unit three a new nation - davenport schools 9 creating a nation ... electronic field trips side 1,...

208

A NEW NATION1776–1791

CHAPTER8

The American Revolution1776–1783

CHAPTER9

Creating a Nation1776–1791

CITIZENSHIP HANDBOOKAND

UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION

��

U N I T T H R E EU N I T T H R E EU N I T T H R E E

Molly Pitcher at the Battle of Monmouthby Dennis Malone Carter, 1854

Women helped in the fighting of the Revolution-ary War. Molly Pitcher took the cannon from herfallen husband at the Battle of Monmouth, NewJersey, in 1778.

History

A R TAND

QUILL PEN

AND INK

HOLDER

�

SETTING THE SCENE

� UNITED STATES

CONSTITUTION

� STATEHOUSE,PHILADELPHIA

� GEORGE WASHINGTON

AT YORKTOWN

Why It’s ImportantColonial objections to British law could no longer be settled by

protests or petitions to the king. Colonists in Massachusetts hadalready rebelled. War and the thirteen colonies’ final break withBritain soon followed. When the fighting ended, a ragtagband of rebels claimed victory. From there, the new UnitedStates went on to build a representative government thatbecame a lasting model for democracy and freedom. Today,we live under the same government that this courageousband of rebels created.

Themes� American Democracy� Conflict and Cooperation� Civil Rights and Liberties� The Individual and Family Life

Key Events� Revolutionary War� Colonists declare independence from Great Britain� Treaty of Paris� Constitutional Convention� Ratification of United States Constitution

Imagine yourself inGeorge Washington’splace during the Revolu-tionary War, the Confed-eration, and the yearswhen the Constitutionwas written and ratified.Write a diary that youmight have kept. Recordyour opinions and feelingsabout the major events ofthe time.

Portfolio Project

To learn more about the colonists’ struggle tofound a new nation, view the Historic America:

Electronic Field Trips Side 1, Chapter 7 video lesson:• Independence Hall

PRIMARYRIMARY SOURCESOURCESPPRIMARYRIMARY SSOURCESOURCES

LibraryLibrary

See pages 754 –755 for the primary source readings to accompany Unit 3.

210 UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791

The Paper It’s Printed On

BackgroundThe American colonists had many uses for paper, but what was

paper like in the 1700s? Government documents were written onparchment while newspapers, pamphlets, and personal letters werewritten on paper of lesser quality. Fibers from linen and cotton ragswere pounded and pressed together to make this paper used by earlyAmericans. Modern paper is made from wood pulp. You can makeyour own paper and recycle at the same time.

Important government documents,including the Declaration of Independence, were writ-ten on parchment. Parchment was made from theskins of animals. A high-quality parchment called vel-lum was produced in Europe after the 1400s; it wasmade from the skins of calves, goat kids, or lambs.

Believe It

N O T !OR

Materials� 2 full pages of newspaper torn into small pieces� 2 to 3 cups of water� kitchen blender or electric mixer (Safety Note: Do

not take lid off blender while it is operating or puthands near blades.)

� 2 tablespoons of school glue� dishpan� one woman’s nylon stocking� wire clothes hanger� bowl (if using a mixer)� pen or pencil

LAB ACTIVITYHANDS ON HISTORYHANDS-ON HISTORY

211UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791

A. Untwist the clothes hanger and form it into a 6-inch square.B. Carefully slip the wire square into the nylon stocking. Make sure the stocking is

tight and flat. Tie each end of the stocking in a knot.C. Put some torn paper and water into the blender (or bowl). Close the lid and turn

it on high. Add more paper and water until the paper disappears and the mix-ture turns into a large ball of pulp. Then let the blender (or mixer) run for two ormore minutes.

D. Put about 4 inches of water into the dishpan and add the glue.E. Add the pulp to the water and mix well. While stirring, quickly slip the wire frame

under the pulp and let it rest on the bottom of the dishpan. Then lift theframe slowly as you count to 20.

F. Let the pulp on the frame dry completely. When it is totallydry, pull the paper sheet from the frame.

G. If possible, use a hot iron to steam your paper as flatas possible. With a pen or pencil, try signing yourname on your paper.

Lab ActivityReport

1. About how long did you have to

mix the paper and water before it

formed a ball of pulp?

2. Describe the texture of the pulp

before you added it to the dish-

pan.

3. How easy or difficult was it to

write on your paper?

4. Drawing Conclusions How do you

think your paper compares to the

paper made out of cloth rags by

the colonists? Which type of

paper would be easier to use?

GO A STEP FURTHERACTIVITY

The signers of the Declaration of Inde-pendence risked being charged with trea-son when they put their names on thedocument. Who were these brave men?Who was the oldest signer? Why wasRobert Treat Paine known as the “Objec-tion Maker”? Find out more about the sign-ers of this document. Make a chartshowing their names, where they camefrom, and any other information, such astheir occupations, that you can discover.

What To Do

� HANDMADE PAPER

1773–1775 1776–1778


1776 James Watt improves the steamengine

The American Revolution1776 –1783

CHAPTER 8��

FocusIn 1776 many Americans already saw the colonies as independent

states. Now, after years of bickering with King George III and theBritish Parliament, they were determined to establish their indepen-dence. Declaring independence would be easy. Achieving it wouldbe much more difficult.

Concepts to Understand� What steps the colonists took to secure and protect American

democracy� How conflict and cooperation contributed to the success of the

American Revolution

Read to Discover . . .� the weaknesses and strengths

of the British and American military forces.

� the outcome of the American Revolution.

SETTING THE SCENE

Journal NotesImagine you are

responsible for raising

money to help the

American troops in the

Revolution. As you read

this chapter, record

what you think the

soldiers might need to

help them get through

the war.

United States

World1774 Joseph Priestley

discovers oxygen

1775 Congress names GeorgeWashington commander of Continental Army

Chapter OverviewVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 8—Chapter Overviews to previewchapter information.

HISTORY

1776 Declaration of Independence issigned

1777 Battles at Princeton and Saratoga

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter8/overview.html

213CHAPTER 8 The American Revolution: 1776–1783

1779–1781 1782–17841780 India’s first newspaper is

published1783 Spain, Sweden, and Denmark

recognize the independence of theUnited States of America

1779 John Paul Jones defeats Britishnaval fleet

1781 British General Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown 1783 Treaty of Paris signed

Washington Crossing the Delawareby Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1851

Painted in Dusseldorf, Germany, this memorable paintingshows General Washington and his troops crossing theDelaware River. Washington’s surprise attack allowed theContinental Army to have an easy victory over the British.

History

A R TAND

� LIBERTY BELL

Declaring Independence��


SECTION 1

GUIDE TO READING

� REVOLUTIONARY

WAR DRUM

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about thecolonists’ efforts to gain their freedom,describe the different parts of the Declara-tion of Independence in the outline formshown here.

Declaration of IndependenceI.

A.II.

A.III.

A.IV.

A.

Read to Learn . . .� why the Second Continental

Congress is considered to be the first government of the colonies.

� how one person’s writing moved Americans to support independence.

� how the Declaration of Independence divided the nation.

Terms to Know� Olive Branch Petition� Continental Army� Common Sense � Declaration of Independence� preamble� Loyalist � Patriot

Main IdeaAs fighting erupted between Britishand colonial troops, the coloniesdeclared their independence.

Mud-spattered and tired, CaesarRodney returned to Philadelphia on theafternoon of July 2, 1776. He arrived justin time for the vote. When the roll callreached his Delaware delegation, Rodneystood up and said:

As I believe the voice of my constituents [voters] and of all sensible and honest men is in favor ofindependence and my ownjudgment concurs [agrees]with them, I vote for independence. ”

“

� The SecondContinental Congress

Caesar Rodney had been elected a dele-gate to the Second Continental Congress.The First Continental Congress had met in1774 to protest the Intolerable Acts andother British policies that the colonists dis-liked. Then the delegates had hoped thatKing George would receive their protests.They agreed, however, that if he did notrespond, a second congress would meetthe next spring. This congress would actas a central government and put togetheran army for the colonies’ defense.


The Olive Branch PetitionAs colonists had feared, King George

ignored their protests. The Second Conti-nental Congress gathered as planned inPhiladelphia in May 1775. Most colonistsand most members of the congress want-ed to remain part of Great Britain. Theywanted to rule themselves through theirown legislatures, however.

With little optimism left, the delegatesdrafted another letter to the king in onelast attempt for peace. The letter, calledthe Olive Branch Petition, assured theking that most American colonists werestill loyal to Great Britain and to him.

The congress understood now that theironly option might be war with GreatBritain. With this in mind, they organizedan army. This was something new for thecolonies. Up to this time, they had reliedon local militias that defended their ownsmall regions.

The new army, called the ContinentalArmy, would represent and defend all thecolonies. The delegates named GeorgeWashington, himself a member of thecongress, commander of the army. Wash-ington left Philadelphia to take charge ofthe colonial forces around Boston.

Washington’s ArmyWashington’s newly formed Continen-

tal Army lacked discipline and training.Washington also had trouble finding newrecruits. Most soldiers wanted to staywith local militias to protect their ownhomes, families, and land. Those who didjoin had to enlist for several years. Thepay was not always regular, and therewere often shortages of food and clothing.At its largest, the Continental Armyincluded about 15,000 to 20,000 soldiers.

While American forces were poorlyequipped compared to the British, theydid have some key advantages over theiropponents. They were well acquaintedwith the countryside. They knew how to

survive in the wilderness and believed intheir cause of freedom. Most importantly,Washington was a brilliant leader. He wasAmerica’s greatest asset, even though helost more battles than he won.

The British ArmyGreat Britain had an army of nearly

50,000 soldiers and the most powerful navyin the world. Its soldiers were well trainedand led by officers with battle experience.To add to the strength of its army, theBritish hired professional German soldiers,called Hessians, to fight for them.

The British did suffer some disadvan-tages. In America, the British troopswould be far from home and in unfamiliarterritory. They would be fighting an armyhiding in the wilderness. The swamps,thick forested hills, and rapidly flowingrivers would be additional obstacles thatthe British troops did not expect.

� The GreenMountain Boys

While the congress organized the newarmy and discussed military plans, smallbands of rebel colonists attacked Britishoutposts. Ethan Allen, a Vermont black-smith, led one well-known group ofrebels, the Green Mountain Boys.

On May 10, 1775, Allen and his follow-ers joined forces with Benedict Arnoldand his band of 400 soldiers from Boston.Together, they attacked Fort Ticonderoga(TY•kahn•duhr•OH•gah), a British out-post on New York’s Lake Champlain.

Student Web ActivityVisit the American History: The Early Years to 1877 Website at ey.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 8—StudentWeb Activities for an activity about the Continental Army.

HISTORY

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/chapter8/webact.html


Arnold and Allen wanted to take theenemy by surprise. Their strategy calledfor them to work quietly, without beingseen or heard. While the British soldiersslept, Allen and his group crawledthrough a broken wall and entered theBritish fort. The victory gave the rebels avaluable supply of ammunition and 50cannons. They tied the cannons, whichweighed 2 to 6 tons (1.8 to 5.4 t) each, tosleds and dragged them by oxen about200 miles (322 km) to Boston.

� The Battle of Bunker HillEven before Washington reached

Boston, militia from all parts of New Eng-land began to surround the city. Theywanted to keep a close watch on Britishtroops there. British General ThomasGage ordered his troops to set up cannonson Dorchester Heights, a high point just

outside of Boston. Gage aimed to driveout the rebel forces.

After learning of the British plan,American Colonel William Prescott led1,200 soldiers to fortify the area. Histroops marched to Breed’s Hill and near-by Bunker Hill. There they dug trenchesand prepared their defense.

On June 17, 1775, about 2,000 Britishsoldiers, dressed in full uniform and car-rying heavy packs, struggled up Breed’sHill. The Americans had very littleammunition. They knew that every shotmust be accurate. They could not waste asingle one. With this in mind, Americancommanders gave the orders, “Don’t fireuntil you see the whites of their eyes.”

The British fell by the hundreds in twounsuccessful attacks. Finally, on the thirdcharge, the Americans ran out of gun-powder and retreated.

Although most of the fighting tookplace on Breed’s Hill, this battle later

DEATH OF GENERAL WARREN AT THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL by John Trumbull, 1786 A moral victory, the Battle of Bunker Hill showed that the untrained Americanmilitia could stand up against the professional British army. Where did most ofthe fighting take place for the Battle of Bunker Hill?

History

A R TAND


became known as the Battle of BunkerHill. More than 1,000 British were killedor wounded. The Americans sufferedonly about 400 casualties. The Britishclaimed victory as the Americans retreat-ed. The battle, however, stood out as amoral victory for the Americans becausethe untrained militia had stood up to theBritish army.

Washington reached Boston by mid-summer and began to train his army.When the cannons from Fort Ticonderogaarrived that winter, his soldiers placedthem on Dorchester Heights. In March1776, the British left Boston.

� Declaring IndependenceAs the colonists had feared, King

George III refused to honor their protests.The king saw the colonists as troublemak-ers and sent more troops to stop theirrebellion. This action, along with the con-tinued fighting in the colonies, led moreand more Americans to favor breakingties with Great Britain. Encouraging themove toward freedom was the writer andjournalist Thomas Paine.

Common SensePaine had been in America only a few

years when he wrote the pamphlet Com-mon Sense. Published in January 1776, itdeclared that the American coloniesreceived no benefits from their mothercountry, which was intent on exploitingthem. Paine questioned some of the ideasthat were basic to British society, such asthe concept of a king and queen. He evenreferred to King George III as “the RoyalBrute of Great Britain.” Paine called oncolonists to use common sense andbecome independent of Great Britain.

The period of debate isclosed. Arms, as a lastresort, must decide the

contest. . . . Everything that is right or reasonable pleads for separation.

Almost half a million copies floodedthe colonies. As Paine intended, his wordsstirred the colonists to action. CommonSense showed them that the time hadcome to formally declare independence.In Paine’s words, “The sun never shinedon a cause more just.”

Lee’s Resolution The desire for independence grew. The

congressional delegates, perhaps most ofall, sensed the mood of the people andknew the time was right. On June 7, 1776,delegate Richard Henry Lee introduced aresolution to declare independence fromGreat Britain:

. . . [T]hese United Coloniesare, and of right ought tobe, free and independent states. ”

“

”

“� THOMAS PAINE ThomasPaine’s Common Sense wassignificant in persuadingcolonists towards the idea of

breaking away from Great Britain. How didPaine refer to King George III in his pamphlet?

istoryPicturingH


Lee’s dramatic and important wordsdemonstrated the seriousness of the reso-lution. The congressional delegates had toconsider it carefully. If it passed, therewould be no turning back. If they agreed,each one would be a traitor in GreatBritain’s eyes. The penalty for treason wasdeath. Was independence worth such ahorrible price?

Supporters of Lee’s resolution believedthat it was. They formed a committee toprepare a formal declaration of indepen-dence. The members of the committeewere Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Ben-jamin Franklin (Pennsylvania), JohnAdams (Massachusetts), Robert Liv-

ingston (New York), and Roger Sherman(Connecticut).

After some debate the delegates choseThomas Jefferson to write the declaration.Although shy by nature and a poor publicspeaker, Jefferson was well-known as anable writer. Jefferson gave his first draft toBenjamin Franklin. After a few changes,they submitted it to Congress.

The Final DecisionOn July 2, 1776, more than a year after

the first battle of the American Revolution,the Second Continental Congress adoptedLee’s resolution. Two days later, on July 4,1776, the delegates officially approved theDeclaration of Independence.

John Hancock, president of the SecondContinental Congress, signed the docu-ment first. As he did, he purposely wrotein large, bold letters, saying King George

. . . can read my name with-out spectacles, and may nowdouble his reward of £500 for my head.

Word of the new declaration spreadslowly through the colonies. As the newsreached them, people gathered to listen.Crowds cheered, rang bells, and—although gunpowder was in short sup-ply—fired guns in celebration.

The Declaration of IndependenceIn the Declaration of Independence, Jef-

ferson wrote about a new, representativeform of government to be put in place andcarried out by the nation’s people. Jeffer-son was influenced by the philosophy ofGreat Britain’s John Locke.

The Declaration included four parts.The first part is called the preamble. It isan introduction that explains why theContinental Congress drew up the Decla-ration. The members thought that when acolony breaks its ties with the mothercountry, its reasons should be explained.

”“

CAUSES

EFFECTS

• Failure of the Olive Branch Petition

• Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnoldcapture Fort Ticonderoga

• British soldiers clash with colonistsin Battle of Bunker Hill

• Publication of Thomas Paine’sCommon Sense

➦

• Foundations laid for democraticgovernment

• Colonial purpose shifts from fightingfor British rights to fighting for anew nation

• Colonists forced to choose betweenPatriot and Loyalist causes

• Americans set up their own govern-ment during and after the Revolution

➦

The Thirteen Colonies Declare Independence


The second part, the Declaration ofRights, lists the rights of the citizens. Jef-ferson wrote:

We hold these truths to beself-evident, that all men arecreated equal, that they areendowed by their Creatorwith certain unalienableRights, that among these areLife, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.

The Declaration goes on to explain thatin a republic, people form a governmentto protect their rights. Jefferson wrote thata government should be based “on theconsent of the governed.” Like Locke, Jef-ferson believed that if a government takesaway the rights of the people, it is the peo-ple’s responsibility to overthrow that gov-ernment.

The third part of the Declaration liststhe colonists’ complaints against theBritish government. The final sectiondeclares that the colonies are “free andindependent states” with the full power tomake war, to form alliances, and to tradewith other countries.

The colonists promised to fight todefend their freedom. Now, however, thecolonists no longer fought for their rightsas British citizens. They fought as the citi-zens of a new nation.

Loyalists and PatriotsAmericans throughout the colonies

faced a choice. Would they support themove toward independence or continuedrule by Great Britain?

The nation was divided. The Loyalistssupported ties with Great Britain. On theother side were Patriots, who favored sep-aration from Great Britain. Both groupsincluded dedicated men and women eagerto support their positions and to changethe minds of their opponents. The strugglebetween the Patriots and Loyalists grew asbitter as the struggle between the rebelsand the British.

After seeing the success of the pamphletCommon Sense, some Loyalists wrote anddistributed pamphlets of their own. OtherLoyalists, called Tories, concentrated onpreparing for the fight that was sure tocome. Emotions ran high among colonistson both sides. Yet, a large number of menand women took neither side, content towait and see what would happen.

”

“

Checking for Understanding1. Define Olive Branch Petition, Continental

Army, Common Sense, Declaration of Inde-pendence, preamble, Loyalist, Patriot.

2. What did the Second Continental Congressdo to prepare the colonists for war?

3. Name the two groups who had oppositeviews about colonial independence.

Critical Thinking4. Sequencing Information Use a time line

like the one shown here to list key eventsabout the decision to declare independence.

� EDITORIAL CARTOON

PROMOTING COLONIAL

UNITY, C. 1754

��Section 1 � Assessment� SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT �

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY5. Citizenship Design a poster that

encourages colonists to support thePatriots’ cause.

June 1775 July 1776

January 1776May 1775

220 The Declaration of Independence

In Congress, July 4, 1776. The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

PreambleWhen in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one

people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them withanother, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separateand equal station to which the Laws of Nature and Nature’s God entitlethem, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that theyshould declare the causes which impel them to the separation.—

Declaration of Natural RightsWe hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal,

that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.—

That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men,deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—

That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive ofthese ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and toinstitute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles andorganizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely toeffect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate thatGovernments long established should not be changed for light andtransient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, thatmankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than toright themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed.But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariablythe same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absoluteDespotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off suchGovernment, and to provide new Guards for their future security.—

The Declaration of Independence

elegates at the Second Continental Congress faced an enormoustask. The war against Great Britain had begun, but to manycolonists the purpose for fighting was unclear. As sentimentincreased for a complete break with Britain, Congress decided to

act. A committee was appointed to prepare a document that declared the thirteen colonies free and independent from Britain. More important, thecommittee needed to explain why separation was the only fitting solution tolong-standing disputes with Parliament and the British Crown. ThomasJefferson was assigned to prepare a working draft of this document, whichwas then revised. It was officially adopted on July 4, 1776. More than anyother action of Congress, the Declaration of Independence served to makethe American colonists one people.

The printed text of thedocument shows the

spelling and punctuation ofthe parchment original.

To aid in comprehension,selected words and theirdefinitions appear in theside margin, along withother explanatory notes.

impel force

endowed provided

People create governments toensure that their natural

rights are protected.

If a government does notserve its purpose, the people

have a right to abolish it.Then the people have the

right and duty to create anew government that will

safeguard their security.

Despotismunlimited power

D

��

List of GrievancesSuch has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is

now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systemsof Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is ahistory of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct objectthe establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To provethis, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.—

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome andnecessary for the public good.—

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate andpressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assentshould be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglectedto attend to them.—

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of largedistricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right ofRepresentation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them andformidable to tyrants only.—

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual,uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records,for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with hismeasures.—

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposingwith manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.—

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to causeothers to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable ofAnnihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; theState remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasionfrom without, and convulsions within.—

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for

221The Declaration of Independence

��

usurpations unjust uses of power

Each paragraph lists alleged injustices of George III.

relinquish give upinestimable priceless

Annihilation destruction

convulsions violent disturbances

� DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN CONGRESS by John Trumbull, 1824

222 The Declaration of Independence

that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners;refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raisingthe conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.—

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing hisAssent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.—

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure oftheir offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.—

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarmsof Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.—

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies withoutthe Consent of our legislatures.—

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superiorto the Civil power.—

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign toour constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assentto their Acts of pretended Legislation:—

For quartering large bodies of troops among us:—For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any

Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of theseStates:—

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:—For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:—For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:—For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:—For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring

Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlargingits Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrumentfor introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:—

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws,and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:—

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselvesinvested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.—

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of hisProtection and waging War against us.—

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns,and destroyed the Lives of our people.—

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries tocompleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begunwith circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the mostbarbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.—

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the highSeas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners oftheir friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.—

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and hasendeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the mercilessIndian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguisheddestruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redressin the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answeredonly by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked byevery act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a freepeople.

Naturalization of Foreignersprocess by which foreign-

born persons become citizens

tenure term

Refers to the Britishtroops sent to the colonies

after the French and IndianWar.

Refers to the 1766Declaratory Act.

quartering lodging

Refers to the 1774 Quebec Act.

render make

abdicated given up

perfidy violation of trust

insurrections rebellions

Petitioned for Redressasked formally for acorrection of wrongs

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. Wehave warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature toextend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded themof the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We haveappealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we haveconjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow theseusurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections andcorrespondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and ofconsanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, whichdenounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest ofmankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.—

Resolution of Independence by the United States

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, inGeneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of theworld for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and byAuthority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish anddeclare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Freeand Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance tothe British Crown, and that all political connection between them andthe State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and thatas Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War,conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do allother Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.—

And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on theprotection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other ourLives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honour.

John HancockPresident fromMassachusetts

GeorgiaButton GwinnettLyman HallGeorge Walton

North CarolinaWilliam HooperJoseph Hewes John Penn

South CarolinaEdward RutledgeThomas Heyward, Jr.Thomas Lynch, Jr.Arthur Middleton

MarylandSamuel ChaseWilliam PacaThomas StoneCharles Carroll

of Carrollton

VirginiaGeorge WytheRichard Henry LeeThomas JeffersonBenjamin HarrisonThomas Nelson Jr.Francis Lightfoot LeeCarter Braxton

PennsylvaniaRobert MorrisBenjamin RushBenjamin FranklinJohn MortonGeorge ClymerJames SmithGeorge TaylorJames WilsonGeorge Ross

DelawareCaesar RodneyGeorge ReadThomas McKean

New YorkWilliam FloydPhilip LivingstonFrancis LewisLewis Morris

New JerseyRichard StocktonJohn WitherspoonFrancis HopkinsonJohn HartAbraham Clark

New HampshireJosiah BartlettWilliam WhippleMatthew Thornton

MassachusettsSamuel AdamsJohn AdamsRobert Treat PaineElbridge Gerry

Rhode IslandStephen HopkinsWilliam Ellery

ConnecticutSamuel HuntingtonWilliam WilliamsOliver WolcottRoger Sherman

223The Declaration of Independence

unwarrantable jurisdiction unjustified authority

consanguinity originatingfrom the same ancestor

rectitude rightness

The signers, asrepresentatives of theAmerican people, declaredthe colonies independentfrom Great Britain. Mostmembers signed thedocument on August 2, 1776.

The Colonies at War��


SECTION 2

GUIDE TO READING

� CONTINENTAL ARMY

RECRUITMENT POSTER

Read to Learn . . .� how Washington defeated the Hessians

at Trenton and the British at Princeton.� why the American victory at Saratoga

was a turning point in the war.� how European allies helped the

Continental Army.

Terms to Know� blockade� Battle of Saratoga� Treaty of Alliance � privateer

Main IdeaAfter struggling early in the war, thecolonists eventually fought the Britishto a standstill in the North.

In a letter to King George III about thecolonial rebellion, General Thomas Gagewrote, “They are now spirited up by arage and enthusiasm as great as ever peo-ple were possessed of. . . .” Although theBritish were impressed with the colonists’determination, they did not believe that aragtag, badly equipped group of rebelscould beat a world power such as GreatBritain. George Washington and his Con-tinental Army would prove them wrong.

� The War in the NorthIn the fall of 1775, the Continental

Army moved into Canada hoping to winsupport from the French Canadians.

Richard Montgomery’s forces marchedfrom Fort Ticonderoga into Canada andcaptured Montreal in November 1775.

Meanwhile, Benedict Arnold led histroops through the wilderness of Maine,where they encountered blizzards andfreezing temperatures. Supplies wereshort and they survived by eating any-thing they could find—bark, candles, andeven shoe leather. Still, they continued onto Quebec and stormed the walled city onNew Year’s Eve, 1775.

European Leaders Contributions

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readabout the war in the North, use a chartsuch as the one shown here to list the contributions of European leaders to the colonial war effort.


The attack proved unsuccessful. Mont-gomery was killed, and Arnold waswounded. Not willing to give up thesiege, Arnold’s troops remained outsideQuebec for the next few months. Whilethe harsh winter continued, many soldiersdied of starvation and disease. When thelong winter ended and spring arrived atlast, Arnold’s soldiers were tired, hungry,sick, and depressed. When British rein-forcements arrived in May, the troopsadmitted defeat. Canada would remain inBritish hands.

Dorchester HeightsThe Battle of Bunker Hill left the British

short of forces and supplies. To wait forfresh supplies and reinforcement troops,the British decided to stay in Boston dur-ing the summer of 1775.

Washington reached Boston in mid-summer in 1775 and began to train histroops. On March 4, 1776, he placed thecannons from Fort Ticonderoga on Dorch-ester Heights and aimed them at the city.British General William Howe realizedhe could not force the Americans to leave.Two weeks later, the entire British armyand 1,500 Loyalists evacuated Boston byship. General Howe moved his troopsnorth to Halifax, Canada, leaving Bostonunder American control.

After the British retreated to Canada,King George set up a blockade of all theports in the colonies, to prevent goods andpeople from moving in and out of the area.

� The New York CampaignIn June 1776, General Howe and his

troops returned from Canada. This timethey moved into New York City, whichHowe viewed as an ideal location. Fromhere he could easily march troops south toPhiladelphia or north into New England.By overtaking New York City, he also couldsplit the Northern and Southern colonies.

The Battle of Long IslandIn an effort to defend New York, Wash-

ington moved about 19,000 troops southto Long Island. The untrained recruitsproved no match for Howe’s professionalsoldiers. To make matters worse, Wash-ington had no navy to challenge theBritish in New York Harbor.

Washington tried to predict where theBritish troops would come ashore. Hedivided his army, sending 10,000 soldiersto Long Island and the rest to Manhattan.In August of 1776, Howe chose to land atLong Island.

During the Battle of Long Island, Wash-ington’s troops fought bravely, but at least1,500 were killed, injured, or taken prison-er. The Americans were not able to holdNew York, and for many weeks, Washing-ton himself was in danger of being cap-tured. Washington told his troops, “I willnot ask any man go further than I do. I willfight so long as I have a leg or an arm.”

Finally, Washington led his army on aretreat into New Jersey. He then crossedthe Delaware River into Pennsylvania. In

First Stars and Stripes,1777–1795 After theDeclaration of Inde-pendence, the Britishflag lost its meaning

as a part of the United States flag. Thusthe Continental Congress on June 14,1777, designed the first Stars andStripes. It determined that “the Flag ofthe United States be 13 stripes, alter-nate red and white; that the Union be 13stars, white in a blue field representing anew constellation.”

For Americans past and present, thecolor red symbolizes courage, white puri-ty of ideals, and blue, strength and unityof the states.��

AMERICA’S FLAGS��


the end Washington lost New York, but hemanaged to escape the British. The Britishheld New York City until the war endedseven years later.

Spying on the EnemySpying was common during the war.

When captured, spies were labeled as trai-tors and typically sentenced to death byhanging. The threat of death, as horribleas it was, did not prevent some dedicatedPatriots from spying for their country.

Nathan Hale, a 24-year-old Americanlieutenant, spied for George Washingtonduring the New York campaign. He dis-guised himself, slipped behind enemylines, and returned with information.Soon after, the British caught him. Theyswiftly condemned him to death. Hale’sreported last words reflect his patrioticspirit:

I only regret that I have butone life to lose for my country.” ”

“

Virginia

Md.Del.

N.J.

New York R.I.

N.H.

Massachusetts

Conn.

Mass.

Quebec

Pennsylvania

PhiladelphiaValley Forge

Boston

Morristown

Kingston

Montreal

Albany

Carleton 1776

Schuyler1775 Crown

Point

Fort Oswego

How

e 17

77

Mon

tgom

ery

Carle

ton

Burg

oy

ne1777

Washington’sRetreat 1776

Cornwallis Dec. 1776

Washington1777

Ft. Montgomery

Ft.Ticonderoga

Arnold

1776

LakeChamplain

Lake Ontario

ATLANTICOCEAN

ChesapeakeBay

Delaware R.

Huds

on R

.

Mohawk R.

St. L

awrence

R.

Conn

ectic

utR.

70° W

75° W

65° W

45° N

40° NSir Willi

amHow

efro

mHali

faxJu

ly17

76

Richard Howe from England Aug. 1776

New York City

0 100 miles50

100 kilometers500

American troop movements

British troop movements

Forts

American victory

British victory

Indecisive battle

Quebec Dec. 1775

SaratogaOct. 17, 1777

Fort StanwixAug. 23, 1777

OriskanyAug. 6, 1777

Bunker Hill(Breed's Hill)June 17, 1775

PrincetonJan. 3, 1777

GermantownOct. 4, 1777

BrandywineSept. 11, 1777

Long IslandAug. 27, 1776

TrentonDec. 26, 1776

The Revolutionary War in the North, 1775–1777

Location British and American forces fought many battlesin the North. The American victory at Saratoga marked aturning point. Who won the battle of Long Island?

� EAGLE AND

CROSSED FLAGS


� Victories at Trentonand Princeton

When Washington and his troopsretreated from New York and crossed theDelaware into Pennsylvania, they were indesperate shape. Washington was sodepressed that he wrote to his brother, “Ithink the game is pretty near up.” His sol-diers were tired and hungry. Some, sens-ing defeat, gave up and left for home.

The Continental soldiers never seemedto have enough food. The meat was oftenrotten, so they sprinkled it with salt tocover the bad taste. Hard, dried peas andmoldy, stale bread were common.

In his despair, Washington came upwith a daring strategy. He planned tolaunch a surprise attack on the Britishcamp at Trenton, New Jersey. As histroops prepared for battle, Washingtonordered Thomas Paine’s new pamphletThe Crisis to be read to them. It offeredthese words of encouragement:

These are the times that trymen’s souls. The summersoldier and the sunshinepatriot will, in this crisis,shrink from the service oftheir country; but he thatstands it now, deserves thelove and thanks of everyman and woman.

Surprise AttackOn December 25, 1776, the British sol-

diers, consisting mostly of Hessians, hadgathered in their camps at Trenton to cele-brate the Christmas holiday. That coldand stormy night Washington led 2,400soldiers across the icy Delaware River.Under cover of darkness, all 2,400 man-aged to cross unseen. The next morning,Washington and his troops swept downon the sleeping Hessians. Within an hourand a half, the Hessians surrendered.

When British General Howe learned ofthe defeat at Trenton, he sent GeneralCharles Cornwallis to pursue Washing-ton and his troops. Washington, however,turned the situation to his advantage anddefeated the British at Princeton, New Jer-sey, on January 3, 1777. Achieving anoth-er victory gave the Continental Armyhope and confidence.

� Turning the Tide Great Britain’s losses left that country’s

officials puzzled. Embarrassed by its mis-takes, the British military asked GeneralJohn Burgoyne to stop the Americans. Hedrew up a plan to gain control of the Hud-son River valley in New York. If success-ful, the strategy would benefit the Britishby cutting New England off from the restof the colonies.

The Battle of SaratogaAccording to the plan, three armies

would move on Albany, New York, at thesame time. General Burgoyne would leadan army south from Montreal, Canada,into New York. General Howe’s armywould sail up the Hudson River fromNew York City. Colonel Barry St. Legerwould move his forces from Lake Ontarioeastward across the Mohawk Valley.

Although well-planned, the Britishcampaign failed miserably, largelybecause the three commanders neglectedto notify each other of changes in the orig-inal attack strategy. British General Howedecided to attack Philadelphia rather thanmeet Burgoyne at Albany. BenedictArnold and his men stopped St. Leger atFort Stanwix and turned him back. Bur-goyne’s troops were the only Britishforces to reach the Hudson River valleynear Albany.

On the way, Burgoyne recaptured FortTiconderoga and fought other small bat-tles, losing close to 1,000 soldiers. Not

”

“


until Burgoyne reached the town ofSaratoga, New York, did he learn that theother commanders would not be there toassist him.

Three weeks later, the Americansattacked Burgoyne in the Battle of Sarato-ga. The British army lost hundreds of sol-diers. When they tried to retreat toCanada, Americans surrounded them.The Americans blocked every possiblepath to safety. On October 17, 1777, Bur-goyne was forced to surrender, reportingthe first major defeat of the British army.The Americans took at least 6,000 Britishsoldiers as prisoners.

The Treaty of AllianceUntil the American victory at Saratoga,

neither France nor any other country hadbeen willing to openly support thecolonists. The victory made clear that itwas possible for the Americans to succeed.In February 1778, French King Louis XVIsigned the Treaty of Alliance, assuringthe Americans of the support they desper-ately needed.

Brutal Winter at Valley ForgeBefore French aid reached America,

Washington’s army had to endure theharsh winter of 1777–78 at Valley Forge,Pennsylvania. The American soldiers hadlittle protection from the freezing tempera-tures. Shoeless and dressed in rags, theyhuddled together inside flimsy tents untilthey could build small log huts. Whencomplete, each dirt-floor hut measured

about 14 feet by 16 feet. In spite of the smallsize, about 12 soldiers lived in each hut.

The soldiers slept on either the coldmuddy hut floors or the straw mattressesthat were usually crawling with lice. Foodconsisted mostly of firecakes, which werethin strips of dough made from a mixtureof flour and water. Soldiers suffered fromdisease and frostbite. One soldier com-mented that the barefoot troops “might betracked by their blood upon the rough,frozen ground.” By spring, as many as2,500 American soldiers had died from dis-ease, exposure to the cold, and lack of food.

The long winter finally came to an end,and by spring, the troops were in betterspirits. French aid had arrived, thestreams and rivers ran with fish, andmany soldiers who had left the camp sickreturned healthy. Once again Washingtonbegan making battle plans.

� Help From EuropeThroughout the American Revolution,

Europeans provided help in the form ofmoney and military expertise.

Baron Friedrich von Steuben, a Pruss-ian soldier, spent the winter at ValleyForge helping Washington train thetroops. He used his military experience toteach the Continental soldiers how towork together as a unit. From him, the sol-diers learned how to make advances, howto retreat, how to carry their weapons,and how to use their bayonets. VonSteuben’s great sense of humor helpedkeep the troops in good spirits.

Footnotes to HistoryGeneral Burgoyne’s Second Career General John Burgoyne was fired fromhis post after being defeated at the Battle of Saratoga. Fortunately, he had anothercareer to fall back on; Burgoyne was a successful playwright. His comedy, TheHeiress, was very popular in England and was translated into several foreign languages as well.


The Marquis de Lafayette (LAH•fee•EHT), a young French soldier, fought withWashington in Pennsylvania. He becamean American general at the age of 19.Lafayette enthusiastically supported theAmerican cause. He received no paymentfor his military service, but fought out oflove for America.

Others throughout Europe felt the samedesire to fight for the American cause.Thaddeus Kosciuszko (kawsh•CHUSH•KOH) came from Poland and used hisexperience as an engineer to build trench-es and forts for the Americans. CasimirPulaski, also from Poland, trained andorganized the first American cavalry—troops on horseback.

Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Span-ish Louisiana, helped the Americans evenbefore Spain entered the war. He secretlyprovided supplies during the early yearsof the Revolution. After Spain entered thewar in 1779, Gálvez’s troops defeated theBritish at Baton Rouge and Natchez. Hisarmy then marched throughout the Gulf

Coast area, capturing British forts atMobile in 1780 and Pensacola in 1781. Hiscampaigns diverted British troops fromother war fronts.

� The War in the WestThe war continued to rage throughout

the colonies. While Washington and histroops fought in the East, the Britishrecruited Native Americans to help themin their frontier campaign farther west. Atfirst, Native Americans did not want totake sides. Later, however, most joined theBritish, believing an alliance with themwould help to turn back the white settlersmoving onto their land.

Fighting broke out in the Ohio Valley asBritish and Native American forces begantheir invasion of frontier settlements. In1778 George Rogers Clark of Virginia ledvolunteers on a raid against the British inthe Ohio Valley. He captured British fortsat Kaskaskia and Cahokia with the help of

� THE MARCH TO VALLEY FORGE by William B.J. Trego, 1883 While waiting forFrench aid, American soldiers spent a brutal winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania.The long winter was costly, causing the death of many American soldiers. What were the conditions of the living quarters at Valley Forge?

History

A R TAND


a group of Native Americans known as theMiami. Then Clark made a surprise attackon the British fort at Vincennes, in pre-sent-day Indiana. In February 1779, aftermarching more than 100 miles (161 km)through rain and icy weather, Clark’sforces captured Vincennes. The loss weak-ened the British in the Ohio Valley.

� The War at SeaCongress established the Continental

Navy in 1775. Its few ships, however, hadlittle effect on the outcome of the war. Toprotect their ports, the colonists wereforced to rely on armed private shipscalled privateers.

John Paul JonesIn 1779 an American warship, the Bon-

homme Richard, won a surprising victoryin one of the war’s most famous sea bat-tles. The conflict began when the ship’sdaring captain, John Paul Jones, sailed tothe coast of Great Britain and attacked theBritish warship Serapis in the North Sea.

For awhile it looked as though Jonesand his crew would be lost. In the fiercebattle, cannonballs tore through the Bon-homme Richard. Seeing that the heavilydamaged ship had caught fire, the Britishcommander demanded that Jones surren-der. The American captain’s reply wasstrong and determined. “I have not yetbegun to fight!” With that, his sailorsboarded the Serapis and, fighting one-on-one, defeated the British.

Later John Paul Jones became known asthe “Father of the American Navy.” Hisheroism in the face of a bigger and better-equipped British fleet inspired Americans.

Checking for Understanding1. Define blockade, Battle of Saratoga, Treaty of

Alliance, privateer. 2. How did the American victory at Saratoga

help the Continental Army?

Critical Thinking3. Understanding Point of View Why would

Native Americans be interested in the out-come of the American Revolution?

4. Summarizing Re-create the diagram shownhere, and use it to give some of the impor-

tant details of the Revolutionary War battlesat Trenton and Princeton.

Virginia

Pa.

Kaskaskia(July 1778)

Vincennes(Feb. 1779)

Fort Detroit

Cahokia(1778)

85° W90° W 80° W

40° N

Wab

as

h R.

Ohio R.

Lake Erie

Fort Miami

Fort Pitt

HAMILTON

CLARKMissis

sipp

i R.

APPALA

CHIA

NM

OUNT

AINS

LakeMichigan

0

0 100 200 kilometers

100 200 miles

American victoryAmerican troopsBritish troops

The Revolutionary War in the West,1778–1779

Region In 1778 and 1779 theRevolutionary War spread west of theAppalachian Mountains. What victoriesdid the American forces win in theWest?

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY


5. Citizenship Imagine that you had friendsat Valley Forge during the winter of1777–1778. Make a list of five things youwould send to them to help them.

Trenton Princeton

Battles

The Continental Congress did nothave the power to tax either the peopleor the individual colonialgovernments. Colonialleaders wondered howthey would pay sol-diers and buy foodand supplies.

In 1775 the con-gress began to printlarge amounts ofpaper money calledContinental dollars.So many were is-sued that they soonbecame worthlessbecause there wasno gold or silver toback them in thecolonial treasury.

The congress turn-ed to Great Britain’senemy, France. Asambassador to France,Benjamin Franklinconvinced young KingLouis XVI that the Ameri-cans could not lose the war.Secretly at first, then openly later, theFrench government gave huge sums ofmoney to the Americans. France not onlyhelped the colonies but it also encouragedSpain and the Netherlands to give financialaid to the colonies.

A few wealthy American businesspeoplealso dug deep in their pockets to save theRevolution with loans. Citizens loaned thecongress money in exchange for bonds, orcertificates that could later be cashed in forthe full amount of the loan plus interest.

Making the Economics Connection1. Why did the Continental Congress

have trouble raising money in thecolonies?

2. Why was France willing to help theAmericans finance the war?

3. What are bonds and why were theyimportant?

231

ACTIVITY4. Design a poster encouraging Patriots to

buy bonds to support the war effort.

Financing the War

� BEN FRANKLIN AT THE

COURT OF LOUIS XVI

T H E A R T S G E O G R A P H Y S C I E N C E M A T H

HistoryAND

E C O N O M I C S

About 1,200 Loyalists were killed,injured, or taken prisoner during thefierce fighting on top of Kings Mountain,in South Carolina in 1780. James Collins, a16-year-old Patriot soldier, recalled theattack this way:

We soon attempted to climbthe hill, but were fiercelycharged upon and forced tofall back. . . . We tried a second time. . . . We took tothe hill a third time. The enemy gave way.

With the capture of Kings Mountain,the Patriots scored a needed victory forthe Americans in the South.

”

“

� War in the SouthUntil 1778 only a few isolated conflicts

had broken out between Patriots and Loy-alists in the South. In one battle on Febru-ary 27, 1776, Patriot forces crushed aLoyalist uprising at Moore’s Creek Bridge,North Carolina. Although a small battle, itsimpact was great. Loyalists found thedefeat discouraging, while the Patriotcause gained strength and popularity.

The British turned their attention to theSouthern colonies when France entered thewar in 1778. The British believed they hadmore support in the South and thoughtthat support would help them to win morebattles there. For almost three years theBritish marched through Georgia, the Car-olinas, and Virginia without suffering amajor defeat. On December 29, 1778, they

The War Moves South��


SECTION 3

GUIDE TO READING

� BENEDICT ARNOLD

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readabout how the fighting moved south, usea diagram similar to the one below to listthe major battles in the South. Indicatewhich side won each battle.

Read to Learn . . .� why the British shifted their

focus to the South.� why the British had trouble

defeating the small bands of Patriot raiders.

� what role African Americans and women played in the war.

Terms to Know� Battle of Cowpens � pension

Main IdeaAs the war progressed, the fightingmoved south, and both women andAfrican Americans took part.

Battles in the South

captured the port city of Savannah, Geor-gia. Charleston, South Carolina, fell to theBritish on May 12, 1780.

Arnold Joins the BritishGeneral Washington became disheart-

ened by the heavy losses in the South. Atthe same time, news of another loss addedto his despair. Benedict Arnold, one ofWashington’s most trusted generals, hadbeen caught spying for the British.

In 1780 Arnold tried to turn the Ameri-can fort at West Point over to the British.When Arnold tried to deliver a message tothe British, three Patriots intercepted it.They gave Washington the evidence inArnold’s own handwriting. Arnoldbecame a general in the British army.

Patriot Raids Here and there throughout the South,

American victories helped to brighten

the outlook for the colonists. South Car-olina Patriots felt angry about the defeatat Charleston. Looking for revenge,many of them took the situation intotheir own hands by forming bands andraiding British camps in the countryside.Hit-and-run raids, similar to the Patri-ots’ attack on Kings Mountain, workedwell for them in the South. The Patriotraiders were skilled hunters, trainedsince childhood to use their rifles. Theyknew the land and could easily survivein the wilderness.

The “Swamp Fox”Francis Marion, known as the

“Swamp Fox,” led one band of orga-nized raiders. A quiet man, Marion wasknown for his imaginative war tacticsand for his success in battle. Marion ledhis troops in quick strikes, cutting offenemy supplies and supply routes, and


� THE “SWAMP FOX” AND HIS MEN by William Ranney, c. 1850 Francis Marion,known as the “Swamp Fox,” kept the British guessing by leading his troops on quicksurprise raids. This painting shows Swamp Fox and his men setting out on anattack. What are two possible reasons Francis Marion was called “Swamp Fox”?

History

A R TAND


then running away. Marion usuallystruck at night, taking advantage of thedarkness to surprise unsuspecting Britishtroops.

Marion never stayed at the same campmore than once. His scouts perched intreetops and signaled the troops withshrill whistles. Whenever Marion and histroops came to a bridge near enemy lines,they covered the bridge with blankets tosoften the sound of the horses’ hooves asthey crossed. Marion’s raids helped keepthe British off balance.

The Battle of CowpensTwo other daring generals, Daniel Mor-

gan and Nathaniel Greene, won battlesfor the Patriots in the South. On January17, 1781, Morgan defeated the British inSouth Carolina at the Battle of Cowpens.

Greene used tactics similar to Marion.His hit-and-run raids kept the British offguard. Greene, considered by some to beWashington’s best general, wrote of hisexperiences, “We fight, get beat, rise, andfight again.” Following the Patriot victoryat Cowpens, Greene’s forces joined Mor-

Guilford Courthouse March 15, 1781Kings Mountain Oct. 7, 1780Cowpens Jan. 17, 1781

Savannah Dec. 29, 1778Charleston May 12, 1780Camden Aug.16, 1780

Va.

Md.Del.

N.J.

Ga. S.C.

N.C.

Pa.

Philadelphia

New York City

York

Richmond

Mount Vernon

WilmingtonWinnsboro

CapeFear R.

Roanoke R.

James R.

Savannah R.

Santee R.

American and alliedtroop movementsBritish troop movements

American victory

British victory0 100 miles

100 kilometers0

De Grasse (from W

est Indies)

Washington &Rochambeau

Aug. 1781

Cornwallis

Sept. 5,1781

Cornwallis

May

1781

Clinton

&Co

rnwal

lis17

80

70° W75° W80° W85° W90° W

35° N

30° N

40° N

N.Y.

Yorktown Oct.19, 1781

The Revolutionary War in the South, 1778–1781

Movement Most of the fighting took place in the South during the latter yearsof the Revolutionary War. Who led American land forces at Yorktown,Virginia?

� PETER FRANCISCO


gan’s, with hopes of crushing Cornwal-lis’s weakened force. On March 15, 1781,the armies met in a bloody battle knownas the Battle of Guilford Courthouse inNorth Carolina. Although Cornwallisdrove the Patriots from the battlefield, theAmericans badly battered his troops.

Biography ��

Peter Francisco, Hero at Guilford Courthouse

A monument at Guilford Courthousemarks the site of a charge made during afamous battle. The monument is knownas the Francisco Monument. Born in thePortuguese Azores, as a young child PeterFrancisco was taken from his family andabandoned on a dock in Virginia.

When the Revolution began, 16-year-old Francisco joined the Virginia militiaand fought in many battles. Mostaccounts indicate that he was quite large,standing 6-feet 6-inches tall and weighing260 pounds. Armed with a huge sword atGuilford Courthouse, Francisco killed 11British soldiers.

Seriously wounded by a British bayo-net, Francisco collapsed and was left fordead on the battlefield. He recovered andrejoined the troops for the Yorktown cam-paign. Francisco had earned a reputationfor bravery and dedication to the revolu-tionary cause. ��

� African Americans and the War

When the American Revolution began,the population of the colonies wasapproximately 2.5 million. More than ahalf million were African Americans.Slaveholders were afraid to give guns toeither enslaved or free African Americans.In November 1775 orders went out to dis-charge all African American soldiers inthe Continental Army.

Both Sides Encourage EnlistmentSoon after, the British offered enslaved

persons their freedom in return for mili-tary service. Enslaved African Americanssigned up in great numbers. According toone estimate, nearly 1,000 enslaved per-sons joined the British and gained theirfreedom.

The Americans, meanwhile, foundthemselves in need of troops. Realizingthat great numbers of African Americanswere fighting for the British, Americanpolicy changed to encourage the enlist-ment of those who were free or enslaved.

In reality, African Americans had beeninvolved in the Revolution from thebeginning. One of the first Americans todie for the revolutionary cause wasAfrican American Crispus Attucks, whowas killed at the Boston Massacre onMarch 5, 1770. Many more would followin his footsteps.

In all about 5,000 African Americansserved as soldiers, minutemen, scouts,

� BATTLE OF COWPENS Led by General Greeneand General Morgan, American forces defeat-ed the British at the Battle of Cowpens. Whatfighting tactics did General Greene useagainst the British?

istoryPicturingH


guards, sailors, spies, laborers, fifers, anddrummers in the Continental Army. JackSisson participated in a bold raid onBritish military headquarters in Newport,Rhode Island. James Armistad servedvaliantly as an American spy, working outof the headquarters of General Lafayette.

At least 12 African Americans, includ-ing Caesar Bacon, Cuff Whittemore, PeterSalem, and Salem Poor, fought at the Bat-tle of Bunker Hill. American commanderssingled out Salem Poor for his skill andvalor. Fellow soldiers reported that he“behaved like an experienced officer, aswell as an excellent soldier.” They recom-mended that the Continental Congressrecognize and honor him for his bravery.

Fighting for FreedomThe idea of fighting for freedom was

particularly meaningful to the colonialAfrican Americans. By the end of the war,some enslaved African Americans hadgained their freedom. As a result of thewar efforts of African Americans, North-ern states such as Vermont, New Hamp-shire, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvaniaattempted to end slavery in their states.

The African Americans who returnedto the South after serving in the Continen-tal Army did not find an end to enslave-ment, however. Even though Virginia andother states passed laws giving freedomto ex-soldiers, most slaveholders did notfree them.

��

��

Women in WarDuring the American Revo-

lution, women often served assecret agents, or accompa-nied troops as cooks, medics,laundresses, and guides.Some also fought in combat.Today, women have moreactive roles in the military.

ThenSoldier Without Her Name

In 1782 Deborah Sampsondressed in men’s clothing, bor-rowed the name ofher brotherR o b e r t ,a n dj o i n e d

the Continental Army. She knewthat she could fight as well asany man, but because she wasa woman, the army would notpermit her to join. Still, shefought in many battles and waswounded twice.

NowOn Land, On Sea, In the Air

Today, women no longerhave to disguise themselves inmen’s clothes in order to servetheir country in the armedforces. They can enlist in any ofthe armed forces and move upthe ranks just like their malecounterparts. Women nowmake up almost one-fifth of the

United States military forces.They serve on warships, fly jetfighters, and command theirown units. Although women stilldo not fight in hand-to-handcombat, about 90 percent oftoday’s military jobs are open towomen.

Linking Past and Present

� DEBORAH SAMPSON

� U.S. NAVY OFFICERS


� Women and the War Women also contributed to the war

effort. With the men away on the battle-field, many women took on the responsi-bility of running the family farms andbusinesses. Other women followed theirhusbands to the army camps. There theycooked, sewed, carried ammunition, orserved as nurses.

Some supported the war effort by mak-ing soap, gathering rags for bandages,and making coats and shirts to keep thesoldiers warm through the winter.Because of a shortage of metal, manywomen melted down their pewter pitch-ers and cups for bullets.

A few women took part in battles. MaryLudwig Hays McCauley spent seven yearsat her husband’s side in battle. The soldierscalled her “Moll of the Pitcher,” or MollyPitcher, because she carried water pitchersto the soldiers. She also helped the wound-ed and assisted the men at the cannons.

During the New Jersey Battle of Mon-mouth in 1778, McCauley’s husband waswounded. She took his place on the bat-tlefield, operating the cannon and firing atthe British. The American governmentrecognized her valiant service more than40 years later and granted her a $50 peryear pension, or payment for the militaryservice she had performed. One year laterMary McCauley died.

Women played other roles, as well.Lydia Darragh worked as a spy for theContinental Army. Mercy Otis Warrenhelped the war effort by writing newspa-per articles in support of the Revolution.

Checking for Understanding1. Define Battle of Cowpens, pension.2. What skills helped the Patriot raiders to

defeat the British?

Critical Thinking3. Determining Cause and Effect Why did

the Continental Army stop enlisting AfricanAmericans and then change its policy?

4. Summarizing Re-create the chart shownhere, and list the ways in which African

Americans and women contributed to thewar effort.

� AFRICAN AMERICANS FIGHTING

IN THE WAR Many AfricanAmericans fought for the Con-tinental Army and gave their

lives during the Revolutionary War. Why didthe American policy change, allowingAfrican Americans to fight in the war?

istoryPicturingH

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY5. The Arts Design a symbol or logo that

captures the spirit and determination ofthe Patriot raiders in the South.


Group War Roles

Victory at Yorktown��


SECTION 4

GUIDE TO READING

� AMERICANMILITIAMAN

Reading StrategySequencing Information As you readabout the Americans’ defeat of the British,trace the war’s final events on a time linelike the one shown here.

Read to Learn . . .� how France helped to end the war. � how General Washington defeated

the British at Yorktown.� the terms of the Treaty of Paris.

Terms to Know� compromise� Treaty of Paris

Main IdeaThe colonies stunned the world whenthey defeated the mighty British army.

Battle of Yorktown

Event

Event

Event

Cornwallis, though, was unpreparedfor the confrontation that would soonoccur. On August 29, 1781, the comman-der of the French fleet, Admiral Françoisde Grasse, anchored 29 warships inChesapeake Bay. His fleet blocked theentrance and prevented Cornwallis fromgetting supplies. The blockade also keptCornwallis from escaping by sea. At thesame time, Washington’s army and 7,000French troops led by General Jean deRochambeau (ROH•SHAM•BOH) hurriedfrom New York to Virginia. By September14 they had reached the peninsula. Mean-while, additional forces led by AnthonyWayne and the Marquis de Lafayette con-verged on Yorktown.

The armies and the French navytrapped Cornwallis. Every route of escapeby land and by sea had been blocked.British forces tried to rescue Cornwallis’sarmy but could not penetrate the French

In 1781 the British generals were con-fused and in disagreement over their nextmove. France’s entry into the war hadcomplicated matters for them. After aseries of victories over the British navy,the French had won command of Ameri-ca’s Atlantic coast. The British sawFrance’s presence there as a challenge totheir control of the sea.

� The Final BattleFollowing the Patriots’ hit-and-run

attacks in the South, General Cornwallisled his 7,500 troops north to Yorktown,Virginia. Yorktown was on a peninsulaformed by the James River and Chesa-peake Bay. Cornwallis thought thiswould be an excellent location. From here,he could receive supplies from Britishships. In addition, he thought the site pro-vided a safe haven for his army.


and American lines. On October 17, 1781,Cornwallis wrote to General Washington,requesting a cease-fire. Two days later theBritish officially surrendered.

Surrender at YorktownOn October 19, British and American

troops met outside of Yorktown, along theriver. The drums grew quiet as the twosides faced each other. General Washing-ton waited to accept General Cornwallis’ssword in the gesture of surrender. Corn-wallis, however, was not there. Instead, hehad named General Charles O’Hara to actin his place.

Learning of the substitution, Washing-ton selected General Benjamin Lincoln torepresent the Americans. This was a gen-erous tribute to Lincoln, whose troops hadbeen defeated in the battle at Charleston.Lincoln accepted O’Hara’s sword and

then directed the British troops to stacktheir weapons and return to Yorktown.

As the 7,000 British soldiers turnedover their weapons to the Americans, theBritish band played a sad tune titled “TheWorld Turn’d Upside Down.” The Britishwere dismayed. The Americans were jubi-lant. Washington’s ragtag army had beat-en King George’s mighty forces. Althoughthe war was not quite over, a major battlehad been won, and the Americans knewvictory was theirs.

� The Road to PeaceWhen news of the surrender reached

London, British prime minister Lord Northexclaimed, “It is all over!” Parliamentvoted North out of office. Next, the twosides had to sit down and negotiate a peaceagreement.

� SURRENDER OF LORD CORNWALLIS AT YORKTOWN by John Trumbull 1824 Trappedby American and French forces, General Charles Cornwallis surrendered atYorktown. The victory would guarantee America’s freedom from Great Britain.Who represented the American forces at the surrender?

History

A R TAND


Treaty of ParisDelegates from the Continental Con-

gress, including John Jay, BenjaminFranklin, and John Adams, traveled toParis to meet with the British and workout the details of the treaty. It took almosttwo years for American and British peace-makers to reach a compromise, or anagreement acceptable to both sides. Final-ly, on September 3, 1783, the two sidessigned the Treaty of Paris.

The treaty stated that Great Britainwould acknowledge the independence ofthe colonists and remove its troops fromAmerican soil immediately. In addition,the treaty set new boundaries for theUnited States. The new territory includedall the land west of the AppalachianMountains to the Mississippi River. Itextended from Canada in the north toFlorida in the south. Great Britainreturned Florida to Spain.

According to the treaty, the Americansagreed to ask state legislatures to pay Loy-alists for property they lost in the war.Most states ignored the claims.

Washington’s FarewellWith good reason Patriots throughout

the colonies celebrated their victory as the

last of the British troops left New York.General Washington, at the head of histroops, rode triumphantly into the city.The nation owed a great debt to Washing-ton. His unwavering dedication, disci-pline, and superior judgment helped towin the American Revolution.

In December of 1783, Washingtonaddressed his troops in a final farewell atFraunces Tavern in New York City.Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge recordedWashington’s words:

With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now takeleave of you. . . . I cannotcome to each of you, butshall feel obliged if each of you will come and take me by the hand.

Tallmadge said every officer in the roommarched up to the departing general.“Such a scene of sorrow and weeping Ihad never before witnessed.”

When the war ended, Washingtonreturned to his home at Mount Vernon,Virginia, where he planned to live quietlywith his family. The war was over andindependence had been won. Still, Wash-ington knew there would be great chal-lenges ahead for the young and promisingcountry.

”

“

Checking for Understanding1. Define compromise, Treaty of Paris.2. How did France help the Americans defeat

the British at Yorktown?

Critical Thinking3. Analyzing Issues Use a diagram similar to

the one below to list the terms of the Treatyof Paris.

4. Predicting Consequences What do youthink would have happened if France hadnot entered the Revolutionary War on theside of the Americans?

INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITY


5. The Arts Draw a picture of a gift that youthink the Continental Congress mighthave sent to the French government inappreciation for its help in ending the waragainst the British.

Treaty ofParis

241

Preparing an Outline

When the nation’s Founders composedimportant letters or documents, they weresure to include important points and mainideas that conveyed the message theywanted to send. We do not know each stepthey followed in doing this, but chancesare good that they followed an outline.

Learning the SkillAn outline helps you identify important

ideas and organize them easily.Before you begin an outline, identify the

main idea and the details that support youridea. Suppose you want to write an essay onthe battles of the American Revolution.Begin by creating an outline. You will needto decide which battles to include. Thendecide what information is important abouteach of these battles.

Battles of the American Revolution

I. The Battle of Saratoga

A. Commanders1. American General Gates2. British General Burgoyne

B. Casualties1. 450 Patriots2. 1,200 British

C. Outcome1. First major victory for Patriots

a. Morale boost for soldiersb. More support from France

2. British strength in Northerncolonies weakens

II. The Battle of YorktownA. Commanders

1. American General Washington 2. British General Cornwallis

B. Casualties1. 100 Patriots2. 600 British

Practicing the SkillUse the sample outline above to answerthese questions.

1. What are the two main topics in thisoutline?

2. If you wanted to add two facts aboutGeneral Washington’s appearanceand age, where would you put themin the outline? Would you use num-bers or letters to label the facts?

241

Study and Writing SkillsBUILDING SKILLSBUILDING SKILLS

APPLYING THE SKILL3. Prepare an outline for one of the

sections in Chapter 8.

� SURRENDER OF GENERAL BURGOYNE AT SARATOGA

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook, Level 1 provides in-struction and practice in key socialstudies skills.

CHAPTER 8 � ASSESSMENT


Using Key VocabularyUse the vocabulary words below to complete

the following sentences.

compromise Loyalists privateersPatriots blockade

1. During the American Revolution, British shipsset up a ________ of colonial ports.

2. Owners of American merchant ships whovolunteered to go up against the British navywere called ________.

3. Colonists who sided with the British weregiven the name ________.

4. The Continental Army was made up of________.

5. After much discussion, American and Britishrepresentatives reached a ________ andsigned the Treaty of Paris.

Reviewing Facts1. Describe how the Declaration of Indepen-

dence divided the nation.

2. Tell what actions the Second Continental Con-gress took to prepare the colonists for war.

3. Identify the battle that was the turning pointfor the Americans in the war.

4. Name the country that helped Washingtondefeat the British at Yorktown.

5. List the main terms of the Treaty of Paris.

Understanding ConceptsAmerican Democracy1. Re-create the diagram shown here, and list

the advantages that the Continental Armyhad over the British army.

Conflict and Cooperation2. How did European aid help the Americans to

win the war?

History and Geography Study the map showing the new territory

gained as a result of the terms in the 1783 Treatyof Paris. Then answer the questions on page 243.

NewSpain

Gulf ofMexico

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

HudsonBay

UNITED

STAT

ES

Ohio R

40°N

20°N

140°W 120°W 100°W 80°W 60°W

SpanishLouisiana

MississippiR

Missouri R

RioGrande

Colorad

o R

60°N

CANADA

United StatesBritishFrench

SpanishRussian

Disputed0

0 600 kilometers

300 600 miles

300

Land Claims in North America, 1783

Self-Check QuizVisit the American History: The Early Years to1877 Web site at ey.glencoe.com and click onChapter 8—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare forthe chapter test.

HISTORY

Colonial Advantages

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/ahey2001/quiz.shtml?BOOK=002&CHAPTER=8&TITLE=The+American+Revolution

CHAPTER 8 � ASSESSMENT1. Location What natural landmark formed the

new western boundary of America?

2. Region What country claimed the most landin North America in 1783? What countryclaimed the least land?

Critical Thinking1. Analyzing Information If the phrase in the

Declaration of Independence, “all men are cre-ated equal,” had applied to all African Ameri-cans, how would their lives have beendifferent after the war?

2. Drawing Conclusions After the Americanvictory at Yorktown, the British played “TheWorld Turn’d Upside Down.” Two lines of thesong are “If ponies rode men and grass atecows; And cats should be chased to holes bythe mouse.” What do you think the British sol-diers were trying to express by playing thissong?

Interdisciplinary Activity:Language Arts

Do library research to learn more about thelives of American soldiers during the Revolu-tionary War. Then organize your group into twosmaller groups. One group will write a biogra-phy of an American soldier or a description of anAmerican regiment. The other group will make aposter-size, illustrated map displaying thenames and geographic locations where your sol-dier or regiment fought.

Practicing SkillsWriting an Outline

Review the Declaration of Independence onpages 220–223. Then complete this outline.

The Declaration of IndependenceI. Preamble

II. Declaration of Natural RightsIII. List of Grievances

IV. Statement of IndependenceA. Rights of colonies

1. To be free and independent states 2. To not have to answer to the British

monarchy3. ____________

B. Powers of colonies1. To levy war2. ____________3. ____________4. ____________

C. ____________1. To sacrifice our lives2. ____________3. To sacrifice our sacred honor

Technology ActivityUsing a Word ProcessorSearch resources in yourlibrary for quotes madeby at least five of the people mentioned in thechapter. Then retype and enlarge the quotes on a word processor. Post your quotes on a bulletinboard display entitled “What Did They Say?”Add your own drawings of the people quoted.

Cooperative

Learning

243CHAPTER 8 The American Revolution: 1776-1783

Using Your JournalUsing the notes in yourjournal, create a posterto convince colonists tocontribute money to theContinental Army.

History

WritingABOUT

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

from Johnny Tremain

by Esther Forbes (1891–1967)

Almost every day and sometimes all day, the massmeetings at Old South Church went on. Tempersgrew higher and higher. Boston was swept with a pas-sion it had not known since the Boston Massacre threeyears before. Riding this wild storm was Sam Adamsand his trusty henchmen, directing it, building up theanger until, although the matter was not publiclymentioned, they would all see the only thing left forthem to do was to destroy the tea.

Sometimes Rab and Johnny went to these meetings.It happened they were there when the sheriff arrivedand bade the meeting forthwith to disperse. He said itwas lawless and treasonable. This proclamation fromGovernor Hutchinson was met with howls and hisses.They voted to disobey the order.

Sometimes the boys slipped over to Griffin’s Wharf.By the eighth of December the Eleanor had joined theDartmouth. These were strange ships. They hadunloaded their cargoes—except the tea. The Town ofBoston had ordered them not to unload the tea andthe law stated they could not leave until they hadunloaded. Nor would the Governor give them a pass

Read to DiscoverIn this passage from Johnny Tremain, English ships

are docked in the harbor of Boston, unable to leaveand unable to unload their tea cargo. What broughtabout this situation? How did the people of Bostonreact?

UNIT 3 A New Nation: 1776–1791

merican Literary HeritageA Reader’s Dictionaryhenchmen helpersRab Johnny’s apprentice friendbade commandedforthwith happening nowdisperse break upmen-of-war battle ships

244

Author Esther Forbes

wrote a number of books,

among them the prize-

winning biography Paul

Revere and the World He

Lived In. As she researched

Paul Revere’s life, Forbes

learned that many young

apprentices played a role in

the American Revolution.

Johnny Tremain, a fictional

work for young people,

tells the story of such an

apprentice. Its setting is

Massachusetts, where

Forbes was born.

Responding to Literature1. Why were the ships so close-

ly guarded?

2. Why was Rotch in despair?

3. How do you think the peopleof Boston felt about Gover-nor Hutchinson? Explain.

to return to England. At Castle Island theBritish Colonel Leslie had orders to fireupon them if they attempted to sneak outof the harbor. The Active and the Kingfish-er, British men-of-war, stood by ready toblast them out of the water if they obeyedthe Town and returned to London withthe tea. The ships were held at Griffin’sWharf as though under an enchantment.

Here was none of the usual hustle andbustle. Few of the crew were in sight, buthundreds of spectators gathered every daymerely to stare at them. Johnny saw Rotch,the twenty-three-year-old Quaker whoowned the Dartmouth, running about indespair. The Governor would not let himleave. The Town would not let him unload.Between them he was a ruined man. Hefeared a mob would burn his ship. Therewas no mob, and night and day armed citi-zens guarded the ships. They would see toit that no tea was smuggled ashore andthat no harm was done to the ships. Backand forth paced the guards. Many of theirfaces were familiar to Johnny. One day,even John Hancock took his turn with amusket on his shoulder, and the next nighthe saw Paul Revere.

CHAPTER 8 The American Revolution: 1776–1783

ACTIVITY4. Imagine you lived in Boston during this

time. Your town’s government will notlet the tea ships unload their cargo.Create a poster either supporting thisposition or opposing it.

245

� BOSTON, 1774

Cultural Kaleidoscope

FFor the most part, folksstayed close to home duringcolonial and Revolutionarytimes. When they took a trip,they packed bags or trunksand planned to be away forsome time. There was noother way. Speed and effi-ciency were not part of thetransportation and commu-nication scene.

Transportation andCommunication

�

Special Delivery?Working for the British government, colonialriders on horseback and ship captains sailingalong the coast carried the mail. To link theNorthern colonies with the Southerncolonies, a ship carried mail between NewYork City and Charleston, South Carolina,once a month. At the beginning of theRevolution, the Continental Congresscreated a similar postal system, headedby Ben Franklin.

246

�

Coaches, Passengers, and InnsHorse-drawn coaches carried passengersbetween towns and cities. Many journeyslasted two days or more. The coachesstopped at inns at night and completed tripsin stages. As a result, people called thecoaches “stagecoaches.”

247

�

Starting to Pave the WayBefore and during the Revolution,travel by land meant roadwaysclogged with ruts, tree roots, rocks,fallen trees, and mud. After the war,Americans made their first hard-sur-faced roads out of crushed stone orwood planks. Private citizens builtmost of the roads and charged travel-ers a fee for using them. By 1789 landtravel had improved enough that aNew York publisher printed the nation’sfirst road maps.

�

Getting the Word AroundSpeechmaking was one way to reach thepublic with a message. The other waywas to print the message in a newspaper.Whether colonist, Patriot, or citizen of the New Republic, Americans eagerlyread and shared their newspapers. ThePennsylvania Evening Post was the firstAmerican newspaper printed daily. Thisissue is dated Friday, May 30, 1783.

�

Smooth SailingWhether the ship sailedalong the coast or crossedthe oceans, water travel was the best way to travel.Compared with land travel,cargo arrived in half the timeand passengers arrived withfewer bruises. Americanshad only a small navy. Thishuge British warship easilycaptured four American merchant ships near the endof the Revolutionary War.

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