wounded.



In 1863, draft protests erupted in many Northern cities. The riot in NewYork City, shown here, was the most violent. The mostly working-classIrish American mob burned buildings and attacked African Americans.Order was finally restored by Union troops, who were rushed to NewYork from the Battle of Gettysburg.

President Lincoln also faced the challenge of leading a Union that wasfar from united. One wing of the Democratic Party did not believe thecost of the war—in lives, money, and civil liberties—was justified, andthey did not see emancipation as a worthy war objective. Republicansnicknamed these critics Copperheads, after a poisonous snake. “Everyvictory of the government they lament as a defeat of their party,”wrote a Philadelphia observer. “In every success of the rebels they seea party victory and hail it with triumph.”

Challenges for Southern Leaders Confederate president JeffersonDavis also faced challenges in raising an army. In 1862, the Southpassed America’s first draft law. Like the Northern version thatfollowed, this law included a loophole that allowed wealthy plantationowners to avoid military service, an issue that prompted complaints ofit being a “rich man’s war but a poor man’s fight.” Some Southernstates tried to evade the law, calling it an assault on states’ rights.



The primary challenge for Davis and other Confederate leaders,however, was figuring out how to finance the war while keeping theSouthern economy afloat. Prior to the war, the South had relied oncotton sales for most of its income. Much of that cotton wastransported to Europe, especially to Great Britain, where it played animportant role in the textile industry. When the war began, the Southplaced an embargo on cotton exports in an attempt to force GreatBritain and other European countries to recognize the Confederacy andassist it with arms and money. But Southern leaders failed to realizethat Great Britain already had a surplus of cotton and was developingnew sources of supply, so the cotton embargo failed to promptEuropean action, and the South lost valuable export income.

Angered by food shortagesand rising prices, hundreds ofwomen staged a bread riot inRichmond, Virginia, in April1863. They looted stores andstole food and other goods.By this time, the Southerneconomy was in dire straits.However, newspapers deniedreports of hunger and blamedthe riot on criminals.



Without income from cotton sales, the South could not import the goodsit needed to fight a long war. That problem was exacerbated by theUnion naval blockade. Shortages of goods eventually led toskyrocketing prices. Between 1860 and 1863, food prices in the Southrose by more than 1,000 percent. Bacon went from 12 cents a pound to$1.50 and butter from 23 cents a pound to $3.00. With their purchasingpower eroding day by day, Southerners lost faith in the Confederatecurrency. “An oak leaf,” said a Georgian in 1863, “will be worth just asmuch as the promise of the Confederate treasury to pay one dollar.”

As these economic problems hit home, Southerners began todemonstrate their discontent. They complained about high prices and alack of food for the poor, and they accused wealthy Southerners ofhoarding goods. Sometimes, their anger erupted into violence.

In April 1863, a bread riot broke out in Richmond, Virginia. Hundredsof women rampaged through downtown, breaking windows andstealing food, shoes, and other goods. According to one account,President Davis confronted the women. “You say you are hungry andhave no money,” he said. “Here is all I have.” He dug into his pockets,flung coins into the crowd, and then threatened to have troops openfire if the rioters did not leave. The women returned home, but othersimilar riots broke out in towns and cities across the South.

3. The Effect of the War onSoldiersAround 3 million men fought in the Civil War. As many as one-third ofthese soldiers died or were wounded in battle. Even for those whoescaped without injury, the war exacted a tremendous cost. Soldiershad to leave their homes and families for up to four years whileenduring numerous hardships.



Medical care was shockingly poor during the Civil War because doctorsdid not know what caused infections or how diseases spread. A NorthCarolina soldier wrote, “These Big Battles is not as Bad as the fever.”He was right—more soldiers died of disease than from injuries.

New Weapons Make Battle More Deadly The Civil War was anextremely brutal and destructive conflict. One reason for this was thedevelopment of new and deadlier weapons, such as the rifled musket.Unlike the old smoothbore musket, this gun had grooves on the insideof the barrel that caused the bullet to spin, allowing it to travel muchfaster, farther, and with greater accuracy. Improved cannons withexplosive shells also allowed armies to unleash a hail of artillery fire ontheir opponents.

These new weapons were deadly enough, but poor battlefield tacticsexacerbated their effects. Instead of distributing troops so they weremore difficult to target, generals massed the soldiers together for largefrontal assaults on enemy lines. This tactic had worked well enough inprevious wars, when guns were less accurate. However, in the CivilWar, snipers who were dug into defensive positions could mow down aline of charging troops with ease, even at substantial distances. Thismismatch of new weapons with old tactics led to incredibly bloodybattles, like the one at Antietam.

Civil War battles were typically chaotic, terrifying events. Fifty yearslater, a former soldier could still recall the awful sound of battle:

The screaming and bursting of shells, . . . the deathscreams of wounded animals, the groans of their human



companions, wounded and dying and trampled underfootby hurrying batteries, riderless horses and the movinglines of battle . . . a perfect hell on earth.

—Unknown Union soldier, describing the Battle ofGettysburg

Battles often happened in open fields. But sometimes, as the followingsoldier describes, the battles occurred in wooded areas, where it wasarduous to locate the enemy:

No one could see the fight fifty feet from him. The lineswere very near each other, and from the dense underbrushand the tops of trees came puffs of smoke, the “ping” ofthe bullets and the yell of the enemy. It was a blind andbloody hunt to the death, in bewildering thickets, ratherthan a battle.

—Unknown Union soldier, describing the Battle of theWilderness, 1864

Although men on both sides persevered with courage, it was the raresoldier who eagerly sought conflict. As one recalled, “When bullets arewhacking against tree trunks and solid shots are cracking skulls likeegg-shells, the consuming passion in the breast of the average man isto get out of the way.”

Medical Care on the Battlefield Many soldiers who were woundedin battle died where they fell. Those who were rescued often faced agrim fate in the hands of military doctors. In the 1860s, medicalknowledge was rather limited. Doctors neither knew how to treat amultitude of diseases, nor understood the causes of infection and thenecessity of sanitary procedures in surgery.

Battlefield surgeons typically worked in clothes covered with blood.They wiped their hands and surgical tools on their jackets or immersedthem in contaminated water between operations. One of their mostcommon tools was the bone saw, which was used to performamputations. Because musket balls typically shattered bones onimpact, doctors had little recourse but to remove entire limbs, oftenwithout anesthesia. Piles of arms, legs, and feet would accumulateadjacent to medical tents.

Poor hygiene was another major problem in camp. Soldiers oftenpitched their tents near open latrines and bathed in the same waterthat they used for drinking—practices that encouraged the spread of



disease. For every soldier who died in battle, an estimated two or threemore died of disease from unsanitary conditions in camp.

With plenty of time betweenbattles, soldiers passed someof the time playing cardgames and sports. Baseballwas popular among bothConfederate and Uniontroops. Abner Doubleday, theman often credited withinventing baseball in 1839,became a major general inthe Union army during theCivil War. He commanded thetroops at Fort Sumter when itwas first fired on, and he laterfought heroically atGettysburg.

Keeping Busy Between Battles The life of soldiers was not allabout the horrors of war. Most of their time was spent away fromcombat. On average, for every day of battle, they spent 50 dayshanging around the camp. When they were not marching or drilling, the



men usually had a lot of spare time.

To remain occupied in camp, soldiers on both sides pursued variouspastimes. Reading was a common activity, and many soldiers wereparticularly interested in newspapers from home. Soldiers also wroteletters to their loved ones, played cards, and went swimming. Huntingand fishing were popular, as were sports like baseball and wrestling.Soldiers even performed magic shows, skits, and plays for theircampmates. One Confederate production, called “Medical Board,”satirized army doctors and their fondness for amputation.

Music played a special part in the lives of soldiers. To raise their spiritsbefore battle, they sang patriotic songs like “The Battle Cry ofFreedom” and “Dixie.” Most of the time, however, they preferredtraditional folk songs and sentimental ballads. They also createdoriginal songs about the hardships of war and the monotony of camplife. One mournful song, “Weeping Sad and Lonely,” was a favoriteamong homesick troops on both sides.

Weeping, sad and lonely,Hopes and fears how vain! . . .When this cruel war is over,Praying that we meet again.

—Henry Tucker, 1863

When Union and Confederate forces were camped near each other, assometimes happened, troops from both armies might even join in songstogether, their voices echoing across the distance between their camps.

4. The Effect of the War onAfrican AmericansAlthough the war started as a conflict over states’ rights and a fight topreserve the Union, it became a struggle over the future of slavery. Asformer slave and abolitionist leader Frederick Douglass wrote,

The Negro is the key to the situation, the pivot upon whichthe whole rebellion turns . . . This war, disguise it as theymay, is virtually nothing more or less than perpetual[everlasting] slavery against universal freedom.

—Frederick Douglass, 1861



The Promise of Freedom Stirs African Americans Although theEmancipation Proclamation did not liberate any slaves when it wasissued, it did cause tremendous rejoicing among African Americans inthe North. Many considered emancipation the first step toward gainingequal rights for blacks. One man described the ecstatic response hesaw at a public reading of the proclamation in Washington, D.C.:

Men squealed, women fainted, dogs barked, white andcolored people shook hands, songs were sung, and by thistime cannons began to fire . . . and follow in the wake ofthe roar that had . . . been going on behind the WhiteHouse . . . The President came to the window and maderesponsive bows, and thousands told him, if he would comeout of that palace, they would hug him to death . . . It wasindeed a time of times, . . . nothing like it will ever be seenagain in this life.

—Henry M. Turner, The Negro in Slavery, War, and Peace,1913

African Americans and the War Effort Even before theEmancipation Proclamation, thousands of slaves had fled to Unionlines. Because there was no government policy on the fugitives, Unioncommanders were forced to make their own decisions about what to dowith them. Some tried to return fugitives to their former owners or tokeep them out of Union camps, and others paid the fugitives wages fornoncombat work as cooks, carpenters, guides, and drivers.



The Union army emancipated many slaves as it moved through theSouth. Thousands of these freed slaves followed the troops andbecame a key source of labor for the Union army, but other freedmenstayed behind on abandoned Southern plantations. With their ownersgone, they divided the land among themselves and established theirown farms.

Black leaders and abolitionists had favored the idea of AfricanAmerican recruitment since the beginning of the war. However, Lincolnhad sidestepped offers by free blacks in the North to raise AfricanAmerican regiments, fearing the effect black troops might have on theborder states. Widely held prejudices also played a role in hisreluctance to recruit blacks. Many Northerners doubted that AfricanAmericans would make valuable soldiers. Frederick Douglasscomplained, “Colored men were good enough to fight underWashington, but they are not good enough to fight under [GeneralGeorge] McClellan.”



Some 186,000 AfricanAmericans served in theUnion army and another10,000 in the navy. AlthoughAfrican Americans made up 1percent of the North’spopulation, they accountedfor nearly 10 percent of thetroops. Although they foughtbravely and earned therespect of their whiteofficers, they were oftengiven the worst tasks, andscarcely 100 of them rose tothe rank of officer.

As the war wore on, public opinion began to change. Congressauthorized African American recruitment in 1862. The next year, theWar Department issued General Order 143, which authorized the“organization of Colored Troops.” The most famous black unit was the54th Massachusetts Regiment , which played a critical role inwinning acceptance for black soldiers. On July 18, 1863, the 54thstormed the Confederate defenses at Fort Wagner, South Carolina. Theassault failed, killing more than 40 percent of the regiment, but thetroops fought valiantly and earned the praise of the nation. Onenewspaper wrote that without the 54th, “two hundred thousand troopsfor whom it was a pioneer [first experience] would never have put intothe field.”

Other black regiments also displayed commendable courage under fire.Several of these regiments were comprised of freedmen—freed slaves—who served in the Union army, including the 1st South CarolinaVolunteers and the 1st and 3rd Louisiana regiments. After seeing the



Louisiana troops in battle, one white officer wrote, “You have no ideahow my prejudices with regard to negro troops have been dispelled . . .[They] behaved magnificently and fought splendidly . . . They are farsuperior in discipline to the white troops, and just as brave.”

Racism and Discrimination Persist Despite their contributions tothe war effort, African Americans still encountered racism and hostility.During the New York City draft riots, dozens of African Americans werekilled. In the military, black soldiers were usually assigned menial tasks,like digging ditches. They were often given poor weapons and did notreceive the same training for battle as did white soldiers, resulting inhigher casualty rates among African Americans. Additionally, blacksoldiers who were captured in the South faced the risk of beingenslaved or executed rather than imprisoned, as white soldiers were.

African American troops were also paid as laborers, not soldiers. Whilewhite soldiers earned $13 a month, African Americans were paid just$10. Some black regiments protested by refusing to accept any pay atall, but others took a more militant approach to addressing thisinjustice. In November 1863, a company of black soldiers stacked theirweapons and refused to pick them up again until they received equalpay. Their leader, a black sergeant named William Walker, was chargedwith mutiny and executed by firing squad. Finally, in June 1864,Congress agreed to equalize pay for white and black soldiers, includingall back pay.

5. The Contribution of Womento the War EffortWomen on both sides of the conflict played a critical role in the wareffort. One of these women was Clara Barton, who volunteered for warrelief on the Union side when the war began. “While our soldiers standand fight,” she said, “I can stand and feed and nurse them.” She beganby gathering food and other supplies for the troops. Eventually shebecame a nurse, who treated hundreds of wounded soldiers. AtAntietam, when the field hospital came under artillery attack, shesteadied the operating table while the doctor completed his surgery.The doctor later called her “the angel of the battlefield.”



Clara Barton was one ofthousands of women whoserved as nurses in the CivilWar. Most worked for littlepay and under difficultconditions. Barton sometimesbrought care to woundedsoldiers in the battlefield,even while bullets were stillflying. Her wartimeexperiences led her to foundthe American Red Cross in1881.

Women Soldiers and Spies Though women were not allowed in thearmed forces, some encountered combat on the front lines. As many as400 women disguised themselves as men and enlisted in the Union andConfederate armies. One woman, “Franklin Thompson” of Michigan,had to desert on her way to a hospital in order to maintain her secretidentity.

Other women served behind the lines in the dangerous role of spy.Women made exceptional spies, partly because they were notsuspected as quickly as men. If caught, they were also less likely to be



punished severely. One of the most famous Confederate spies wasRose Greenhow, a well-connected member of Washington society whoused her contacts to learn about Union troop movements and passedthis important information along to the Confederate army. Her reportsproved invaluable, helping the Confederates win the First Battle of BullRun in 1861. Eventually, Greenhow was discovered, arrested, andbanished to the South.

Elizabeth Van Lew, a resident of Richmond, was a successful spy for theUnion. She even managed to plant one of her assistants, a former slavenamed Mary Elizabeth Bowser, as a maid in Jefferson Davis’ home,where the two gained access to Confederate war plans. Van Lewmanaged to divert suspicion and avoid arrest by pretending to bementally unbalanced. In public, she muttered to herself and appearedto be confused. The locals called her “Crazy Bet,” but when Uniontroops took Richmond in 1865, she dropped the act and was honored asa hero.



Rose Greenhow worked as aConfederate spy. She waseventually caught and tossedinto prison, along with herdaughter “Little Rosie.” ToSoutherners, her treatmentwas further proof of Yankeebrutality. Greenhow seemedto relish the role of themartyr who suffers for herbeliefs since a fellow prisonerwrote, “Greenhow enjoysherself amazingly.”

Women Provide Medical Care Other women, like reformerDorothea Dix, played a crucial role in the war effort by providingmedical care to wounded and sick soldiers. Sojourner Truth and HarrietTubman served as Union nurses as well, dividing their time betweenmedical work and scouting for the Union army. By the end of the CivilWar, more than 3,000 women had served as nurses to the Union army.

Southern women also worked as nurses, and because almost all of thefighting occurred on Southern soil, many transformed their homes intomedical shelters. After the First Battle of Bull Run, for instance, SallyTompkins established a hospital in a private home and began caring forwounded Confederate soldiers. Altogether, she treated more than



1,300 men over the course of the war, while registering just 73 deaths.In honor of her achievements, Jefferson Davis made Tompkins a captainin the army and the only woman to become an officer in theConfederate army.

Women often had to overcome prejudice in order to serve. At the startof the war, many men viewed caring for wounded soldiers as“unladylike.” Others believed the presence of women nurses inhospitals would distract the soldiers or that women would prove toodelicate for battlefield conditions.

Women doctors faced even more remarkable obstacles. Surgeon MaryWalker tried but failed to get approval to join the Union army as adoctor. Instead, she volunteered as an assistant surgeon in aWashington hospital. Throughout the war, she worked as a battlefielddoctor and later received the congressional Medal of Honor for herservices.

Women Hold Down the Home Front With thousands of menfighting in the war, women—black and white—stepped in to performcrucial jobs to support their families and the war effort. They tookleadership roles on family farms and in businesses, and they alsoorganized aid societies to raise money for war supplies and to collectand distribute food to soldiers.

Northern women had already been a part of the prewar workforce inthe textile industry. As the war dragged on, rising demand for militaryuniforms led to more women working in textile mills and garmentfactories. Women in the South also made clothes, though most workedat home as private contractors.

The war also provided new job opportunities for women. For the firsttime, women filled a significant number of government positions. Theyworked in offices copying documents, for the Treasury Departmentminting money, and for the postal service. Women also took dangerousjobs in munitions factories, making bullets and artillery shells for theUnion and the Confederate armies. Accidents in these factories werecommon, and many women lost their lives.

SummaryThe Civil War lasted four years, cost 620,000 lives, and was byfar the most destructive conflict ever waged on American soil.



Anaconda Plan Once it became apparent that the war would not bequickly won, President Lincoln prepared for a lengthy conflict with aplan to slowly crush the Confederacy.

Emancipation Proclamation By 1863, Lincoln issued a proclamationfreeing all slaves in the rebellious states. However, freedom for mostslaves did not actually arrive until the end of the war.

Gettysburg Address In his dedication of a cemetery for the menwho died in the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln reminded the Union that itwas fighting to preserve a nation “conceived in liberty and dedicated tothe proposition that all men are created equal.”

Sherman’s March to the Sea The Union won the war in 1865 afterGeneral William T. Sherman waged total war across Georgia andGeneral Ulysses S. Grant captured Richmond, Virginia.

Copperheads Both Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis had to dealwith opposition groups that did not support their war aims. In the North,Copperheads urged an immediate end to the war. In the South, part ofVirginia seceded and joined the Union as West Virginia.

Draft riots and bread riots The leaders of the Union and theConfederacy faced challenges in managing the war effort. In the North,protesters rioted over draft laws. In the South, women protested severeshortages of food and supplies.

54th Massachusetts Regiment African Americans welcomedemancipation and the chance to fight for the Union. Although theydisplayed remarkable courage, blacks continued to suffer from racismand inequality.

Women’s service Women made impressive contributions to the wareffort by collecting supplies and serving as soldiers, spies, medicalpersonnel, and farm and factory workers.

Florida and the Civil WarFlorida chose to secede from the United States on January 10, 1861. Ofthe Confederate states, Florida had by far the fewest people.Nevertheless, it sent about 16,000 soldiers to battle. Most fought withthe Confederate army. About 2,000 fought on the Union side.

Other Floridians served the Confederate cause by producing food and



other supplies. Many men were away at war. So women did the work ofthe men as well as their own. The Union tried to block Confederatesupplies from reaching the battlefield. But Florida has a long coastline.Many ships got through the Union blockade. Florida supplied beef, salt,and other badly needed items to Confederate troops.

Florida was far from most Civil War battlefields. The state did seefighting, however.

Like South Carolina, Florida was home to a Union fort. It was called FortPickens and it was located at Pensacola. Several times Confederatestried to capture the fort. Union forces fought them off. The Union heldFort Pickens for the entire war. In 1863, the Union also captured FortBrooke, near Tampa.

In fact, Union troops held many places along Florida's coast. But theycould not keep Floridians from supplying Confederate armieselsewhere.

The Union tried to stop Florida's Confederate troops. On February 20,1864, a large Union force marched out of Jacksonville. They were toblock a shipment of beef from the state. Confederates under GeneralJoseph Finegan met them at a place called Olustee, near Lake City innorthern Florida. After the bloody Battle of Olustee, Union troopsmarched back to Jacksonville in defeat.

One place the Union never captured was Tallahassee. On March 4,1865, they tried. A Confederate force stopped them in the Battle ofNatural Bridge. Florida's capital was one of the few Confederatecapitals the Union never captured.

Elsewhere in Florida, small groups known as the Cow Cavalry helpedkeep people safe and working. They fought many small battles withUnion troops.

Generals and Soldiers of theCivil WarThe Civil War was a tragedy for the men who served on both sides.More than 3 million soldiers wore the uniforms of the Blue and Gray.They fought in over 10,000 engagements. Horribly, 620,000 died. It wasthe bloodiest war in American history.



Following are brief biographies and statements of four men who served.Two were generals—the most famous of the war. Two were men thatfew have heard of, but whose words speak for countless others.

First you will read an excerpt of a letter written just eight days after thebeginning of the Civil War by Robert E. Lee, the man who becamecommander in chief of the Confederate forces.Next you'll read anexcerpt from the memoirs of his Union counterpart, General Ulysses S.Grant, who had led the Union forces and been president of the UnitedStates when he wrote. Then we turn to two enlisted men, Robert W.Banks, who was a Confederate private when he wrote a letter to hissister, and Sullivan Ballou, a Union major who wrote to his wife. As youread, ask yourself what motivated these men to fight in such a terribleconflict.

Robert E. Lee (1807–1870)

Robert E. Lee wascommander in chief of theConfederate armies innorthern Virginia. He ispictured here on his warhorse Traveller.

The commander in chief of the Confederate armies was Robert E. Lee.He was born in Virginia, the son of a Revolutionary War hero. Leefollowed in his father's footsteps and joined the military. He graduatedfrom West Point in 1829 and distinguished himself in battle during theMexican-American War. Some of his fellow soldiers were men whowould become generals—Grant, Meade, McClellan, Hooker, Burnside,Beauregard, and Johnston. They would all meet again in war—but notall would be on the same side.



Lee was serving in Texas when he was called to Washington, D.C., inearly 1861. When Virginia seceded, Lee faced a terrible choice—toserve his nation or protect his state. After agonizing over the decision,he resigned from the army and went home to Virginia to commandConfederate troops. By 1862, Lee was commanding the entire Army ofNorthern Virginia. His skillful leadership was admired in the North andSouth alike. He wrote about his choice to defend the South in a letter tohis sister in 1861.

With all my devotion to the Union and the feeling of loyaltyand duty of an American citizen, I have not been able tomake up my mind to raise my hand against my relatives,my children, my home. I have therefore resigned mycommission in the Army, and save in defense of my nativeState, with the sincere hope that my poor services maynever be needed, I hope I may never be called on to drawmy sword. . . .

Ulysses S. Grant (1822–1885)

Ulysses S. Grant was born in Ohio. He graduated from West Point in1843. Like Lee, he served during the Mexican War. Later, after Grantmarried and had children, he was assigned to lonely military outposts inthe West. He began drinking and eventually resigned from the army.Afterward, he struggled to make a living in business.

When the Civil War broke out, Grant immediately offered his services.At first he was turned down. But with the help of a congressman, hetook commands in Missouri and Tennessee. Grant's success in battlecaught the attention of President Lincoln. Late in the war, Lincoln turnedto Grant to command the largest Union army and end the war.

Grant's fame as a general helped him win election as president in 1868.In his memoirs, Grant made the following statement about why hechose to serve the Union.

The 4th of March, 1861, came, and Abraham Lincoln wassworn to maintain the Union against all its enemies. Thesecession of one State after another followed, until elevenhad gone out. On the fifth of April Fort Sumter, a Nationalfort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, was firedupon by the Southerners and a few days after wascaptured. The Confederates proclaimed themselves aliens,and thereby debarred [excluded] themselves of all right toclaim protection under the Constitution of the United



States. We did not admit the fact that they were aliens, butall the same, they debarred themselves of the right toexpect better treatment than people of any other foreignstate who make war upon an independent nation. Upon thefiring on Sumter President Lincoln issued his first call for . .. 75,000 volunteers . . . There was not a state in the Northof a million of inhabitants that would not have furnished theentire number faster than arms could have been suppliedto them, if it had been necessary.

Robert W. Banks (1843–1919)

Robert W. Banks served as a private in the Confederacy during the CivilWar. This excerpt from an 1862 letter to his sister, written when he was19 years old, reveals something about his motives for fighting.

Dear Sister Mat [Martha Jane Banks],

. . . I dread this winter very much—Many a poor fellow inour company will “yield his carcass to the dust” before 'tisover—I can stand it as well as any of them—I believe that'twill be no child's play for any of us. Infantry have an easytime in camp, but it is fully compensated for when, after aheavy march of a hundred or two miles, the bloody conflictcomes on—I do not regret one particle, enlisting, if 'twereto do over I would volunteer again, but would not go as aprivate—But enough of this, I will not repine at the past,but hope that before another moon shall have passed tostrike a blow for my country that will tell. Although, wehave so many hardships to undergo, if I am but able torender any assistance to the land of my nativity either bysending a Yankee home with a “bug in his ear” or merelyby following General Price on another “wild goose chase”,then all of my tolls will be repaid—Cannot write more now—remember I write under very disparaging circumstances,i.e. soiled paper, nothing but my knee to write upon, andlastly with the certainty of a hard day's march before me.

Sullivan Ballou (1829–1861)



Pictured here is a portrait ofSullivan Ballou. He was alawyer who served in theUnion Army during the CivilWar.

Major Sullivan Ballou served in the Rhode Island Volunteers. By the timethe Civil War began, Ballou had risen from poverty to become a lawyer.He and his wife, Sarah, looked forward to raising their two sons, Edgarand Willie. Ballou was a strong Republican who had voted for Lincoln.He was killed at the Battle of Bull Run shortly after shortly after writingthis letter to his wife on July 14, 1861.

My very dear Sarah:

The indications are very strong that we shall move in a fewdays—perhaps tomorrow. Lest I should not be able to writeyou again I feel impelled to write a few lines that may fallunder your eye when I shall be no more.

. . . I have no misgivings about, or lack of confidence in thecause in which I am engaged, and my courage does nothalt or falter. I know how strongly American Civilization nowleans upon the triumph of the Government and how great adebt we owe to those who went before us through theblood and suffering of the Revolution. And I am willing—perfectly willing—to lay down all my joys in this life, to help



maintain this Government, and to pay that debt . . .

Sarah, my love for you is deathless, it seems to bind me toyou with mighty cables that nothing but Omnipotencecould break; and yet my love of Country comes over melike a strong wind and bears me irresistibly on with allthose chains to the battle field.

The memories of the blissful moments I have spent withyou come creeping over me, and I feel most gratified toGod and to you, that I have enjoyed them for so long. Andhow hard it is for me to give them up and burn to ashes thehopes of future years, when, God willing, we might stillhave lived and loved together, and seen our sons grown upto honorable manhood around us.

. . . If I do not [return], my dear Sarah, never forget howmuch I love you, and when my last breath escapes me onthe battle field, it will whisper your name . . .

Letter to Ann Lee Marshall (his sister) by Robert E. Lee, Arlington, Va.,April, 20, 1861.

Entire Selection:http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/primarysources/robert-e-lees-letters-to.html

Accessed March, 2017

Personal Memoirs by U.S. Grant, 1885, p. 137.

Entire Selection: https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5B-eOn_Pb4C&pg=PA137&lpg


Letter to Martha Jane Banks (his sister) by Private Robert W. Banks,Ripley, Mississippi, October 1, 1862.

Entire Selection:http://www.mshistorynow.mdah.ms.gov/articles/175/index.php?s=extra&id=185




Letter to Sarah Shumway Ballou (his wife) by Major Sullivan Ballou,Camp Clark, Washington, D.C., July 14, 1881.

Entire Selection:http://www.civilwar.org/education/history/primarysources/sullivan-ballou-letter.html


President Abraham Lincoln'sGettysburg Address (1863)On November 19, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln spoke during theofficial dedication ceremony for the National Cemetery of Gettysburg inPennsylvania. The cemetery was located on ground where one of thebloodiest battles of the Civil War had occurred. The remarks thatPresident Lincoln made on that solemn day would later become knownas the Gettysburg Address.

Lincoln prepared his speech carefully because he wanted to talk aboutthe significance of the war. He felt that the conflict between the Northand the South was the ultimate test that would determine whether theUnion would survive, or whether it would “perish from the earth.” Hespoke about such things as the principles of human equality that arepart of the Declaration of Independence, the sacrifices of the Civil War,the desire for “a new birth of freedom,” the importance of preservingthe Union, and the idea of self-government. It took President Lincolnless than two minutes to say what he did, and the entire speech is onlyabout 270 words long. Yet, the Gettysburg Address is now regarded asone of the most important speeches in American history.

There are actually five versions of the Gettysburg Address. This versionis called “the Nicolay Copy.” Historians often call it the “first draft”because it is thought to be the earliest copy of the speech that exists.

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth,upon this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, anddedicated to the proposition that “all men are createdequal.”

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whetherthat nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated,can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that



war. We have come to dedicate a portion of it, as a finalresting place for those who died here, that the nation mightlive. This we may, in all propriety do. But, in a larger sense,we can not dedicate—we can not consecrate—we can nothallow, this ground—The brave men, living and dead, whostruggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor powerto add or detract. The world will little note, nor longremember what we say here; while it can never forget whatthey did here.

It is rather for us, the living, we here be dedicated to thegreat task remaining before us—that, from these honoreddead we take increased devotion to that cause for whichthey here, gave the last full measure of devotion—that wehere highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain;that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and thatgovernment of the people by the people for the people,shall not perish from the earth.

Below is the text of the Gettysburg Address that is known as “the BlissCopy.” It is the version that has most often been used when theGettysburg Address has been reprinted. This is also the version that isinscribed on the walls of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.Abraham Lincoln wrote this version in 1864, after he had given theactual speech.

Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forthon this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, anddedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whetherthat nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated,can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of thatwar. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as afinal resting place for those who here gave their lives thatthat nation might live. It is altogether fitting and properthat we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate—we can notconsecrate—we can not hallow — this ground. The bravemen, living and dead, who struggled here, haveconsecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract.The world will little note, nor long remember what we sayhere, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for usthe living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished



work which they who fought here have thus far so noblyadvanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to thegreat task remaining before us—that from these honoreddead we take increased devotion to that cause for whichthey gave the last full measure of devotion—that we herehighly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth offreedom—and that government of the people, by thepeople, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Gettyburg Address—Nicolay copy, delivered by President AbrahamLincoln, Gettysburg, November 19, 1863

Entire Selection: https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gettysburg-address/ext/trans-nicolay-copy.htmlL


Gettyburg Address—Bliss copy, delivered by President Abraham Lincoln,Gettysburg, November 19, 1863

Entire Selection:http://americanhistory.si.edu/documentsgallery/exhibitions/gettysburg_address_2.html


Differing Viewpoints: How Didthe Civil War Change Us?



The Battle at Gettysburg wasinfluential in the Civil War. In1863, President Lincoln alsogave a famous speech thereknown as the GettysburgAddress.

Few events in American history have done more to define the Americanidentity and values than the Civil War. Even today, many Americansremain fascinated by the war. Historical societies mount exhibits, andevery year, hundreds of Americans dress up in Civil War uniforms toreenact battles of the war. Scholars still publish books about the CivilWar, as they continue to debate its causes and assess its impact onAmerican life. Here, two scholars discuss the changes brought about bythat great struggle.

Shelby Foote: It Made Us an 'Is'

Shelby Foote was a Southern writer and the author of a three-volumehistory of the Civil War. When asked, "How did the war change us?What did we become?" he replied,

The Civil War was one of those watershed things . . . Thenation had come face-to-face with a dreadful tragedy andwe reacted the way a family would do with a dreadfultragedy . . . And yet that's what made us a nation. Beforethe war, people had a theoretical notion of having acountry, but when the war was over, on both sides theyknew they had a country. They'd been there. They hadwalked its hills and tramped its roads . . . And they knewthe effort that they had expended and their dead friendshad expended to preserve it. It did that. The war made theircountry an actuality.



Before the war, it was said, "The United States are. . .".Grammatically, it was spoken that way and thought of as acollection of independent states. After the war, it wasalways "The United States is . . ."—as we say today withoutbeing self-conscious at all. And that sums up what the waraccomplished. It made us an "is."

—Shelby Foote, quoted in Geoffrey Ward, The Civil War,1990

Eric Foner: A New Birth of Freedom

Historian Eric Foner argued that the Civil War forever changed howAmericans thought about liberty:

The Civil War was a "new birth of freedom" for the UnitedStates. Now, I do not need to persuade you that there is noidea more central to our conception of ourselves asAmericans than freedom. This is the central word in ourpolitical vocabulary, and between freedom and its twinword—liberty—you can find these concepts in just aboutevery key document of American history . . .

Both sides in the Civil War fought in the name of freedom . .. Indeed, many southern whites believed that slavery wasthe foundation of liberty . . .

Union soldiers, of course, also spoke about . . . the "magicword freedom." They saw the war as an effort to preservethe United States as what Lincoln called "the last, besthope of earth" . . . But as the war progressed, theseabstract definitions of . . . liberty began to give way to amore concrete meaning of freedom tied to theemancipation of the slaves. Millions of northerners who hadnot been abolitionists when the war began becameconvinced that securing the Union as the embodiment ofliberty required the destruction of slavery. This wasLincoln's meaning when he spoke about "the new birth offreedom". . .

"We all declare for liberty," [Lincoln] observed in 1864, "butin using the same word, we do not mean the same thing. Tothe North," he went on, freedom meant "for every man toenjoy the product of his labor . . . To southern whites, itmeant mastership, the power . . . to do as they please with



other men and the product of other men's labor." ToLincoln, ultimately, slavery was a form of theft, stealing theproducts of labor of one person and appropriating [taking]it by another.

The Union's triumph consolidated [strengthened] thisnorthern vision of freedom as control over your own person. . . In the process, the meaning of freedom and thedefinition of those who were entitled to enjoy liberty werevery radically transformed.

—Eric Foner, "The Civil War and a New Birth of Freedom",2001



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