OILA LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ITS

HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

Edited byPaul R. Epstein and Jesse Selber

ContributorsSantiago Borasin, Susannah Foster, Kebba Jobarteh, Nathaniel Link,Jose Miranda, Elise Pomeranse, Jennifer Rabke-Verani, David Reyes,

Jesse Selber, Samir Sodha, Pratikshe Somaia

Lee Stoetzel,Oil,2000,Oil on paper mounted to aluminum,20 x 30 inches Courtesy ofthe artist and Mixed Greens (www.mixedgreens.com)

Reviewers

Definitions

Production Coordinator

Paul R. Epstein1 and Jesse Selber2

Santiago Borasin,2 Susannah Foster,3

Kebba Jobarteh,2 Nathaniel Link,3

Jose Miranda,2 Elise Pomeranse,2 Jennifer Rabke-Verani,2 David Reyes,4

Jesse Selber,2 Samir Sodha,2 Pratikshe Somaia2

1. Center for Health and the GlobalEnvironment, Harvard Medical School

2. Harvard School of Public Health graduates3. Center for Health and the Global

Environment intern4. The Fletcher School of Law and

Diplomacy, Tufts University graduate student

Contributors

Edited by

Published By

VOCs :Volatile OrganicCompoundsNOxs - Oxides of NitrogenSOxs - Oxides of SulfurH2S - Hydrogen SulfideCO - Carbon MonoxideCO2 – Carbon Dioxide1 micron = 1 millionth (10-6) of a meter

PM-10s - Particulate matter witha diameter of 10 microns or lessPM-2.5s - Particulate matterwith a diameter of 2.5 micronsor lessPb – LeadPAHs - Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons

The Center for Health and the Global EnvironmentHarvard Medical SchoolMarch 2002333 Longwood Ave Suite 640Boston, Mass 02115March 2002

Ph: 617 432 0493Fx: 617 432 2595Em: chge@hms.harvard.eduwww.med.harvard.edu/chge/oil.html

An oiled penguin walks the beach after aSouth African oil spill

Joanna Burger, Ph.D.Distinguished ProfessorNelson Biological LaboratoryRutgers University

David Jessup, D.V.M.Wildlife VeterinarianWildlife Health CenterUniversity of California, Davis

Flo Tseng, D.V.M.Assistant ProfessorTufts University School of Veterinary MedicineCenter for Conservation MedicineGrafton, MA

Richard Clapp, D.Sc.Associate ProfessorDept. of Environmental HealthBoston University School of Public Health

Kathleen Frith, M.S.1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Page 4Figure 1: Effcts of Oil Recovery Page 6

by StageFigure 2:Global Distribution of Page 7

Proven Oil Reserves at the end of 2000

Figure 3: Number of Global Oil Drilling Sites Page 7

PART 1: RECOVERY OF OIL

I. EXPLORATION,DRILLING AND EXTRACTION Page 8

A. Scope Page 8B.Technical process Page 8C. Environmental impacts Page 9D. Human health impacts Page 12E. Spills,explosions, fires and blowouts Page 14∑ Case studies:

Nigeria Page 12Ecuador Page 15Mexico Page 16

F. Human rights and environmental legal Implications Page 16

G. Chapter summary Page 17

II. POPULATION DISPLACEMENTS AND INFECTIOUS DISEASE Page 18

∑ Case study:The Peruvian Amazon Page 18• Other implications Page 19

III.TRANSPORTA. Introduction Page 20B.Oil spills Page 20Figure 4:The Largest Oil Spills Page 21

in HistoryC. Environmental impacts of oil spills Page 22∑ Case study: Nigeria revisited Page 24

IV. REFINING Page 27A. Environmental pollution Page 27B. Chronic occupational hazards Page 27C.Accident potential Page 29D. Environmental protection Page 29

Part 2. CONSUMPTION AND

COMBUSTION Page 30

V. HEALTH EFFECTS OF GASOLINEAND GASOLINE ADDITIVES Page 30

A. Exposures to gasoline Page 30B.Acute toxicities Page 31C. Chronic toxicities Page 32

VI.AIR POLLUTION Page 35A.The pollutants Page 35B. Environmental impact Page 36C. Human health impacts Page 36Figure 5:Average Monthly Asthma Page 37

Compared with PM-10 Figure 6:Age and Gender-adjusted Page 39

Asthma Hospitalization

VII.ACID RAIN Page 40A.Terrestrial impacts Page 40B.Aquatic impacts Page 41C.The recovery process Page 41

VIII. GREENHOUSE GASES Page 43A. Introduction Page 43B.The greenhouse effect Page 43Figure 7:The Greenhouse Effect Page 43Figure 8: Global Warming Potentials Page 45

Over 100 YearsC. Emissions Page 45D.The changing climate Page 46Figure 9: Global Temperature Changes Page 46E. Health impacts Page 47

IX. OIL AND MACROECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Page 51

Oil and security Page 51Environmental justice Page 51

X.CONCLUSIONS Page 52

APPENDIX: CALIFORNIA Page 54WILDLIFE STATISTICS FOR OIL SPILLS

REFERENCES Page 62

Table Of Contents

4

When significant deposits of oil were discovered inthe 19th Century, this fossil fuel appeared to offer alimitless source of energy to drive development.While oil and the energy it supplies provide multi-ple benefits to human society, every stage in the lifecycle from exploration to use can have harmfuleffects on our health and the environment. Thisre p o rt examines the health and env i ro n m e n t a limpacts of oil exploration, drilling, extraction, trans-port, refining and combustion.

Drilling and extraction carry acute andchronic hazards, including fires and blowouts, occu-pational injury and disease, and can lead to long-term harm to plant and animal communities. Oilspills and leaks along coastlines pose risks formarine life and fisheries, and can threaten the liveli-hoods of human communities. Refining exposesworkers and wildlife to petroleum, its by-productsand the chemicals used in the refining process. Atthe pump, gasoline can be both toxic and carcino-genic.

Refining and combustion result in air pollu-tion and acid rain. Pollutant chemicals can be toxicto humans, other animals and plants, while acid rain

has impacts on terre s t r i a l , aquatic and marinecoastal systems. Finally, the aggregate of gas andparticulate emissions from burning oil have begunto alter the world’s climate system; with implica-tions for human health, agricultural productivity,vulnerable ecosystems and societal infrastructure.

This report, while not exhaustive, is intend-ed to provide a comprehensive framework for eval-uating the true costs of our use of oil.The authorshope it will serve as a resource for further study.

Oil Extraction

• Each year, 0.75-1.8 billion gallons of crude oil are uninten-tionally released into the environment.

• Occupationally-related fatalities among workers in the oiland gas extraction process are higher than deaths for work-ers from all other U.S.industries combined.

• Oil well workers risk injury and chronic disease fromexposure to chemicals such as cadmium, arsenic, cyanide,PAHs and lead.

• Gulf Coast offshore oil rigs contaminate sediments, fishand fish consumers with mercury at levels far exceeding EPAstandards.

• Spills,explosions,fires and blowouts have multiple environ-mental and public health impacts.

• Operational discharges of water, drill cuttings and mudhave chronic effects on benthic (bottom-dwelling) marinecommunities,mammals,birds and humans.

• Inadequately regulated drilling of oil has harmed sensitiveecosystems in several developing countries.

Oil Transport

• Spills and leaks from the transport of petroleum andpetroleum by-products occur from the point of extraction torefineries and to the sites of consumption.

• According to the Oil Spill Intelligence Report, 1999,

approximately 32 million gallons of oil spilled worldwide intomarine and inland environments as a result of 257 transportincidents that year.

• While large tanker accidents attract the most attention,the cumulative effect of spills and chronic leaks cause thegreatest environmental damage and harm to wildlife commu-nities.

• Many leaks and spills occur in developing nations wheresafety regulations for pipelines and oil rigs are inadequatelyenforced.

• Coastal marine and human communities in developednations also experience significant impacts from oil spills andleaks.

• Marine mammals are affected by the oiling of their fur andskin, and through consumption of oil-contaminated foods(e.g., mussels),or via inhalation of fumes that have liver, kidneyand central nervous system toxicity.

• The marine mammals most commonly affected include:seals, sea otters,walruses, sea lions and whales; manatees anddugongs (in tropical waters); and polar bears in the Arctic.(Detailed in appendix of report.)

• Sea otters are particularly vulnerable as they feed near thesurface, have little blubber and depend upon an intact fur coatto maintain their body temperature.

Key Points

View of an oil rig from a helicopter

Introduction

5

Oil Refining

• Oil, by-products and chemicals used in the refining processcause chemical, thermal,and noise pollution.

• Oil refining affects the health and safety of refinery work-ers through accidents and from chronic illness (e.g.,leukemia)associated with exposure to petroleum and its by-products(e.g.,benzene).

• Petroleum refineries present major health hazards forhuman communities living near refineries, and for marine andterrestrial ecosystems where they are situated.

• Regulations on labor, safety, emission standards and envi-ronmental protection are often inadequate in developingnations and in poor communities in developed nations.

Gasoline

• Gasoline and many of its additives can lead to acute andchronic toxicity, and is associated with some types of cancer.

• Groups at high risk for exposure to gasoline and its addi-tives include: employees in the distribution, storage andpumping of gasoline;people living near refineries, transfer andstorage facilities,and service stations;automobile drivers whopump their own gas; people who live in houses with attachedgarages; and those whose drinking water has been contami-nated with gasoline.

• Despite the well-recognized health impacts of lead poison-ing, and evidence that reduction in the lead content of gaso-line significantly diminishes lead-related morbidity, much ofthe gasoline available in the developing world remains leaded.

Combustion: Air Pollution

• Gas flaring at the point of extraction is a source of air pol-lution.

• The additives and products of oil combustion, VOCs,NOxs, SOxs, CO, CO2, PM-10s, PM-2.5s and Pb (definitionson p. 2), have numerous environmental and human healthimpacts.

• Chemical and particulate air pollution are related to heartand lung disease (chronic obstructive lung disease and asth-ma) and premature death.

• NOxs and VOCs combine to form ground level ozone(O3) or photochemical smog.

• This reaction is temperature-dependent; thus warmingincreases the formation of photochemical smog and mayreverse gains made in attaining ground level ozone standards.

• Subsequent to the 1970 Clean Air Act, the U.S. has madesubstantial efforts towards controlling air pollution. However,

studies demonstrate that even allowable levels of many of thepollutants result in significant negative health effects.

Combustion:Acid Rain

• Acids formed from oxides of nitrogen (NOxs) and sulfur(SOxs) acidify all forms of precipitation.

• The anticipated recovery of acidified soils appears to be alonger, more protracted process than originally projected, asthe depletion of minerals (calcium and magnesium) persistseven after correction of soil acidity.

• Calcium and magnesium deficiencies in soils harm plantsand animals.

• Acidification leaches lead,copper and aluminum into drink-ing water.

• NOxs from oil combustion (along with sewage and fertiliz-er runoff) cause eutrophication of lakes, estuaries and marinecoasts.

• Eutrophication (excessive nitrogen and phosphorus) con-tributes to harmful algal blooms in inland waters and coastal"red tides" that contaminate seafood, and leads to biologicallyunproductive "dead zones".

Combustion: Climate Change

• Over the past 150 years, human activities -- including thecombustion of fossil fuels and land clearing -- have altered thelevels of atmospheric greenhouse gases; the most importantbeing carbon dioxide.

• CO2 levels are now greater than they have been for420,000 years and they are rising.

• Land surfaces and the deep ocean are warming, alteringEarth's ice cover, accelerating the hydrological (water) cycleand changing global weather patterns.

• Droughts are becoming more severe and persistent,addingto the depletion of fresh water supplies in water-stresseda re a s , and increasing the vulnerability of agriculturalresources.

• Melting of permafrost threatens the integrity of northernlatitude pipelines.

• Warming and the accompanying extreme weather eventsthreaten health, forests and marine coastal ecosystems.

Oil has many benefits and energy is necessary for allour activities. But each stage in its life cycle carries haz-ards for humans, wildlife and the environmental systemson which we and other species depend. Dependence onoil has also skewed incomes within nations and alteredpower relations among them. Efficiency gains, and morediffuse and distributed generation, could transform thecurrent system into one that is healthier, less costly andmore resilient.

The transition to clean and efficient energytechnologies will depend on nationally and internation-ally coordinated policies and incentives. Understandingthe health and environmental consequences of oil usemay help decision makers assess the true costs of ourdependence on this non-renewable resource.

A GIS map illustrating oil fields in South America

Conclusion

Figure 1: Effects of Oil Recovery by Stage

STAGE EFFECT SUBCATEGORY

Exploration Deforestation Emerging infectious diseases

Drilling and Chronic Environmental • Discharges of hydrocarbons,Extraction Degradation water and mud; increased concentrations of naturally

occurring radioactive materialsPhysical Fouling • Reduction of fisheries

• Reduced air quality resulting from flaring and evaporation• Soils contamination• Morbidity and mortality of seabirds,marine mammals and sea turtles

Habitat Disruption • Noise effects on animals• Pipeline channeling through estuaries• Artificial islands

Occupational Hazards • Injury, dermatitis, lung disease,mental health impacts, cancer

Livestock Destruction

Transport Spills •Destruction of farmland, terrestrial and coastal marine communities• Contamination of groundwater• Death of vegetation• Disruption of food chain

Refining Environmental Damage • Hydrocarbons• Thermal pollution• Noise pollution, ecosystem disruption

Hazardous Material •Chronic lung disease

Exposure • Mental Disturbance• Neoplasms

Accidents • Direct damages from fires, explosions,chemical leaks and spills

Combustion Air Pollution • Particulates• Ground level ozone

Acid Rain • NOx, SOx• Acidification of soil•Eutrophication; aquatic and coastal marine

Climate Change • Global warming and extreme weather events, with associated impacts on agriculture, infrastructure, and human health

6

7

Figure 2: Global Distribution of Proven Oil Reserves at the End of 2000 (Statistical

Review of World Energy, 2001)

Figure 3: Number of Global Oil Drilling Sites

Region Barrels in billions Percentage of TotalAfrica 74.8 7.1Asia Pacific 44.0 4.2Europe 19.1 1.8Former Soviet Union 65.3 6.2Middle East 683.6 65.3North America 64.4 6.2South & Central America 95.2 9.1

TOTAL 1046.4 100

OECD† 84.8 8.1OPEC†† 814.4 77.8

†OECD Members:Australia,Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway,Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,Turkey, United Kingdom, United States.

††OPEC Members:Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,United ArabEmirates,Venezuela.

Region Land Off-Shore TotalEUROPE 39 50 89MIDDLE EAST 141 28 169AFRICA 32 28 60LATIN AMERICA 218 52 270ASIA PACIFIC 93 61 154CANADA 339 5 444UNTIED STATES 776 140 916MEXICO 38 6 44

TOTAL 1776 360 2146

8

A. Scope

There are approximately 40,000 oil fields in theworld, but less than five percent of them contained95 percent of the total world oil reserves whenfirst discovered. Moreover, crude oil reserves aredominated by 38 "super-giant" fields, originally con-taining more than five billion barrels and holdingover 50 percent of the world’s reserves (Gilbert,1993). Industrial nations tend to be large con-sumers of oil and oil products, but minor produc-e r s . Among the OECD (Organization fo rEconomic Cooperation and Development) nations,only Mexico, Norway and Britain are oil self-suffi-cient, whereas the rest of the industrialized worldis highly dependent upon the Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), and par-ticularly the Middle Eastern nations, for oil supplies.Sixty-six percent of the current reserves are locat-ed in the Middle East, but ME countries produceonly 26 percent of today’s global supply (Gilbert,1993). The largest non-Middle Eastern oil export-ing countries include Venezuela, Nigeria, Indonesia,Libya,Algeria, Ecuador, and Gabon. As oil has yield-ed higher prices, extraction has moved offshore,and platform drilling off the continental shelves hass t e a d i ly grown to meet an increasing globaldemand.

The environmental and public health haz-a rds associated with exploration, drilling andextraction in the life cycle of oil are broad in scopeand in the degree of impact. The general environ-mental effects of encroachment into natural habi-tats and the chronic effects of drilling and generat-ing mud and discharge water on benthic (bottom-dwelling) populations, migratory bird populations

and marine mammals constitute serious environ-mental concerns for these ecosystems. Drilling ofoil poses health risks to workers, including acute(traumatic) and chronic illness from long-term exposure, respiratory and dermatological diseases,and malignancies.

On-shore projects can have serious nega-tive effects on water sources, fisheries and live-stock, potentially harming fishing and farming com-munities. Acute events such as spills, explosions,fires and blowouts occur with relative frequencyduring drilling operations. These events can causeloss of life and do extensive damage to local envi-ronments.

This section of the report presents a briefdiscussion of the technical aspects of exploration,drilling, and extraction. It then addresses the physi-cal disruption, chemical pollution and biologicalharm to surrounding communities, including thehuman health consequences from fires, blowoutsand spills. Finally, case studies will be presentedillustrating general points made throughout thissection.

B. The Technical Process

Exploration

As the search for the "ever-elusive hydrocarbon"has become increasingly difficult, the industry hasmoved beyond random drilling to more sophisticat-ed detection techniques (Surd a m , R . C. , 1 9 9 7 ) .Airplanes and satellites make remote sensing possi-ble, using a combination of photography, radar,infrared imagery, microwave frequency receivers

I. EXPLORATION, DRILLING AND EXTRACTION

There are hundreds of oil-waste pits in the Oriente [Ecuador], perhaps more than a thousand. Many of them are situ-ated right on the streams that provide drinking, fishing, and bathing water for local communities. A typical pit is aboutthe size of an Olympic swimming pool and is nothing more than a hole dug out of the forest floor. Raw crude oil, toxicdrilling wastes, formation water (water that is pumped up from the ground along with petroleum and carries such heavymetals as arsenic, cadmium, cyanide, lead, and mercury), maintenance wastes (including industrial solvents and acids),and the related effluvia of the oil-extraction process are regularly dumped into such pits and the pits regularly wash outin the Oriente’s heavy rains .

Joe Kane, Savages (1996)

and other technologies to identify possible produc-tion areas and to predict the likelihood of signifi-cant reserves (Beaumont and Foster, 1992; Legg,1994). The primary benefits resulting from theseadvances are threefold: first, they allow for a pre-l i m i n a ry assessment of env i ronmental impactpotential prior to setting foot on the ground (Legg,1994); a related second, they may reduce the envi-ronmental despoliation resulting from exploration;and third, these advances can cut the overall costsof exploration. However, the statistical improve-ment is so far only 28% over random drilling, rais-ing overall efficiency to around 60% (Surd a m ,1997). This means that land-based testing, whileconducted less broadly, is still required and thatsuch testing, despite the environmental effects, hasa continuing failure rate of about 40%.Environmental impact assessments, universally rec-ognized as crucial steps in environmental protec-tion, are often not conducted or go unheeded.

During land-based exploration, drilling isconducted to determine the nature and extent ofpotential oil and gas reserves. In regions withknown reserves like California and Alaska,a survey-ing and siting technique called the "checkerboardmethod" can help limit the number of test holesrequired (Stanley – USGS, 1995). But in developingcountries where reserves are less-explored, testdrilling is more extensive. These operations areusually brief, involve a small number of wells, andare generally conducted from mobile platforms orvessels. The first stage of exploration -- 3-D seis-mic surveys -- requires a caravan of survey equip-ment. While new techniques attempt to reducethe associated disruption, this process invo l ve svibrating and recording vehicles, personnel carriers,mechanic trucks, mobile shop trucks, fuel tankers,an incinerator, a crew of 80 to 120 people, shippingcontainers, tractors and other equipment. Mobilerigs employed for temporary drilling can weighover two million pounds and discharge largeamounts of mud and cuttings.

Once oil and gas is found, developmentbegins with the drilling of 10 to 30 wells per plat-form. Since more wells are drilled during develop-ment than during exploration, a larger volume ofdrilling mud and cuttings is discharged in thisprocess. Once the drilling unit used in develop-

ment is removed, extraction of hydrocarbons fromthe underground formation begins (Menzie, 1983).

Drilling and Extraction

Offshore oil platforms produce a wide variety ofliquid, solid and gaseous wastes, some dischargeddirectly into the ocean. Onshore oil productionoperations produce quantities of cuttings and mud,ranging from 60,000 to 300,000 gallons per day,while offshore oil platforms use nearly 400,000 gal-lons of water per day, released directly into theocean. Lined pits for disposal are sometimes usedin association with land rigs, but mud, drill cuttings,and other materials are often discharged into theground.

More troublesome still, some extractiontechniques require the use of sub-surface explo-sives, or ‘torpedoing’ to breach certain geologic fea-tures. However, even this can fail to produce thedesired effect. One engineering text goes so far asto suggest the following: "In cases where the use ofchemical explosives is not effective, nuclear chargesmay be employed" (Schumacher, 1980). If such asuggestion were only hypothetical,it might be easilydismissed. But apparently such operations werecarried out, mostly in the former Soviet Union,with enough ‘success’ that the text goes on to con-tend, "peaceful nuclear explosions will help tounseal and put into operation enormous deposits"(Schumacher, 1980).

C. Environmental Impacts

Exploring for oil carries particular risks for planth a b i t a t , w i l d l i fe and human commu n i t i e s .Exploration usually involves moving heavy equip-ment into relatively pristine environmental areas,disrupting -- sometimes deforesting -- the habitatand allowing human encroachment. Air and groundtransport vehicles require landing strips and newroads, further contributing to the fragmentation ofhabitats. The exploration crew can introduce infec-tious disease to previously unexposed (immunolog-ically-naïve) populations, or can contract new dis-eases from penetration into the exploration site.Deforestation itself can lead to the emergence ofnew infectious diseases. Cultural clashes with localpopulations occasionally occur.

9

Great quantities of water -- often a limitedresource -- are used during exploration, particular-ly in inland sites. In areas with permafrost, millionsof gallons of water are used to create ice accessroads in winter across the tundra. Overdrawn sur-face water sources can harm invertebrates and fishthat feed migrating fowl, while depletion of under-ground aquifers can have long-term implications forentire ecosystems, farming activities and humancommunities.

Water used and contaminated duringextraction, or ‘produced water’ as it is known inthe industry, generally contains varying quantities ofheavy metals, volatile aromatic hydrocarbons (suchas benzene, toluene and xylene) and a vast array ofother potentially toxic compounds. P ro d u c e dwater can be treated using a range of mitigationtechniques including filtration, biological processes,and reverse osmosis before being reintroducedinto the environment (Reed and Johnsen, 1995).But these methods entail a great deal of expenseand seem to be employed selectively. Likewise,since certain geologic features commonly associat-ed with the exploitation of oil are also associatedwith underground water systems, many extractionoperations have the requisite preconditions forwidespread contamination (Legg, 1994). Avoidingcontamination of adjacent water supplies oftenre q u i res a costly combination of fracture andhy d ro-geologic analy s e s ; costs unlike ly to beincurred except where environmental standardsrequire these activities.

Physical Disruption

Although physical alteration from oil exploration isdifficult to quantify, fishermen and environmental-ists alike consider it to have a greater environmen-tal impact than do large oil spills. The effect ofdrilling structure s , discharge cuttings, a rt i f i c i a lislands and pipelines all impact coastal habitats.Canalization of land surfaces for pipeline routingand navigation in coastal wetlands are extremelydisruptive to ecosystems, often allowing saltwaterintrusion into brackish ecosystems. Noise andphysical disturbances affect bird, mammal and turtlepopulations, while artificial islands and causeways inthe Arctic alter the living conditions of benthiccommunities and fish (Boesch and Rabalais, 1987).

In developing countries, pipelines are oftenlaid above ground because it is less expensive thanburying the pipes. These obtrusive, leaking struc-tures can disrupt livestock, farmland, and the habi-tat of human and animal communities. Sometimesoilrigs become artificial reefs and provide underwa-ter habitat for marine life.

Chemical Pollutants

Petroleum itself, oil-based drilling fluids and thebyproducts of drilling, including water, drill cuttingsand mud have been studied extensively. The chemi-cal composition of each of these substances variesaccording to the drilling methods employed andthe specific commercial product generated. Thetoxins, irritants and general pollutants include alka-lis, bactericides, soluble chromates, mercury andcorrosion inhibitors. Because methods for disposalof mud at the end of a job vary, depending on gov-erning authorities and mud composition (AIME,1975), the precise impact of these chemicals ondynamic ecosystems is difficult to quantify.Unfortunately, the unknown and complex chroniceffects may be the most serious ones for the envi-ronment. However, a general understanding of howchemical pollution from drilling effects the environ-ment provides avenues for investigation into specif-ic categories of impact.These include:

1. Chronic effects from the persistence of mediumand high molecular weight aromatic hydrocarbons,including heterocyclics and their degradation prod-ucts, in sediments and cold environments.

2. Residual damage from oil spills to complex bio-logical communities, such as coastal wetlands, reefsand vegetation beds.

3. Effects on benthic organisms from dischargesa c c u mulated through field development andexploratory drilling.

4. Effects of water discharges into near shorerather than open shelf environments.

Recent studies suggest that aromatic hydro-carbons, including heterocyclic chemicals can mimichormones, causing deleterious developmental andre p ro d u c t i ve effects in wildlife and humans

10

(Colborn et al., 1996). Female petrochemical work-ers exposed to organic solvents are at increasedrisk of having prolonged menstrual cycles(oligomenorrhea).Those with three or more yearsof exposure had a 53% higher risk (Cho et al.,2 0 0 1 ) . Although the ecological significance of"endocrine disrupters" has not been resolved, off-shore drilling discharges -- containing polyaromatichydrocarbons and alkyl phenols (Lye, 2000) -- maybe one source of such contamination.

NORM Pollution

Naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORMs)a re commonly found in underground geologicdeposits and are frequently brought to the surfaceduring crude oil recovery. Normally quite stableand insoluble, some radium leaching to the environ-ment is possible as a result of acid-rain exposureand the aging processes. "Non-negligible" exposureto humans living and working in contaminatedareas is most likely to occur via waterborne path-ways. (Rajaretnam and Spitz, 2000). NORM wastesresult from a diverse range of industrial activities,but are not as carefully monitored in the oil indus-try as in other forms of mining. It has been suggest-ed that if NORM-contaminated by-products wereto be disposed of pro p e r ly, existing low - l eve lradioactive waste facilities would be ‘readily occu-pied’ (Paschoa, 1998). New studies reveal that evenlow-level radiation may have mutagenic impacts(Zhou et al., 2001).

Biological Effects

Media images of dead and dying oil-covered marinewildlife have sparked considerable public concernover the effect of offshore oil deve l o p m e n t .Massive kill events do occur, but the long-termimpacts of leaks and chronic discharges may be ofgreater significance for animal populations (espe-cially endangered) and migratory sites for birds andmarine mammals. Over the past 15 years, studiesindicate oil fouling as a cause of mortality in seals,sea otters, several species of whales,and sea turtles(Boesch and Rabalais, 1987). Bioaccumulation of oiland other products in mammals and fish that areconsumed by humans is a further concern.Livelihoods can be at risk; the reduction of fisherystocks due to mortality of eggs and larvae as a

result of oil leaks and spills creates economic bur-dens on fishing communities.

Onshore drilling poses risks for livestock.Crude oil and salt water spills, common occur-rences around production sites, and pipeline breakscan all expose livestock to crude oil or refinedpetroleum hydrocarbons. Ingestion of petroleumhydrocarbons by livestock can cause sudden death(Edwards, 1989). Solvents and petroleum hydrocar-bon components can cause aspiration pneumoniaand rumen dysfunction, while certain petroleumadditives can cause methemogolobinemia (Edwardsand Gregory, 1991).

High doses of drilling effluent cause variousclinical signs in livestock, including tremors, nystag-mus, vomiting and pulmonary distress (Khan et al.,1996). Exposures occur when the petroleum orchemicals used in oil and gas field activities areavailable to cattle, or when water and feedstuffs arecontaminated (Coppock et al., 1995).

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CASE REPORTS - COWS

• Eleven of 80 Holstein cows were found dead in apasture. A barrel of unknown chemicals had rustedand leaked near an oil well. Animals were observedto have spasmodic seizures at the time of death.• Thirteen of 28 cows were found dead near a gaswell. The rumen pH at necropsy was 9.6. The post-mortem blood was chocolate brown. A green liquidwas leaking from a tank near the oil well.• Fifteen of 300 head of cattle were found dead in apasture where an oil well was being drilled. Cattlehad been observed licking a white granular materialfrom broken 50-pound sacks.• Four of 10 heifers were found dead near an oil well.There was a strong smell of solvent in the rumencontents.• Two of 40 Hereford cows consumed liquid comingfrom a pit near an oil well. Necropsy revealed pro-fuse watery and bloody diarrhea.• Ten cows and three calves in a herd of 21 Limosinecows were found dead in a pasture where oil drillingwas in progress. The cows had consumed liquid leak-ing from the well site . Six cows were found deadnear a drilling site . The cows had consumed a yellowbrown powder (Edwards and Gregory, 1991).

D. Human Health Impacts

Mercury contamination and offshore drilling

Mercury contamination of fish has become anincreasing route of human exposure to this neuro-toxin, believed to cause birth defects, and heartproblems – and more severe neurological disorders("Minamata disease") and death with very high lev-els. Coal-fired plants have long been known to con-tribute mercury to the environment. In a study ofoil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico mercury levels wereup to 12 times higher than the safe level, by EPAstandards, in muds and sediments beneath the plat-forms (Raines, 2002). Fish caught in the Gulf --groupers, amberjack, yellowfin tuna, reds snapper,swordfish and others -- were found to have mercu-ry levels that made them unsafe for sale, accordingto the Mobile Register. Humans eating gulf coast fishonce a week have high levels of mercury in theirsamples. Explosions

In July 1988, an explosion and subsequent fire inthe North Sea Piper Alpha platform, owned byOccidental Co. , killed 160 (Onu b a , 1 9 9 1 ) .Unfortunately, such accidents are not uncommon.

WARRI, NIGERIA

In October of 1998, a pipeline in the NigerianDelta town of Warri burst and caught fire, result-ing in over 700 deaths; 500 immediately and anadditional 200 within the next week (Anon.,1998). Facing severe fuel shortages, hundreds oflocal residents had gathered around the burstpipeline in order to collect the oil that flowedfrom the breakage, "It was like a marketplace,"said Chief John Ogude of Warri (Walsh, 1998).Around the leak, "The vast pool of fuel coveringan area the size of a football field was then acci-dentally ignited" (Holman, 1998) and explodedinto flames reaching as high as 20 meters (Walsh,1998).

DRILLING IN NIGERIA

Although the quantity of oil drilling in Nigeria is small compared to that done in many other nations, lack ofregulatory bodies and dependence on oil for income have led to sub-standard production operations. Oilpollution from normal operations -- that include spills, accidents, leaks and waste discharges -- have causedsignificant ecological damage to the Niger River Delta. Shell Oil alone reported 130 spills in 1997; attribut-ing 53 to equipment failure, 23 to human error and 54 to sabotage by those frustrated with the govern-ment and oil industry (Susman, 1998). Conditions in one Delta community were described as follows:

In the nearby Obagi community, open flares of natural gas, a by-product of crude oil, are burned off daily, emitting apungent smell that tingles the nostrils… New galvanized rooftops are caked with rust within two years, thanks toacid rain. And miles of brown, rusting oil pipelines that dot the landscape often leak or burst, sending streams ofsticky black liquid into the fields (Simmons, 1998).

According to the Moffat/Linden report(1995), at least 2300 cubic meters of oil -- from at least 300spills -- contaminate the Niger Delta region annually. This is the "official" number reported.The actualamount of oil spilled annually "may be 10 times higher" (Moffat and Linden, 1995). The devastating fire inWarri in 1998 that killed at least 700 residents in the vicinity of a burst pipeline is probably the most dra-matic and illustrative of the risks that oil exploration poses for public health. The accumulated effects ofhundreds of oil spills and leaks, however, as well as the atmospheric contamination through continuous gasflaring, pose long-term and widespread health hazards for local communities.

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Early oil rigs:"…the so-called standard rig would have horrifiedtoday’s safety professionals…Flying ropes andkicked-back boards caused untold numbers of bro-ken arms and ribs, smashed faces, and crackedskulls. Despite their drawbacks, cable tool rigswere used all over the world from the Baku oil-fields of Russia to New Zealand as the oil demandgrew." (Berger and Anderson, 1992). Cable toolrigs are still used on land today, but improvementshave made them safer and more mobile than theirpredecessors.

Offshore drilling workers still face multiplehazards and report high levels of stress and anxiety(Mueller et al., 1987). Long shifts and stressfulschedules, combined with wet, slippery conditions,rough seas and heavy machinery moving at highvelocities, create dangerous work conditions.

Oil and gas exploration and drilling are themost hazardous sectors of the oil industry(Guidotti, 1995). Occupationally-related fatalities

among workers in the oil and gas extraction

process are higher than deaths for workers from

all other U.S. industries combined. In 1991, non-fatal work-related injuries for workers in the U.S.oil and gas field service industry were 49% greaterthan injuries for workers in all of private industry.Injuries also tend to be more severe, with lostworkday rates more than 2.8 fold higher than thosein private industry (McNabb et al., 1994).

[Data compiled by the InternationalAssociation of Drilling Contractors, an industrywide international trade association representing95% of the world’s oil and gas drilling companies.]

In addition to death and injury, workmen inthe oil and gas industry also suffer from a variety ofdermatological conditions, most commonly contactdermatitis and acne. Other conditions includekerototic facial and neck lesions, neoplastic changeof the skin from exposure to oil and sunlight, andacquired perforating disease and calcinosis of thehands and fingers (Knox et al., 1986;Wheeland andRoundtree, 1985). Tests have shown a correlationbetween anti-estrogenic activity, mutagenicity andexposure levels to the polycyclic aromatic com

pounds associated with crude and slurry oils(Arcaro, 2001).

"Hard metal" -- a mixture of tungsten car-bide and cobalt -- is widely used for industrial pur-poses, including oil well drilling bits. Adverse pul-monary reactions to hard metals include asthma,hypersensitivity pneumonitis and interstitial pul-monary fibrosis (Cugell, 1992). The last two illness-es are often fatal.

Drilling generally requires the use of fluidsto lubricate and cool these ‘hard metal’ drill bits.Standard practice into the 1980s was to use diesel-based fluids, but their volatility posed obvious risks.Modern substitutes include low-aromatic oil-basedfluids. But these may pose new risks in that testingof related substances has shown them to be moreefficiently distributed to the brain. Likewise, little isknown about the carcinogenic potential of long-term exposure (Eide, 1990).

Working conditions in developing countriesare, overall, more hazardous than those in devel-oped countries. Basic health requirements for staffare not carried out in many parts of the world(Onuba, 1991), and poor regulatory systems oftenincrease the risks of occupational injury and death.

In spite of these North/South inequities, theU.S. is not immune to sub-standard working condi-tions. A single case of severe diarrhea on a floatingTexas oilrig preceded by two days the largestcholera epidemic in the U.S. in over a century. Theoutbreak was associated with an open valve thatpermitted contamination of the rig's drinking waterby canal water containing sewage discharged fromthe rig (Johnston et al., 1983).

Although several oil companies are involvedin production activities in the Niger Delta region,including Mobil, C h ev ro n , and Texaco (Susman,1998), Royal Dutch/Shell Petroleum Corporation isthe leading oil producer in Nigeria. Having dug itsfirst well in 1956, Royal Dutch/Shell now controlsthe over half of Nigeria’s oil production. Both localand international communities have primarily tar-geted Shell for the poor environmental standardsand the harsh conditions that exist in the Delta.The production of oil in the Niger Delta, which has

13

been criticized by Shell’s former Nigerian head ofenvironmental studies as "not meeting internationalstandards," (Kuper, 1996) has been reported to bethe single largest world contributor to global cli-mate change through releases of carbon dioxideand methane associated with production activities(Penman, 1995). Withdrawing temporarily in 1993,Shell has since reentered the Delta despite increas-ing protests, both peaceful and violent, against itsinvolvement in the region. Shell has been implicat-ed in hiring mercenary armies to provide protec-tion against local populations whose violentprotests jeopardize the stability of oil extractionactivities. Oil has failed to alleviate the suffering ofNigeria’s people and has devastated the Delta envi-ronment.

E. Spills, Explosions, Fires and Blowouts

Serious accidents can occur during the drilling andextraction processes. Blowouts of wells (caused bypressure build up in front of the drill head), plat-form collapses or collisions with ships, pipeline rup-tures, leaks and accidents in transferring oil and gasbetween facilities, and fires and explosions all con-stitute major public health hazards. Notable wellblowouts that caused large-scale oil spills occurredin 1969 in Santa Barbara, California, in 1977 inEkofisk in the North Sea, and in 1979 in Ixtoc, Gulfof Mexico.

A 1981 report by the National Academy

of Sciences estimated that 36 million gallons of

oil are released into the oceans each year as a

result of all offshore oil and gas operations(MAS,

1981). This amounts to about 2% of the totalannual input from all spills (Menzie, 1983). Whenoil spills occur in the open sea, there may be imme-diate effects upon planktonic organisms andseabirds along the surface. In shallow, low-energyembayments, tidal flats and estuaries, the impacts ofoil spills can be more severe. There can be immedi-ate effects on near-shore marine bird populations,benthic vertebrates and fish. Mortality rates amongbirds coated with oil is particularly high as a resultof loss of buoyancy and dehydration. Spilled oilmay also be incorporated into the sediment, withchronic effects on benthic populations and pelagic(open ocean) fish.

Offshore wells drilled in icy waters presentunique problems. In the shallow Beaufort Seadrilling must be performed from artificial islandsand these islands and associated pipelines are vul-nerable to drifting ice. In deeper water to thenorth, drilling is carried out from mobile iceislands and drilling becomes impossible if an iceplatform moves a distance more than 5% of thetotal depth of water from the drill-hole. If ablowout occurs,a gas hole may seal itself. But,an oilwell blowout usually requires a counter-well tostop the flow; a process that can take up to a year,considering northern latitude working conditions.During this delay, oil accumulates under the driftingice and is carried to other parts of the ArcticOcean (Bourne, 1978).

Fires

Fires present one of the most severe acute threatsto human life in the oil industry. Oil is extremelyflammable, and the products of combustion aredangerous in high concentrations. The burning oilwells produces large amounts of gases such as SO2,CO, CO2, H2S, and NOxs, as well as particulatematter made up of partially burned hydrocarbonsand metals:All of these are potentially hazardous tohuman health and to vegetation (Husain, 1995).

In the context of war, oil fields and oil trans-portation systems are at high risk of sabotage, andlarge oil fire s , induced oil spills, and oil we l lblowouts occur. The Persian Gulf War is a primeexample of deliberate sabotage of oil operations.A p p rox i m a t e ly 22,000 tons of sulfur diox i d e,18,000 tons of soot, and thousands of tons of car-bon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen were emit-ted daily by the burning wells in Kuwait (Husain,1995). In addition, tons of toxic metals and car-cinogenic compounds we re released into theatmosphere (Kelsey et al., 1994).

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THE 1991 GULF WAR

According to the Petroleum Economist (1992), just before the conclusion of the Gulf war, the Iraqi militarysuccessfully detonated 730 wells with explosive material, causing fiery blowouts. Six hundred and fifty-sixof the exploded wells burned for several months and the remaining 74 gushed oil, forming lakes that cov-ered an area of 16 square miles (Husain, 1995), creating an "environmental catastrophe … unparalleled inthe history of mankind" (Husain, 1995). Estimates are that approximately 1.5 billion barrels (63 billion gal-lons) of crude oil (1.5-2% of the oil reserve in Kuwait) were lost to fires during this period. This corre-sponds to millions of tons of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere, and 1.05-1.7 billion gallons of oildeposited on the surface of Kuwait. In addition to the loss of resources, estimated to be over $U.S. 30 bil-lion, the population in the region was exposed to contaminated air for several months (Husain, 1995). Theblowouts deposited a coating of oil mist on the leaves of plants, depriving them of sunlight, and the falloutfrom the plumes on the Arabian Gulf seriously threatened the marine ecosystem. Furthermore, sabotageby the Iraqis spilled an estimated 460 million gallons of crude oil into the Arabian Gulf in the third week ofJanuary 1991, causing what is considered to be the largest oil spill in history.

DRILLING IN ECUADOR

The pollution is worse every day. Everyone has a cough or other sickness.-- Gabriel Alatorre, Petroecuador mechanic in Shushufindi, Ecuador (Althaus, 1996)

The Ecuadorean Amazon, known as the Oriente, was once one of the richest ecological and sparsely popu-lated sites in the world. When oil was discovered there in 1967, the situation changed dramatically.Extremely high levels of water pollution of drinking, bathing, and fishing waters in the Oriente have beenattributed to contamination from unlined waste pits (Brooke, 1994). More than 600 of these toxic wastepits were created during Texaco’s involvement in Ecuador between 1972 and 1990 (Kane, 1996). Texacoused such pits set into the ground to store toxic byproducts from oil production and separation.The lackof barriers allowed waste to leak into the surrounding soil. Ecuador’s Undersecretary for theEnvironment, Jorge Alban, reports that Texaco, while having cleaned 268 waste pits, has not cleaned at least400 pits and these are not included in the cleanup plan signed by Texaco, Petroecuador and the Ecuadoreangovernment (Schemo, 1998).

Oil pollution in local water supplies vastly exceeds international standards. According to the EPA,the level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) deemed acceptable in water is zero, as they arestrong carcinogens. The EPA standard in the U.S. is for a maximum PAH concentration of 28 nanogramsper liter of water, corresponding to a one in 100,000 lifetime risk of cancer. Samples of drinking water col-lected near oil production facilities in the Oriente ranged from 33 to 2,793 nanograms of PAHs per liter ofwater -- counts up to one hundred times the EPA's safety guidelines. Bathing and fishing waters had con-centrations ranging from 40 to 1,486 nanograms per liter, and water from waste pits ranged from 46,500 to405,634 nanograms per liter (Brooke, 1994).

Ecuador’s debt has created a dependency upon oil that has pressured the government into two compro-mising policies: to accept substandard operational practices by oil companies and to open ecologically-sensi-tive areas to exploration and production, disregarding the effects on indigenous populations. Neither actioninvolved consideration of indigenous groups that have lived in the Oriente for centuries, and rarely wereindigenous groups informed of oil production or settlement plans. The Ecuadorean government has esti-mated the cost of environmental damage to be $5 billion and has asked Texaco for reparations for cleanupcosts in the region (Parrish and Long, 1994).

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The env i ronmental consequences of theKuwaiti oil fires were unprecedented, resulting inmassive death to fish, bird and marine organisms.There were profound changes to air and waterquality, and the sheer quantity of carbon emissionscontributed to global climate change.Unfortunately, the human health impacts of thisevent have not been rigorously assessed, but thereis anecdotal evidence that children experiencedre s p i r a t o ry and dermatological diseases andgrowth retardation; as well as an undefined wastingsyndrome not previously experienced in the rela-tively affluent population. It is possible that theseclinical manifestations resulted from the oil firesand spills (Doucet, 1994). Exposure to large vol-umes of burning oil is also associated with aplasticanemia (Stern et al., 1994).

F. Human Rights and Env i ronmental Leg a l

Implications

Traditional international law forbids foreign inter-vention in matters that are "essentially within thedomestic jurisdiction of any state" (United NationsCharter,Article 2.7), and it recognizes the authorityof a state to exercise exclusive, permanent sover-eignty over the natural resources present within itsboundaries (Hunter et al., 1998). Thus, states haveh i s t o r i c a l ly enjoyed nearly absolute discre t i o nregarding what happens inside their territory.

However, recent decades have seen a limit-ed erosion of absolute state sovereignty, particular-ly in the area of human rights, but also in environ-mental law. Human rights, generally, are meant toguarantee certain minimum protection to all peo-

ple everywhere. These rights include many of theso-called civil rights, such as the rights of dueprocess, freedom of expression and political affilia-tion, and,most fundamentally, the right to life. All ofthese civil rights have often been abused when frus-trated individuals have spoken out against the envi-ronmental damage resulting from oil exploitation.In response to such abuses, human rights advocacyg ro u p s , l i ke Amnesty International and HumanRights Watch, have joined forces with environmen-tal non-governmental organizations such as theSierra Club and the National Resources DefenseCouncil in efforts to defend those "who give theearth a voice" (Sierra/Amnesty Report, 2000. Seealso, HRW/NRDC, 1992).

But beyond efforts to protect the humanrights of env i ronmental activists, a number ofprominent human rights and environmental lawyersand scholars contend that there is an emerginghuman right to a healthy environment.As evidence,they point to more than 60 national constitutionsthat either endow citizens with a right to an envi-ronment of a certain quality or impose obligationson the government to protect the environment(Kiss and Shelton, 2000). Ecuador’s Constitution,for example, promises a "right to live in an environ-ment free of contamination," (Constitución Políticade la República de Ecuador, 1979, article 19.2).

Unfortunately, the problem in Ecuador isi n d i c a t i ve of a more global pro b l e m : lack ofenforcement. The exploitation of oil reserves, likeother natural resources, has a tendency to exactthe greatest environmental toll where governmentslack the will or the resources to enforce legal stan-

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DRILLING IN MEXICO

For the past two decades the state of Tabasco in Mexico has experienced ecological and social crises stem-ming from the exploitation of the states’ oil reserves by Petroleos Mexicanos, the national oil company.Although this exploitation has generated U.S. $130 billion over 20 years, the state is the ninth poorest inMexico. Unregulated oil extraction has escalated living costs, skewed income distribution, forced reloca-tions and led to hazardous living conditions. The release of toxic substances and disruption of water sup-plies have damaged crops and depleted fish populations (Chelala, 1998). Studies performed in the area byJose Luis Cortes Penaloza indicate that cancer and leukemia are increasing in all age groups in Tobasco, withthe highest leukemia incidences reported in areas immediately surrounding petroleum production sites(Chelala, 1998).

dards. The worst instances most often involveoppressive regimes and multinational corporations,each impervious to the pressures of internationallaw. Several civil suits have been filed against U.S.corporations for alleged damage done by their sub-sidiaries abroad, but with limited success for theplaintiffs. A combination of legal action, improvinghuman rights mechanisms, and public relations con-cerns may eve n t u a l ly bring about a change incourse. Meanwhile, the exploration, drilling andextraction of oil continues to pose substantialthreats to the health of vulnerable people and theirenvirons (CESR, 1994).

F. Chapter summary

There are significant occupational hazards of land-based and coastal marine offshore exploration,drilling and extraction of oil. Drilling is one of themost hazardous professions in terms of mortality,

injury, mental health and chronic diseases thatinclude pneumoconiosis, cancers and dermatologi-cal disorders. Environmental effects include acuteand chronic degradation of terrestrial and nearcoastal habitats. Unpredicted pressure pockets,equipment failure, and sabotage are causes ofexplosions, fires and formation of oil lakes.

The chronic effects of drilling operationsare more difficult to quantify. Process leaks, duringstandard operating conditions, waste disposal andspills can generate continuous releases of hydrocar-bons and other effluents. The variety of materialsused throughout the industry and the differentenvironments and depths in which drilling opera-tions are conducted continue to make analysis ofcompounding influences difficult.

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II. POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND INFEC-

TIOUS DISEASES

Drilling and exploration have direct effects onhealth due to population movements. Oil attractsworkers and their families to sparsely inhabitedareas, sometime causing rapid "urbanization," intro-duction of infectious diseases and mental healthdisorders. The exploration crew can also be asource of new epidemics and cultural clashes withlocal populations.

Malaria, the world’s most prevalent vector-borne disease, has been historically linked to popu-lation movements. The movement of infected peo-ple from areas where malaria is endemic to areaswhere the disease had been eradicated has con-tributed to the resurgence of disease (McMichaelet al., 1996). Population movements can also affectthe risk of acquiring malaria because of the effecton both the env i ronment and ve c t o r s .Deforestation and irrigation systems create favor-

able habitats for the mosquitoes, while populationmovements can transport the disease and spreaddrug resistant strains (Wolfe et al., 2000).

Oil drilling has also been linked in ruralareas with population mixing between infectedpeople and individuals in areas of high susceptibility.Oil workers often work for a week and thenreturn to their families for a week. During theseshifts, workers come into contact with one anotherunder crowded conditions, creating a high potentialfor disease transmission. Workers can then bringthe diseases back to their respective communities.

Population movements and transitions fromrural, non-industrialized and traditional societies tourban, industrialized, "modern" society can alsohave impacts on mental health. In New Mexico,studies found rapid industrialization to correlatewith an increase in broken families, divorces, neg-lected children, alcoholism and lawlessness.

DRILLING IN THE PERUVIAN AMAZON

The Urarina are a semi-nomadic A m a z o n i a nindigenous group who, for 500 years have inhabit-ed the Chambira and Urituyacu river basins northof the Marañon River in Peru, located 450 kmfrom the department capital of Iquitos. They resis-ted outside contact with missionaries andcolonists for years, accounting for their unique lan-guage and their survival as a distinct people. TheUrarina are one of the largest isolated Amazonianindigenous groups in Peru that remain withoutgovernment recognition; they have neither citizen’srights nor control over their lands.

The Urarina land includes a flood zonebelieved to have significant oil reserves. ThePeruvian oil company has owned this field, and in1996 and 1997, the drilling rights were transferredto a British oil company. The company was able toenter and exploit the Urarina land by using the"divide and rule" scheme, securing the signature ofone individual who did not necessarily representthe views and wishes of the entire community.The Urarina were not properly represented andreceived no form of compensation. This type offraudulent contract is difficult to nullify.

In addition to the ecological devastation

associated with oil spills and chemical wastes inthis region, the Urarina people have been affectedby diseases imported by oil workers. The oil com-pany drilling subcontractor uses the port commu-nity of Santa Clara to load equipment onto bargesfor transport to Chambira and, in 1996-1997,Santa Clara suffered the most intense, drug resist-ant Plasmodium falciparum epidemic of any area ofPeru. Resistant P. falciparum strains first appearedin the Urarina population in Chambira inNovember 1997, apparently imported by the oilworkers. Over 60% of the malaria strains wereresistant to chloroquine and fansidar.

Pe rtussis (whooping cough) also firstappeared on the Chambira in February 1997,alongwith the arrival of oil drilling teams. Seven per-sons from two villages died. Mortality data fromthe rest of the Urarina are lacking, but rates arelikely to be high due to the lack of vaccination cov-erage.

There is additional concern that sexualcontact between foreign male workers and localwomen may lead to the introduction and spreadof sexually transmitted diseases, i n c l u d i n gHIV/AIDS.

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• Other Implications

Fossil fuel-related dislocations can be associatedwith other risks. In Burma, for example, the threatof infectious disease is secondary to the moreacute dangers of serious human rights violations.The Unocal Oil Company of California andEurope’s Elf-Total-Fina group have been implicatedas conspiring with and funding the Burmese mili-tary (Kanchanaburi, 1999; European InformationService, 2001).The military, in turn, has forced sub-sistence, minority farmers from their lands andthen conscripted them to work on the construc-tion of the country’s Yadana pipeline, benefiting thecompanies and the Government while harming bio-d i versity and disrupting local commu n i t i e s(Sierra/Amnesty Report, 2000). Citizens who dare

to speak out in protest are dealt with ruthlessly,and “would-be saboteurs” face oil-funded artilleryand rapid response battalions (Sierr a / A m n e s t yR e p o rt , 2 0 0 0 ; K a n c h a n a b u r i , 1 9 9 9 ) . Unocal hasbeen sued in U.S. courts, and Elf-Total-Fina blastedby members of the European Parliament for theiralleged involvement in these atrocities; but theiroperations continue (Tu l a c z , 1 9 9 6 ; E u ro p e a nInformation Service, 2001). A federal court in LosAngeles warned Unocal that liability would stemfrom proof that the company had conspired "todeny the civil rights of the Burmese plaintiffs to fur-ther its financial interests." But this standard hasbeen difficult to meet, and the people of Burma arestill very much at risk (Mabro, 1997).

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III. TRANSPORT

A. Introduction

Crude oil is found in nature, and at any point intime there are millions of gallons of crude oil natu-rally seeping into the environment. This seepageaccounts for 10%, approximately 20-340 million gal-lons, of the estimated quantity of crude oil spilledinto the oceans each year (Burger, 1997). Thisseepage has created a delicate balance between theorganisms that inhabit the environs near oil seep-ages and the potential damage that oil can inflictupon the environment.

Environmental degradation from the use ofoil has affected the earth ever since the ancientEgyptians set flame to oil-filled trenches duringwarfare. But before the 1960s when oil trans-portation technology began to flourish, the degra-dation was relatively small in scale. With the mas-sive shift to oil and gas came an explosion of envi-ronmental insults caused by large-scale oil spills andaccidents, most frequently occurring during trans-port.

This section focuses on the impact of thetransport of oil and oil derivatives across the globe.The role of oil in the modern world has createdthe need for increasingly complex transportationmethodologies that allow oil to be carried to allregions of the earth. Unfortunately, gaps betweeneffectiveness and safety, combined with the poten-tial for human error, have resulted in significantecological disasters.

B. Oil Spills

Since most of the earth’s oil is found under theoceans, robust technology has emerged to trans-port extracted oil from the seas to refineries and,f rom there, to the myriad distribution pointsaround the globe. Immense networks of pipelinescrisscross the globe carrying oil and natural gas,underwater and above and below ground, fromextraction points to refineries. There are moremiles of oil pipeline than railroad tracks in theworld (Burger, 1997) and enormous super-tankers,laden with oil, circumnavigate the earth’s seas.

From coasts, tank barges trudge along rivers trans-p o rting oil to inland destinations. T h e n , t a n ktrucks, replete with oil, cruise the world’s highwaysracing to distribution and storage points all overthe globe. Accidents have occurred at each pointof transfer and transport, exposing the environ-ment to the various harmful effects of oil contami-nation. As technology has progressed, the scale ofthese disasters has increased, though their frequen-cy has declined due to regulations and increasedsafety measures.

Large-scale oil spills, defined as spills of over10 million gallons, have occurred almost every yearsince the 1960s. Except for the Kuwaiti oil spill,most large-scale oil spills are the result of ground-ed supertankers or supertanker collisions.

Over the past four decades, supertankershave dramatically increased their carrying capacity.In 1960, a supertanker could carry 150 million gal-lons of oil; today they can carry over 240 milliongallons. Tankers are over 300 meters long and aresome of the least maneuverable vessels at sea, mak-ing them extremely prone to accidents. In theUnited States, the Exxon Valdez spill in PrinceWilliam Sound, Alaska increased general awarenessconcerning the danger of oil spills and forced theU.S. government to take new regulatory action.That spill leaked over 11 million gallons of oil intothe pristine Sound, blackening the frigid waters andcoating the coastline with oil (Burger, 1 9 9 7 ) .Although it was one of the most well publicized oilspills in recent history, the Exxon Valdez spill ranksonly 28th in terms of scale. Following is a table ofthe largest oil spills in history.

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Such large-scale oil spills occur against abackdrop of more frequent smaller-scale spills thatreceive little attention. Smaller spills have also con-tributed significantly to environmental degradation.The quantity of oil released from the combina-

tion of smaller accidents, operational leaks and

pipeline bursts actually greatly surpasses the

amount released from the large spills from

super-tankers. In much of the world, it is thesesmaller scale pipeline accidents and leaks, in con-junction with the leaks and discharges from theextraction and refining processes, that contributemost heavily to environmental damage.

At every point along this chain there areleaks and spills of crude oil or petroleum products.The transfer of oil from the wells to storagetankers, from storage tankers to supertanker, fromsupertankers to storage tankers or tank barges,from storage tankers to truck tankers, etc. can allentail oil spillage. In addition to leaks and spills,pipeline fires and blowouts occur. Pipelines carry

oil and gas all over the world, and are able to func-tion 24 hours a day, under any weather conditions.Because of this non-stop capability, pipelines arepreferable to supertankers. Unfortunately, thereare large initial costs in building safe pipelines andrelatively large recurrent costs in maintaining them.M a ny companies neglect pipeline maintenance,which contributes to pipeline accidents throughoutthe world.

Pipelines are high-pressured conduits forthe transfer of large volumes of oil,varying in widthand carrying capacity. They are very prone to cor-rosion at points that connect the various pipelinecomponents. Pipelines burst relatively frequentlydue to faulty equipment, causing spills and raisingthe potential for oil or gas fires. The life span of a

pipeline is acknowledged to be 15 ye a r s .

Unfortunately, many of the pipelines in current useare older and therefore prone to leakage and rup-ture, posing serious threats to neighboring popula-tions and surrounding environments.

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Figure 4: The Largest Oil Spills in History

C. Environmental Impacts of Oil Spills

Physical Characteristics of Oil in theEnvironment

Oil is less dense than water, causing it to float onthe surface of water after a spill. Typically, one tonof oil covers approximately 12km2 of water. Beyondthat a slick begins to fragment. The size of a spill,the type of oil spilled and the timing of the spill allaffect how much ecological damage the spill willincur. The impacts also depend upon the type ofecosystem in which the spill takes place and its vul-nerability or resilience to the insult.

A large spill can do extensive damage tolarge areas of ocean (or land), smothering the smallmicroorganisms that comprise the bottom of thefood chain. In smaller spills, neighboring organismsoften recolonize relatively quickly. But after a verylarge spill, recolonization and replenishment ofmicroorganisms from surrounding areas can begreatly delayed. It is important to note thatbecause of the effects of oil spills on vegetation,water and fish, the impacts of even small spills cansend ripples into surrounding ecosystems anda f fect communities beyond the immediate spillarea.

The type of oil that comprises a spill alsodetermines the effect it will have upon a givenecosystem. All oil contains both heavy and lightchain hydrocarbons. Oil with a high proportion oflight chain hydrocarbons will have less of an impactupon an ecosystem, because the molecules arevolatile and evaporate more easily than those withheavy chains. Oil comprised of more heavy chainhy d rocarbons spreads and will cling to plants,rocks, sand and boulders.

After oil enters the environment it under-goes a process called "weathering" or degradation.Weathering consists of the following stages:

• Spreading- Spilled oil immediately beginsto spread over the sea surface initially as a singleslick covering extensive areas. The slick laterbegins to break up forming narrow bands parallelto the direction of the wind. The rate of oil spreaddepends on the viscosity of the oil and the prevail-

ing conditions, including sea surface temperature,water currents, tidal streams and wind speeds.

• Evaporation- Lighter components of theoil ev aporate into the atmosphere, with theamount and speed of evaporation depending uponthe oil’s volatility. The most toxic components,toluene and benzene, are also the most soluble andflammable, and these evaporate in the first 24-48hours.

• Natural dispersion- Waves and turbu-lence at the sea surface causes all or part of a slickto break up into fragments and droplets of varyingsizes. The speed of dispersion depends on thenature of the oil and varies with the weight andvolatility of the oil and local conditions. The addi-tion of chemical dispersants accelerates theprocess of natural dispersion.

• Emulsification- Emulsification refers tothe process in which seawater droplets becomesuspended in the oil. The emulsion formed can bevery viscous and is more persistent than the origi-nal oil spilled. It is re fe rred to as "chocolatemousse" because of its appearance. The emulsionexpands the volume of the pollutants three to fourfold. If the concentration of asphaltene in the oil isgreater than 0.5%, the emulsion will be very stableand can persist for months.

• Dissolution- Water-soluble compounds inoil may dissolve into the surrounding water, espe-cially if the oil is finely dispersed in the water.When light aromatic hydrocarbon compounds likebenzene and toluene are the primary components,these are lost through evaporation and dissolutionis limited.

• Oxidation- Oils react slowly with atmos-pheric oxygen, creating soluble degradation prod-ucts or forming compounds called tars (with anouter protective coating of heavy compounds thatincrease the oil’s persistence). This process is pro-moted by sunlight.

• Sedimentation/Sinking-333Heavy, refinedproducts with densities greater than 1, will sink infresh or brackish water. Sinking usually occurs dueto the addition of sediment particles or organic

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matter.

• Biodegradation-Biodegradation is processby which microorganisms in seawater partially orcompletely degrade oil into water-soluble com-pounds and eve n t u a l ly to carbon dioxide andwater. Microbes that biodegrade oils are specific tothe compounds and some compounds -- likedegraded tars and asphaltene -- are highly resistantto attack. The process takes place at the oil-waterinterface.The creation of oil droplets by natural orchemical dispersion increases the surface area ofthe oil, and there fo re the area accessible tob i o d e g r a d a t i o n . The efficiency of the pro c e s sdepends on the levels of nutrients (nitrogen andphosphorus) in the water, sea surface temperatureand the level of oxygen present.

Ecosystem Effects

Acutely, the main victims of oil spills are the animalsand plants that inhabit coastal and oceanic environ-ments. The acute toxicity of oil is such that manyanimals die as a result of oil ingestion. The viscosi-ty of oil also poses a threat to mammals and avians;oil coats the fur of sea otters and the feathers ofbirds, preventing these outer layers from insulatingagainst hypothermia. The hydrocarbons that com-prise oil are also carcinogenic to fish, birds andmammals, and there is evidence that oil is immuno-toxic to sea birds (Briggs et al., 1996). Seals andsea lions suffer cancerous lesions from ingestion ofoil, and may drown because of the extra weight ofoil on their coats. Evidence also suggests that oilspills and exposure to chronic low levels of oil inthe sea decrease the reproductive rate of seals(Jenssen, 1996).

Oil spills can cause widespread mortality infish populations, with cascading impacts for otherspecies – especially birds, marine mammals andhuman populations -– that depend highly upon fishfor subsistence.

Fiddler crabs - key indicators

The coastal subtidal zone (underwater at all times) andintertidal zone (covered only during high tide) areinhabited by multiple small invertebrates. The fiddlercrab, a species that inhabits the intertidal zone, is

regarded as the "canary in a coal mine" for oil spills.This invertebrate is present in the estuarine habitatsaround the world and is therefore a universal indicatorfor the impact of oil spills on coastal ecosystems. Aswith other organisms, fiddler crabs exhibit dose-response mortality due to oil toxicity. Thus the status ofthe fiddler crab population in an area after an oil spill isa sensitive marker for the severity of the spill.

Oil spills can affect plant life in subtle butsometimes profound ways. Each coastal ecosystemhas different susceptibilities to contamination. Intemperate regions, salt marshes are most vulnera-ble. Salt marsh plants are relatively short, measur-ing up to three feet in height. Because they arelow, salt marshes can be completely covered by theoil after a spill. In tropical regions mangroveswamps are susceptible to damage from oil spills astheir roots are above ground. An unimpeded inter-face between roots and air is required in order forthe plant to "breathe" and exchange salt. Thus oilspills have killed extensive swaths of mangroves.Mangrove swamps are an ecological lynchpin. Theyprotect the shoreline integrity and are the nurs-eries for many shellfish and finfish, providing nutri-tion and protection from predation. The death of alarge portion of a mangrove system can threatenthe organisms dependent upon them for survival.

Humans can be affected by oil spills fromdamage to surrounding plants and animals, and per-haps by direct contamination. Most information ondirect effects is anecdotal (Campbell et al., 1993).One Scottish study found an increase in thereporting of nausea, headache, throat irritation anditchy eyes in local populations following spills. Butlong-term effects are unknown. Rigorous clinicalstudies are needed to assess the direct effects ofoil spills on human beings.

Oil Spills on Land

Oil spills that occur on land, primarily from pipelineleaks and accidents, can contaminate surroundingsoils and groundwater. A large oil spill can makecontaminated land uncultivable -- placing subsis-tence farmers at risk for food insecurity -- andeliminate the safe drinking water supply for a com-munity.

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Case study: REVISITING NIGERIA

Nigeria is one of the poorest nations in the world,with a per capita annual income of $320. This isdespite the natural oil reserves resulting in over$30 billion annual in revenue for the governmentand much more for The Royal Dutch ShellCompany, a company that controls over 50% of theoil wealth in Nigeria. While the average Nigerianderives little benefit from the natural oil wealth ofNigeria, he (she) does suffer from the environmen-tal consequences of poorly controlled oil explo-ration.

Most of the oil in Nigeria is found withinthe Niger River Delta, the largest delta in Africaand the third largest in the world (HRW, 1999).The inhabitants of the Niger Delta are primarilyethnic minorities, who are socially, politically andeconomically marginalized.

The Nigerian government owns 60% ofShell’s oil industry in Nigeria and has an incentiveto produce and transport oil as cheaply as possible.On paper, oil companies operating in Nigeria aresupposed to adhere to "good oil field practices,"implying that they will abide by the Institute ofPetroleum Safety Codes, the American PetroleumInstitute Codes or the American Society ofMechanical Engineers Codes.These codes, however,are not enforced, and oil companies act with rela-tive impunity in the Niger Delta, establishing a dou-ble standard between operating pro c e d u res inAfrica and in the developed world. These factorsand a history of disregard for human rights have ledto large-scale human and environmental damage.

More specifically, Shell has issued its RoyalDutch/Shell Group Statement of General BusinessPrinciples in which the company promises to "con-duct its activities to take account of health andsafety and to give proper regard to the conserva-tion of the environment" (Kiss and Shelton, 2000).This and similar codes of conduct are entered intovoluntarily by industries, generally in their attemptsto avoid criticism and the imposition of binding reg-ulations. However, the voluntary nature of thesecodes allows for broad discrepancies in implemen-tation. For example, while one company may per-ceive a long-term strategic advantage by investing

in and implementing more socially and environmen-tally responsible practices, another company mayuse its code as a public relations tool and little else.Enforcement, as it were, sometimes occurs whenconsumers refuse to purchase the products of ac o m p a ny that fails to uphold its pro m i s e s , o rthrough litigation for negligence or malpractice.However, consumer sanctions require widespreadawareness and sympathy among the purchasingpublic, and legal actions can be prolonged for years.

One expectation of oil companies is thatthey are supposed to be responsible for the investi-gation and clean up of oil spills in a timely fashion.The oil industry in Nigeria has often not fulfilledthis responsibility. Affected communities often havelittle power and the Nigerian government has beenunable to enforce clean-up efforts. As one ex-oile xe c u t i ve stated, "The oil industry claims thatapproximately 2,300 cubic meters of oil are spilledannually in the Niger Delta. Reliable sources con-servatively place the actual number at ten times thei n d u s t ry ’s claim. The Nigerian Department ofPetroleum Resources believes 45 million U.S. gal-lons of oil have been spilled into the Delta, but thistoo is a gross underestimate" (HRW, 1 9 9 9 ) .According to a recent report the CIA has disclosedthat “years of oil spills in the Niger Delta, whichhave yet to be cleaned up, amount to the equivalentof 10 times the Alaskan Exxon Valdez oil spill"(Wysham, 2001).

The inhabitants of the Niger Delta arefarmers and fishermen. They live off of the land andare dependent upon the productivity of that landfor survival. Destruction of farmland by oil con-tamination has pushed tens of thousands of peopleto the brink of starvation and prevented incomegeneration from that land. Ogoniland, the tradi-tional land of the Ogoni people and situated on topof some of Nigeria’s largest oil reserves, has experi-enced been severely impacted. After the discoveryof oil, above ground pipelines were constructedthrough farms, roads were built on land owned bylocals and people were relocated against their will.All this has threatened the Ogoni way of life.

Whereas most pipelines are buried under-ground, the majority of pipelines in the Niger Deltaare situated above ground, rendering them suscep-

24

tible to physical damage and corrosion. The NigerDelta has many small oil fields interconnected bypipelines and by networks of flow lines -- smalldiameter pipes that carry oil from wellheads toflow stations. The high pressure in these smallpipes makes them especially susceptible to leaks.Pipelines tend to leak at a rate of four spills perweek.These leaks and spills contaminate groundwa-ter and destroy the soil, significantly decreasingcrop yields. Fisheries, farms, mangrove swamps,rainforests and water have all suffered severe dam-age from oil, threatening the survival of the peopleof the Niger Delta.

Gas flaring

Oil production contributes to air pollution in theform of flaring, the burning of natural gas extractedalong with crude oil. Flaring is the cheapest way todispose of the natural gas that Nigeria is notequipped to utilize. Worldwide, this process con-tributes 35 million tons of carbon dioxide annuallyas well as 12 million tons of methane, two verypotent greenhouse gases. The flaring also fills theair with smoke and covers the land in soot, mean-while contributing to the rising acidity of the rain(Moffat and Linden, 1995). Seventy six percent ofthe natural gas that is a by-product of oil extractionhas been flared in Nigeria, covering the surroundingarea with black soot.

[For Saudi Arabia, the figure is 20%; Iran19%; Mexico 5%, Britain 4.3%; Algeria 4%; FormerSoviet Union 1.5%; U.S. 0.6%; Netherlands 0%.]

The search for oil in the Niger Delta alsocauses deforestation. Local populations deforestswamps in search of arable land uncontaminated byoil (Simmons, 1998) and clearing of mangroveswamps may prove to be one of the most long-last-ing side effects of oil spills. Without mangroves,riverbanks will erode, leading to flooding that couldfurther harm the Niger Delta.

Punctuating the chronic small oil spills, therehave been significant large-scale oil spills that placesurrounding communities in immediate danger ofstarvation. As recently as 1998, individual oil spillshave devastated several communities and under-mined their means of subsistence. In 1998,

840,000 U.S. gallons spilled at Shell’s Jones Creekflow station. This spill was a result of what Shellcalled "a pipeline failure." Shell officials claimedthat relief materials, such as food, water and seedswere distributed to the affected communities; butthis was not corroborated (HRW, 1999).

There have been no comprehensive studiesexamining the direct health effects of oil uponhuman populations, and oil companies have fundedall the studies that have been performed. Bopp vanDessel, the former head of the environmental stud-ies division at Shell stated, "It was clear to me thatShell was devastating the [the Niger Delta] area."

Populations most affected by oil explorationhave protested the abuse and disregard of theirland, but the Nigerian government and Royal DutchShell have suppressed opposition movements. Themost prominent display of this suppression was thepublic hanging of the highly respected activist KenSaro-Wiwa in 1998 for mobilizing tens of thou-sands of people under the banner of the Movementfor the Survival of the Ogoni People (MSOP). Themission of MSOP was to protest both the policiesof the federal government regarding oil, and thepractices of Royal Dutch Shell. The governmentcharged Saro-Wiwa formally with the murder offour traditional leaders. But it is widely acceptedthat this charge was a false pretext.

Nigeria presents a tragic example of all thatcan go wrong in the oil industry. From the point ofextraction, through the transportation process, tothe export phase, the oil industry in Nigeria hasdone very little to advance overall developmentand protect human rights. With the execution ofKen Saro - W i w a , the oil industry came underintense scrutiny, and it has been forced to changeits practices and provide some compensation tothe people whose lives and land it has devastated.The pro g ress is slow, h oweve r, and significantimprovements remain to be realized.

Worldwide, the problems with oil trans-portation have not yet been properly addressed. Inthe U.S.. regulations establish safety parameters forsupertankers and maintenance, and usage parame-ters for pipelines, truck tankers and other forms oft r a n s p o rt a t i o n . H oweve r, m a ny gove r n m e n t s

25

throughout the world fail to make these kinds ofsafety commitments; and even when such parame-ters do exist, they are frequently ignored and aredifficult to enforce.

Furthermore, global climate change may,

itself, undermine the integrity of some energy

sources. Global warming, accelerated by the

practices of oil industry, is slowly thawing the

permafrost in which the Alaskan pipeline is

embedded. The permafrost provides the pipeline

with the stability it requires to prevent chronic

leaks and potentially disastrous accidents.

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IV. REFINING

Once extracted, crude oil is transported to an oilrefinery where complex hydrocarbon compoundsare separated, converted, and treated, becominguseable fuel sources. Separation, of which fraction-al distillation is the most commonly employed tech-nique, involves the division of the crude mixturesby either boiling or vaporizing the crude oil in frac-tionating towers. The temperature within thesetowers is controlled to allow different substanceswithin the crude oil vapors to condense and collectat different temperatures. Solvent extraction isanother separation method, but instead of usingheat, solvents are employed to separate the petro-leum into various layers that are later extracted.The next stage, conversion, alters the less valuablefractions achieved through separation into morevaluable products, such as gasoline. This is accom-plished most commonly through cracking. Thermalcracking uses heat and catalytic cracking uses cata-lysts to split off molecules from heavier compoundsin an effort to form simpler, lighter compounds.Other forms of conversion, such as alkylation, poly-merization, or hydrogenation add molecules toform other useful products. Finally, impurities areremoved through chemical treatment of each prod-uct. The process of refining oil manufactures nearly2,500 useful products (Gennaro et al., 2000), pro-ducing in 1997 approximately 3.5 billion tons of oilrefined products (IEA, 1997). The major end prod-uct of oil is gasoline, followed by diesel fuel, jet fuel,fuel oils, kerosene, lubricating oils, and asphalt usedfor road paving.

A. Environmental Pollution

According to one study, 99.7% by weight of crudeoil processed at one U.S. oil refinery was convertedto useful products, while 0.3% of the crude oil by-p roducts we re released into the env i ro n m e n t(Kizior, 1991). Because the average-size refineryprocesses over 3.8 million gallons of crude oil eachday, this 0.3% results in over 11,000 gallons of oilreleased daily into the water, land, or air. These fig-ures do not take into account accidental oil spillsor the expulsion of other chemicals produced asby-products. As dramatic as these figures sound,many oil refineries go to great lengths to treat or

filter petroleum waste, in attempts to prevent envi-ronmental damage. Water used in the refiningprocess must be treated to remove traces of heavymetals, noxious chemicals, solvents and residualaromatic hydrocarbons before this water can bereleased into disposal wells or waterway s .However, process units still vent dangerous hydro-carbons, flue gases such as sulfur dioxide or carbonmonoxide, and particulate solids into the atmos-phere. These gases can be recaptured with com-plex scrubbers or filters in the refinery to avoidatmospheric contamination, but complete elimina-tion of these emissions is impossible given existingt e c h n o l o gy. Together with ev aporated wastesreleased into the water, these gaseous emissionsfrom the refinery accumulate in the atmosphereand return in the form of acid rain. Spent catalystsfrom refinery processing units are also significantcontaminants and must also be properly disposed.

Oil refineries also contribute other formsof pollution. Thermal pollution involves the dis-charge of effluents that are significantly warmerthan surrounding water, creating a localized warm-ing effect that greatly disrupts surrounding marineecosystems. Noise levels in refineries can exceed90 decibels, posing a significant threat to the healthand safety of oil refinery employees (Runion, 1988).Sound dampening devices built into both themachinery and the buildings themselves will reducenoise levels, but workers must still be trained inusing appropriate noise protection equipment andparticipate in annual hearing examinations. Thesurrounding community benefits from these sounddampening devices because leakage of noise pollu-tion can have significant psychological effects onlocal residents,decreases the aesthetics of the area,and can interfere with wildlife.

B. Chronic Occupational Hazards

There are over 700 oil refineries worldwide (API,1987), and in 1994, about 1,219,000 workers wereemployed in oil refineries (ILO, 1998). Oil refineryworkers are continuously exposed to numeroushazardous materials and working conditions thatplace them at continuous risk of injury or death.Chronic hazards include exposure to heat, pollutedair, noise and hazardous materials, including asphalt,asbestos, aromatic hydrocarbons, arsenic, hexava-

27

lent chromium, nickel, carbon monoxide, coke dust,hydrogen sulfide , lead alkyls, natural gases, petrole-um, phenol, and silica (Engler, 1975; Gennaro et al.,1994). Asphalt, for example, can cause severe burnsand eye irritation, and its fumes may contain unac-ceptable levels of benzene and hydrogen sulfide,which may lead to dermatitis, bronchitis and chemi-cally-induced pneumonia. Continuous exposure tocarbon monoxide can lead to headaches and men-tal disturbances, and at high concentrations, deathfrom asphyxiation. Long-term exposure to cokedust, silica and hydrogen sulfide can lead to chroniclung disease. Lead alkyls used as gasoline additivescan lead to psychosis and peripheral neuropathies.Even though lead is no longer used in many devel-oped nations, its widespread use in much of LatinAmerica puts workers in refineries exporting tothese nations at particular risk.

Asbestos, often used in oil refineries for thethermal insulation of boilers and pipes, has longbeen associated with pulmonary fibrosis, lung can-cer and malignant mesothelioma among mainte-nance, repair and removal workers. Statistically sig-nificant increases in risk above baseline levels havebeen found among almost all epidemiological stud-ies that have set out to analyze the mortality asso-ciated with mesotheliomas among oil re f i n e ryworkers. Mortality ratios range between two and24.4 (Gennaro et al., 2000). Even though the use ofasbestos is banned in nine countries, it is still wide-ly used in many parts of the world. The use ofasbestos in developing countries is a major prob-lem as these nations are likely to lack legislationregarding the use of asbestos, and the long-termhealth and safety of workers is often a low priority(Gennaro et al., 2000).

Exposure to other potentially carcinogenicmaterials (see NIEHS, 2000), such as benzene,toluene, xylene, arsenic and hexavalent chromiumhas also been widely studied and associated with anincrease in cancer risk among oil refinery workers(Hayes et al., 1996). In a 1998 study, cancer inci-dence between 1971 and 1994 was evaluated in acohort of 7,512 men and 1,942 women employedfor at least three months at a Finnish oil refinery(Pukkala, 1998). The author concluded that the sig-nificant two to threefold relative risk of kidney can-cer among oil refinery workers employed for over

five years was likely attributable to occupationalexposure to potentially carcinogenic compounds inoil refineries. Another study evaluated the cause-specific mortality of 2,985 male workers employedin three Texas oil refineries between 1940 and 1993using a pro p o rtionate mortality study design(Dement et al., 1998). Proportionate mortalityratios were significantly increased (p < .05) for can-cers of the lip, stomach, liver, pancreas, connectivetissue, prostate, eye, brain, leukemia and unspecifiedneoplasms for the entire cohort. Refining has beenstudied in the North Sea industry as a probablecause for the increased rates of leukemia amongchildren (HEI, 1995). The study found a significantincrease of childhood leukemia in those rural areasof Scotland that were most affected by "mixing"associated with the North Sea oil industry.

Numerous studies have found positive asso-ciations with various forms of cancers (Clapp andCoogan, 1999). Some cohorts have excess risk fornon-Hodgkin’s lymphoma,and brain,stomach, bone,lung, prostate, pancreatic and kidney cancer (IARC,1989). The International Agency for Research onCancer (IARC) has denoted occupational expo-sures in the oil refining industry as "probably car-cinogenic to humans" (Group II-A), a strong cate-gory that includes PCBs and herbicides. The greatmajority of studies that have shown no increases inmortality from cancer have been conducted amongworkers in developed countries. Although this isi m p o rtant for wo r kers whose companies arebound by stringent rules and regulations, workersin developing countries are not afforded the sameprotection.

Petroleum refinery workers are not theonly individuals at risk of cancer associated withrefineries. A 1994 geographical analysis of leukemiaclusters in childhood compared postal codes ofchildren with leukemia, matched to control postalcodes, with distances to numerous industrial instal-lations. The 264 clusters showed relative, non-ran-dom proximities to several map features, includingoil refineries (Knox, 1994). Three years later, thestudy was expanded to include all 22,458 childrenaged 0-15 years dying from leukemia or cancer inEngland, Wales and Scotland between 1953 and1980. Using a similar design, the authors found thatrelative excesses of leukemia and of solid cancers

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were found near many industrial installations, par-ticularly oil refineries, major oil storage installa-tions, and rail-side oil distribution terminals (Knoxand Gilman, 1997).

Oil refinery waste products can also havedramatic effects on surrounding communities andenvironments. Aromatic hydrocarbons, such assubstituted benzenes and nap h t h a l e n e s , e n t e raquatic ecosystems through a variety of routesalready discussed. These compounds are mostlypolar, non-water soluble and nonionic. The earliestreports implicating neoplasms in animals from pre-sumed aromatic hydrocarbon exposure came fromthe brown bullhead fish (Lucké and Schlumberger,1941), but have since then have been found in anumber of marine animals (Kuehn et al., 1995).Incidences of 10-80%, and in some cases 100% ofliver neoplasms, have been associated with expo-sures to wastes from industrial sources (Kuehn etal., 1995; Black et al., 1982). One study sampledwater, sediment, and fish from three streams thathad received or were receiving effluent from oilrefineries. The authors concluded that the signifi-cant levels of aromatic hydrocarbons found in eachof the streams contributed to important differ-ences in the diversity and abundance of fish amongthe upstream, effluent-receiving, and downstreamstations. For example, histological analysis con-firmed that 75% of the bullheads at the upstreamstations had normal livers compared with only 40%at the discharge site. In addition, 20% from the dis-charge site had a parasitic cyst, which was notfound in any samples from the upstream station(Kuehn et al., 1995).

C. Accident Potential

Oil refineries are inhere n t ly complex in theirequipment and structural design. Combined withthe multitude of chemicals used, workers are at acontinuous risk for accidents involving fires, explo-sions, and chemical leaks and spills. Explosion andfire potentials stem mainly from natural gases suchas methane, propane and butane produced at therefineries. Microscopic flaws in metal pipes, fittings,or fixtures in "hydrocrackers" that operate at pres-sures ranging from 500 to 3,200 pounds per squareinch and temperatures ranging from 500 to 1800 °F(Engler, 1975), can also lead to dangerous explo-

sions. Accidental oil spills and leaks harm bothworkers and surrounding ecosystems because ofexposure to petroleum and petroleum derivatives.Although oil spills most commonly occur duringtransport, leaking oil-storage tanks and barrels con-tribute significantly to chemical and oil spills atrefineries. Oil refineries and transport efforts

account for approximately 46% of the estimated

3.2 million tons of oil entering the oceans each

year. The oil and oil waste products eventuallyleach from ground containment facilities, or are dis-charged directly into water, eventually dispersinginto the atmosphere, water column, bottom sedi-ments and beaches (Whittle et al., 1982). Theresulting buildup of petroleum and petro l e u mwaste matter in an area have impacts on surround-ing biota and ecosystems.

D. Environmental Protection

In the United States, the petroleum refinery indus-try is regulated at both national and local levels.The Environmental Protection Agency sets stan-dards for controlling these pollutants, and closelymonitors refineries for compliance. At the locallevel, states issue permits to refineries based oncompliance with a number of factors, including dis-turbances to vegetation and wildlife, emissions fromfloating roof tanks, and the potential for environ-mental contamination of soils or water. Other reg-ulatory agencies mandate that petroleum compa-nies follow safety standards protecting the health ofworkers against long-term exposures to potentiallycarcinogenic substances.These safety measures alsoprotect against accidents harmful to both employ-ees and the environment. Because of these stan-d a rd s , oil re f i n e ry companies must constantlyredesign and modernize their existing plants, orbuild new and more efficient ones. The enormouscosts of complying with these regulations, ensuringsafer refineries, has pushed many U.S. oil companiesto relocate to other parts of the world, namelydeveloping countries. Developing countries eagerto attract new business, offer a cheaper workforceand less stringent environmental and safety regula-tions.

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V. HEALTH EFFECTS OF GASOLINE AND GASOLINE

ADDITIVES

Gasoline is one of the principal end products of oil,used primarily for internal combustion engines.The composition of gasoline may vary dependingupon the origin of the crude oil, differences in pro-cessing, and the incorporation of various additivesto improve performance. Gasoline is composedprimarily of hydrocarbons, including cycloparaffins,paraffin and aromatics (King, 1992). Common addi-tives include: metals such as alkyl lead; oxygenatessuch as ethanol, methanol, methyl tertiary butylether (MBTE), tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA), tertiaryamyl methyl ether (TAME), and ethyl tertiary butylether (ETBE); a dditional aromatic hy d ro c a r b o n ssuch as benzene, toluene and xylene; and othersincluding ethylene dibromide (EDB), e t hy l e n edichloride (EDC), and methyl cyclopentadieny lmanganese tricarbonyl (MMT) (Caprino and Togna,1998).

Although a great deal of effort has goneinto studying the health impacts of gasoline and itsadditives, many questions remain about the risksassociated with various types of exposure.Research has produced variable, often conflictingresults. The variability of the composition of gaso-line has complicated efforts to measure its safety.Additionally, the composition of a given gasolinechanges over time (King, 1992), possibly impairingthe accuracy and reliability of re l evant data.Methodological flaws, such as failure to control forpossible confounders, have further limited the use-fulness of many studies, producing a confusing arrayof contradictory findings (Caprino and To g n a ,1998). Nonetheless, a collection of animal studies,human case studies and human epidemiologicalstudies has yielded important information aboutthe health effects of gasoline.

A. Routes of Exposure to Gasoline

The first step in studying the health impacts ofgasoline -- measuring exposure -- has proven to bedifficult. Occupational exposures -- discussed inthe Refining section -- define groups of people athigh risk for gasoline-related illnesses. Peopleemployed in the distribution, storage and selling(pumping) of gasoline face high levels of exposureto its potentially toxic effects (Akland, 1993; Hartle,1993). Gasoline also poses significant risks ofexposure to the general population. An estimated110 million people in the U.S. are regularly exposedto gasoline at self service-pumps, accumulating anannual average exposure of 100 minutes (Wixtromand Brown, 1992). Drivers are also exposed toevaporative emissions, and larger numbers of peo-ple are exposed to the hazardous byproducts ofgasoline combustion.

Certain groups within the general popula-tion face higher levels of gasoline exposure becauseof location. These groups include people who livenear service stations, refineries, transfer or storagefacilities; people who live in houses with attachedgarages; and those whose drinking water has beencontaminated with gasoline (Wixtrom and Brown,1992; Akland, 1993). Behaviors also affect risk ofcontact with gasoline: gasoline sniffing is a form ofsubstance abuse that results in a high-concentra-tion exposure to gasoline and its constituents.Sniffing gasoline has been identified as a fairly wide-spread practice among certain indigenous groups inN o rth America and A u s t r a l i a , m o re commonamong inner city and remote rural populations(Maruff et al., 1998).

The most common form of exposure togasoline among the general population is through

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PART 2. CONSUMPTION AND COMBUSTION

Once oil has passed the hazardous stages of extraction, transport and refinement, the end products them-selves, and the by-products of their combustion pose significant threats to human and environmental health.Gasoline and its additives have been associated with acute chronic toxicities in humans. Combustion ofgasoline and other refined fossil fuel products have contributed significantly to environmental pollution.Fossil fuel consumption has created numerous harmful pollutants, impacting humans and the environment innumerous ways. Individually, each pollutant holds the potential for significant impact. Collectively, they rep-resent a much greater threat.

inhalation of volatile fumes or combustion byprod-ucts (Akland, 1993). Skin contact and oral ingestionare other possible means of gasoline exposure.The type and degree of gasoline-related healthimpacts depend greatly upon the mode and dura-tion of exposure.

B. Acute Toxicity

Much of the available data on acute toxicity fromgasoline and gasoline additives have been derivedfrom animal studies -- often involving very high lev-els of exposure.The results, therefore, have limitedapplicability to humans. Case studies of eitherintentional or accidental exposure to large doses ofgasoline among humans have provided additionalinformation on the effects of ingestion. But data onthe acute effects in humans of skin contact andinhalation of vapors, the most common form ofexposure (Reese and Kimbrough, 1993), are morescarce.

Human ingestion and inhalation of gasolineprimarily affect the central nervous system (CNS)( We ave r, 1 9 8 8 ; Reese and Kimbro u g h , 1 9 9 3 ) .Symptoms are similar to those of ethanol intoxica-tion, including flushing, ataxia, staggering, slurreds p e e c h , c o n f u s i o n , b l u rry vision and headache;ingestion of high doses of gasoline may result incoma or sudden death (Reese and Kimbrough,1993). Oral ingestion also causes inflammation ofthe gastrointestinal tract. Aspiration can cause fatalchemical pneumonitis in children. (Weaver, 1988).

Toxic levels of gasoline inhalation most fre-quently result from intentional sniffing. Sniffing pro-duces an initial euphoria and relaxation, which maybe accompanied by confusion, hallucination or psy-chosis (Maruff, 1 9 9 8 ) . Fo l l owing the euphoriceffect, subsequent symptoms may include nausea,vo m i t i n g , abdominal pain, a n x i e t y, a g i t a t i o n , a n dhypomania (Reese and Kimbrough, 1993). An addi-tional acute effect of gasoline inhalation is myocar-dial irritability and increased sensitivity to adrena-line, which may trigger an arrhythmia (Reese andK i m b ro u g h , 1 9 9 3 ) . Because gasoline generallyvaporizes on contact with skin, there is little toxici-ty associated with direct contact. However, pro-longed or occluded contact may result in a chemi-cal burn or "defatting" of the skin (necrosis of sub-

cutaneous lipid tissue) (Weaver, 1988).

S everal gasoline add i t i ves may pro d u c eharmful effects when ingested or inhaled at toxiclevels. Ethanol is a common additive to gasoline,generally constituting about 10% of gasoline by vol-ume (Caprino and Togna, 1998). Inhalation ofethanol may produce irritation of the eyes andmucous membranes, and at very high concentra-tions may induce CNS depression (Reese andKimbrough, 1993). However, due to the wide-spread exposure of humans to ethanol in otherforms, it is unlikely that the presence of ethanol ingasoline will significantly contribute to ethanol tox-icity in humans.

Methanol is used as a gasoline additive or asa substitute fuel. While increasing the proportionof methanol in gasoline has been advocated as ameans to cleaner emissions, there are significanthealth concerns about potentially increasing theincidence of methanol ingestion. Initially, ingestionof methanol may only lead to mild symptoms suchas headache, nausea and dizziness. However, theliver oxidizes methanol into formaldehyde, which isthen converted into formic acid, responsible foracute methanol poisoning. Severe methanol intoxi-cation generally has a delayed onset while themethanol is metabolized, and eventually may lead toc y a n o s i s , metabolic acidosis, visual impairment,coma or death (Caprino and To g n a , 1 9 9 8 ) .Available data on human exposure to methanolfumes suggests that there is little risk of acute toxi-city in humans from inhalation, even for thoseexposed to re l a t i ve ly high levels of methanol(Costantini, 1993). However, more data on thepotential risks of increasing the methanol contentof gasoline are needed.

The use of MBTE in gasoline has beengrowing in recent years, as oxygenation of fuels hasbeen found to effectively reduce CO emissions.New studies have explored the possible healthimpacts of MBTE exposure. Animal studies showthat inhalation of MBTE vapors may cause toxicityin rats and non-human primates, leading to tran-sient ataxia and sedation (Costantini, 1993). MBTEhas been used in humans to dissolve gallstones, andm ay be associated with hemolysis or necro s i s(Reese and Kimbrough, 1993). However, because

31

human exposure to MBTE for management of gall-stones is significantly different than exposure toMBTE through gasoline, current data may not beapplicable. When MBTE was first introduced tofuels in Alaska in 1992, t h e re we re incre a s e dreports of a variety of acute, non-specific symp-toms, including eye and respiratory tract irritation,gastrointestinal distress, headache, dizziness anddisorientation. Initial investigations suggested a linkbetween exposure to MBTE and the developmentof symptoms, however subsequent studies amongexposed workers, as well as controlled humanexperiments, have failed to show negative acutehealth impacts from exposure to MBTE in fuels(Caprino and Togna, 1998).

TBA is another gasoline additive intendedto increase oxygen content and thereby decreaseCO emissions. In humans, contact with volatileTBA has been found to produce irritation of theeyes and nose, and skin contact may result in der-matitis and defatting of the skin (Caprino andTogna, 1998).

Aromatic hydrocarbons (HCs) are naturalconstituents of, and additives to, gasoline, and maybe absorbed through inhalation, ingestion or directskin contact (although absorption through the skinis ve ry slow ) . In cases of acute intox i c a t i o nthrough ingestion or inhalation of benzene, tolueneor xylene (aromatic HC’s) the primary symptomsreflect CNS impairment. Mild symptoms mayinclude dizziness, weakness, euphoria, headache,nausea and vomiting. Exposures to higher levels ofthe aromatic HCs may result in visual disturbances,t re m o r, r apid shallow re s p i r a t i o n , hy p e r a c t i vereflexes, ventricular fibrillation, convulsions, paraly-sis, and loss of consciousness. Inhalation may addi-tionally result in irritation of the respiratory tractand pulmonary edema (Reese and Kimbro u g h ,1993). Direct skin exposure to aromatic HC’s canresult in defatting of the skin, with the severitydepending upon the intensity and duration of expo-sure.

C. Chronic Toxicity

Chronic exposure to gasoline and its additives posedifferent health threats than does acute exposure.The illnesses associated with chronic exposure

develop over a longer period of time, and maypresent themselves with more subtle clinical find-ings. The intervening time between exposure andoutcome may obscure their relation, impeding theidentification of the specific toxic agent or compo-nent of gasoline as the cause of the health out-come. Efforts to identify the causal link betweengasoline and chronic outcomes have been chal-lenged by limitation of study designs and the pres-ence of possible confo u n d e r s . N o n e t h e l e s s ,research has produced data implicating gasoline andcertain additives in the pathogenesis of several ill-nesses.

One of the most researched subjects relat-ing to gasoline toxicity is carcinogenesis. Benzeneis toxic to bone marrow and exposure may resultin luekopenia, lymphocytopenia, or aplastic anemia.Furthermore, benzene has been recognized as acause of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) inhumans for more than sixty years (Huff et al.,1988). Further animal, human and mechanisticstudies identified benzene as a strong carcinogen,capable of producing a wide variety of tumors fol-lowing ingestion or inhalation (Maltoni et al., 1988).Epidemiological studies have demonstrated anincreased risk of leukemia among groups withoccupational exposure to gasoline, including tanktruck drivers, land-based distribution workers andmarine based distribution workers. The etiologicagent is presumed to be benzene (Infante, 1993;Enterline, 1993).

Multiple myeloma (MM) is another lym-phopoietic cancer that has been linked to gasolineexposure. Epidemiological data showing an elevat-ed risk of MM among people who have work-relat-ed exposure to hydrocarbons is limited by the rari-ty of the disease and the fact that it is oftengrouped together with lymphomas in cohort stud-ies (Infante, 1993). Both MM and AML arise fromcells within the bone marrow. Since benzene tar-gets bone marrow, mechanisms suggest a role forbenzene in the etiology of both illnesses.

Concern for a link between renal cancerand gasoline arose when animal lab experimentsshowed that long-term exposure to unleaded gaso-line fumes resulted in a large excess of renaltumors in male rats (McLaughlin, 1 9 9 3 ) .

32

Subsequently a number of case control and cohortmortality studies set out to determine whethergasoline exposure posed similar risks to humans.Studies among refinery workers have shown littleor no increased risk for developing renal cancer(Enterline, 1993). Gasoline distribution workersand tank truck drivers have higher levels of expo-sure to gasoline than refinery workers. However,among distribution workers and tank truck drivers,the findings have been mixed. Several case controlstudies have shown an elevated risk of kidney can-cer among these groups (McLaughlin, 1 9 9 3 ;Enterline, 1993), with some finding evidence of adose-response relationship between hydrocarbone x p o s u re and renal cancer (Infante, 1 9 9 3 ) .However, other case control and cohort studieshave found no increased incidence of renal canceramong those with high levels of exposure to gaso-line (Raabe, 1993; Infante, 1993). Many of the stud-ies have been limited by methodological problems,such as potential recall bias or a lack of control ofpossible confounding variables such as smoking.F u rt h e r m o re, the mechanism thought to beresponsible for the development of gasoline-relatedkidney tumors in rats involves a protein that is notpresent in human kidney cells (Caprino and Togna,1998). Further study is needed to determine if therisk of renal cancer observed in the male ratsexposed to gasoline fumes is indicative of compara-ble risks in human beings.

Animal studies also suggest a possibleincreased risk of liver tumors among adult femalerats exposed to high levels of gasoline (Caprinoand Togna, 1998). However, cohort studies amonghumans have not found evidence of elevated ratesof liver cancer among those occupationallyexposed to gasoline. A study of refinery workers inAustralia showed an increased incidence of malig-nant melanoma, raising questions about a possiblelink between gasoline exposure and skin cancer.Available evidence from that and other studies sug-gests that there is a link between malignantmelanoma and working in refineries. However, it isunclear whether the risk is due to exposure tochemicals, UV radiation or some combination ofthe two (Infante, 1993). Further studies are neededto clarify this risk.

In addition to cancer, heart disease has been

studied in connection with exposure to gasoline.Studies with myo c a rdial infarctions and aort i caneurysms as outcome measures have had conflict-ing results. There may have inadequately controlledfor variables such as smoking, since gasoline work-ers smoke less than the general population (Infante,1993).

Another chronic health impact related toc h ronic gasoline exposure is CNS tox i c i t y.Occupational exposure to gasoline has been associ-ated with headache, fatigue, memory loss, and psy-chomotor and visual motor dysfunction(Burbacher, 1993). People who chronically sniffgasoline have been found to suffer from a variety ofn e u rological symptoms such as ataxia, t re m o r,abnormal reflexes, cognitive defects and encephalo-pathic syndrome (Maruff et al., 1998; Burbacher,1 9 9 3 ) . The magnitude of neurological defe c t sdepends upon the length of time spent sniffing aswell as blood lead levels; some cognitive and motord e fects persist among former gasoline sniffe r s(Maruff et al., 1998).

Several of the constituents of gasoline havebeen studied individually in humans or in animalmodels to determine their role in the CNS toxicityof gasoline. Available data on MBTE, ETBE andTAME do not provide evidence of risk of neurotox-icity in humans as a result of exposure to thesecompounds (Burbacher, 1993). Neurotoxic effectsof butadiene or benzene in humans have not beenreported (Burbacher, 1993). Xylene exposure hasbeen found to lead to a reduced reaction time,decreased manual dexterity, disruption of bodye q u i l i b r i u m , and EEG changes in humans(Burbacher, 1993). Toluene has been linked to atax-ia and tremor among humans who are chronicallyexposed through toluene sniffing,with developmentof cerebral and cerebellar atrophy in severe cases.Occupational exposure to toluene may result indecreased manual dexterity and vigilance, as well asshort-term memory deficits (Burbacher, 1993).

Several of the acute neurological toxicitiesassociated with ethanol and methanol are discussedabove. Chronic exposure to methanol may resultin on-going symptoms similar to those of mildacute toxicity, including headache, dizziness, blurredvision and nausea. In addition, those who survive

33

acute methanol intoxication may have motor symp-toms similar to Parkinson’s disease, thought to bethe result of injury to the basal ganglia (Burbacher,1993). Once again it should be noted that averageexposures to methanol due to its presence in gaso-line or use as a fuel do not approximate thoserequired for acute toxic effect. The chronic neuro-logical sequelae of ethanol are well described inhumans, and may include ataxia, dysarthria, demen-tia, amnesia, peripheral nerve disorders, and lesionsin the cerebellar and cortical regions of the brain(Burbacher, 1993). As in the case of methanol, thepresence of ethanol in gasoline is unlikely to beresponsible for a significant portion of ethanolintoxication or chronic neurotoxicity.

The gasoline additive that is perhaps bestknown for its role in neurotoxicity is lead. Leadcontamination first became a major public healthproblem in the 1920s, when tetraethyl lead wasadded to gasoline to enhance its performance(Hernberg, 2000). The health impacts of lead expo-sure have been well described, involving insults tomultiple body systems. Symptoms may includeabdominal pain, irritability, lethargy, anorexia, pallor(due to anemia), ataxia and slurred speech. At highlevels, lead intoxication may cause coma, convul-sions and death. Chronic sub-clinical lead toxicitycan significantly impair the developing nervous sys-tem of a young child, leading over time todecreased intelligence, disturbed neurobehavioraldevelopment, impaired growth, as well as decreasedhearing acuity (CDC, 2001). Epidemiological stud-ies suggest that the relationship between impairedcognition and lead-exposure fo l l ow a dose-response curve (Hu, 1998).

While the incidence of severe lead poison-ing has decreased dramatically in recent decades inmany countries where lead is no longer added togasoline, exposure to lead continues to threatenthe health of many people throughout the world --particularly in many countries of the developingworld where gasoline is still leaded (Tong et al.,2000). The presence of lead in gasoline poses ahealth threat to workers who face occupationalexposures to gasoline, such as gasoline attendants(Ankrah et al., 1966). A "semi-occupational" expo-sure to lead was discovered in child and adolescentstreet vendors in Istanbul. Although lead additives

to gasoline were decreased significantly there in1989, the authors argue that intense exposure toemissions still results in high levels of lead expo-sure (Furman and Lalei, 2000). Exposure to high-traffic areas was identified as a risk factor for leadpoisoning among children that live in countrieswhere gasoline contains relatively high levels oflead, with supporting data from recent studies inBahrain (Al-Mahroos and Al-Saleh, 1997), Indonesia(Heinze et al., 1998), Mexico (Romieu et al., 1994),and the Philippines (Sharma and Reutergard h ,2000). Children in many African countries are con-sidered to be at high risk of lead exposure, sincethe gasoline sold in the region contains some ofthe highest levels of lead in the world (Tong et al.,2000).

34

VI. AIR POLLUTION

The combustion of fossil fuels has undeniably led tosubstantial pollution that is having environmentaland human health impacts (Cifuentes et al., 2001).Air pollution provoked a national response in 1970with the passing of the Clean Air Act (CAA).

This marked the first time that common air pollu-tants were all named and their known effects delin-eated. Since then, air pollution policies have signifi-cantly improved. Yet many of the harmful effectspersist, and in some cases they are worsening.

A.The Pollutants

There are six main elements that contribute to airpollution. They are VOCs, NOxs, CO, particulatematter (PM-10 and PM-2.5), SOxs, and Pb. Burningfossil fuels, such as gasoline, oil,coal and natural gas,emits each of these pollutants. Each pollutant hascharacteristics that cause deleterious effects toproperty, environmental health, and human health.

VOCs

Volatile organic compounds, by definition, containcarbon, the basic element found in all living materi-al. However, many VOCs do not occur naturallyand are synthesized for various purposes. A uniquefeature of VOCs is that they are easily volatilized.Even at room temperature vapors readily escapefrom the liquid compounds into the atmosphere.Included in the category of VOCs are gasoline,industrial chemicals (such as benzene), solvents(such as toluene and xylene), and perchloroethyl-ene (the principal dry cleaning solvent).

Although VOCs are also released fro mproducts such as paints, solvents, and glues, theirprimary source is the combustion of fossil fuels.Combustion of fuel by mobile sources is responsi-ble for the majority of VOC emissions. In LosA n g e l e s , C a l i fo r n i a , mobile sources alone areresponsible for 52% of VOC emissions. Globally, ithas been found that mobile sources are responsiblefor 85% of benzene pollution (Anderson et al.,1998;Anderson et al., 2001).

NOxs

Nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere are primarilythe result of burning fuels such as oil, coal and nat-ural gas. Burning diesel fuel, gallon for gallon,

produces some 40 times the amount of NOxs as

gasoline (HEI, 1995). In the United States, mobilesources produce approximately 40% of all NOxs.Approximately 50% of NOx production is fromelectrical sources and a small percent is fromindustrial plants (Anderson et al., 1998; Andersonet al., 2001). NOxs released from mobile sourcesaccount for 72% of all NOx emissions in LosAngeles and 40-60% of all NOx emissions globally(Anderson et al., 1998;Anderson et al., 2001).

NOxs are precursors of Nitric Acid, one ofthe chemicals responsible for acid rain. NOxs alsocombine with VOCs to produce gro u n d - l eve lozone or photochemical smog.

Note: the reaction of NOxs with VOCs is tempera-ture-dependent.That is, more smog is generated onwarm days.

SOxs

Sulfur dioxide, the principal SOx, is an odorless gasat low concentrations, but can have a very strongsmell at high concentrations. SO2 is a gas producedby burning coal, most notably in power plants.Mobil sources produce an estimated 4% of globalSOxs (Anderson et al., 1998;Anderson et al., 2001).SOxs are precursors of sulfuric acid, another com-ponent of acid rain.

CO

CO is an odorless and colorless gas that is pro-duced via the incomplete burning of carbon-basedf u e l s . High concentrations can accumulate inenclosed spaces such as garages, poorly ventilatedtunnels, and even along roadsides during heavy traf-fic (Behrendt et al., 1997). Los Angeles reports thatmobile sources produce 96% of CO emissions,while global estimates are that mobile sources pro-duce 70-80% of all CO emissions (Anderson et al.,1998;Anderson et al., 2001).

PM-10s

PM-10s are particles with diameters of around 10microns or less (1 micron = one-millionth of ameter) that remain suspended in air for extendedperiods of time. Particulates are usually in the form

35

of smoke, dust and vapors. There are many sourcesof PM-10s, including burning of diesel fuels bytrucks and buses, mixing and application of fertiliz-ers and pesticides, road construction on unpavedroads, industrial processes (such as steel making),mining, agricultural burning, and operation of fire-places and woodstoves (Behrendt et al., 1997).Mobile sources produce an estimated 14% of globalparticulates (Anderson et al., 1998;Anderson et al.,2001).

PM-2.5s

PM-2.5s are particulates with diameters of 2.5microns or less. They share the same sources asPM-10s, but research suggests that, because of theirsmaller size, they do more damage to lung tissuethan PM-10s by penetrating into small airways andair sacs (alveoli).

Tetraethyl Lead

Lead has been used as an additive to gasoline toimprove its performance as a fuel. The addition oflead to gasoline has decreased significantly through-out the world in recent decades because of harmfulimpacts on human health and is currently banned inseveral countries. However, much of the gasolineavailable in developing countries is still heavily lead-ed (see previous section).

The last twenty years have seen a volume ofstudies delineating the specific affects of air pollu-tion on the world, including environmental effects,direct health effects and property effects. Findingsh ave consistently shown that pollutants arisingfrom fossil fuel consumption have serious and long-lasting negative effects.

B. Environmental Impacts

Many studies conducted in plants implicate the dev-astating effects of air pollutants. The principal com-ponent of smog, ground level ozone, is the result ofa complex chemical reaction between VOCs andNOxs. Ozone causes a number of troubling symp-toms for plant leaves. These symptoms includeflecks, described as tiny light-tan irregular spots,stipples described as small, darkly pigmented areas,bronzing and reddening. All of these symptoms areconsistent with plant injury. The type and severityof injury is dependent on a number of factors

including duration and concentration of ozoneexposure, weather conditions and plant genetics.However, all plants continuously exposed to ozonewill demonstrate these effects and notably, theyeve n t u a l ly become obscured by chlorosis andnecrosis, and plant death (Brunekreef et al., 1997).In fact, the strongest evidence for significant effectsof ozone on crop yield comes from studies show-ing that as seasonal ozone concentrations increase,crop yield decreases (Brunekreef et al., 1997). Inaddition,VOCs such as formaldehyde and ethyleneare known to harm plants (Burnett et al., 1995).

In addition to direct effects on plants, pollu-tants from fossil fuel combustion contribute to sig-nificant changes in the atmosphere. Acid rain andglobal warming have subsequently emerged as seri-ous threats to fort and agriculture (Rosensweig etal., 2001).

C. Human Health

Overwhelmingly, scientific literature shows that airpollution impacts human health. Studies haveshown a positive correlation between pollutantssuch as those discussed above and mort a l i t y( C a l i fornia EPA , 1 9 9 8 ; C h o u d h u ry et al, 1 9 9 7 ;Devalia et al., 1994; Dockery et al., 1993; Dockeryand Pope, 1994; Spix et al., 1998; Dockery, 2001;Peters et al., 2 0 0 1 ) , c a rd i ovascular diseases( E d w a rds et al., 1 9 9 4 ) , re s p i r a t o ry diseases(California EPA, 1998; Edwards et al., 1994; HEI,1995; IARC, 1989; IPCS, 1996; Katsouyanni et al.,1 9 9 7 ) , asthma visitations and hospitalizations(Whittemore and Korn, 1980; Devalia et al., 1994;HE, 1995; Kinney et al., 2000; Knox et al., 1997;Lipsett and Cap l e m a n n , 1 9 9 9 ; M a rt e n s , 1 9 9 8 ;McConnell et al., 1999; NIOSH, 1996) and reducedlung function (International Programme onChemical Safety, 1996; Katsouyanni et al., 1997;Lipsett and Caplemann, 1999; NTP, 1998; Neas etal., 1999; Northridge et al., 1999; Ormstad et al.,1998; Ostro et al., 1991; Pekkanen et al., 1997). Arecent study found a link to air pollution and lungcancer (Pope at. al., 2002).

A large subsection of this research address-es the effects of PM-10s. These microscopic parti-cles cause nose and throat irritation, and lodgedeep within lung tissue. But until recently their

36

causative role in respiratory pathology remainedunknown. Laden et. al (200) clearly demonstratedthe harmful effects of PM-10s. A study by (Peterset al., 1997), from the Institute for Epidemiologyand Inhalation Biology at Neuherberg, Germany,Peters et al.,(1997) assessed the effects of PM-10son daily mortality rates in 20 of the largest citiesand metropolitan areas in the United States from1987 to 1994. The study found that PM-10s, suchas dust and soot, contribute between 20 and 200early deaths each day in America’s largest cities andthat fine particulate matter is associated withincreased risk of death from cardiovascular andrespiratory illnesses.

Asthma research has also focused on thehealth impacts of particulates. Asthma has beensteadily rising in the U.S.. In 1980, an estimated 6.7million Americans suffered from asthma. By 1994,that number had more than doubled; rising to 13.8million. A study in Alaska showed that asthma visitswere positively correlated with atmospheric con-centrations of PM-10s (see figure 5) (HEI, 1995).Other studies demonstrate a positive correlationbetween symptoms of asthma and other respirato-ry disease and the proximity of residence to areas

of major traffic (Pope 1989; Pope and Dockery,1992; Pope et al., 1991; Peters et al., 1997; Peters etal., 1999). McConnell et. al. (2002) have shown thatelevated ground level ozone levels may initiate newcases of asthma in children.

Q u a n t i t a t i ve knowledge of the healtheffects of particulate air pollution dates back to1952. During one week in December of that year,a high-pressure system set in over London trappingcoal emissions. Particle levels increased dramatical-ly and then fell sharply over the week, while dailymortality showed a similar rise and fall (Dockery,2001) (see Figure III).

In 1991, another high-pressure system set inover London. This time it was not coal emissions,but automobile emissions that were trapped in theatmosphere. During this episode, concentrationsof nitrogen dioxide rose to record levels (twice theWHO guidelines), and were associated with mod-erate increases in particulate pollution. During thatweek there was a 10% increase in mortality and a14% increase in cardiovascular disease. For theelderly, hospital admissions for respiratory diseaseincreased by 19%, and by 43% for obstructive lung

disease. These data were alls t a t i s t i c a l ly significant(Anderson et al., 1998). Thelandmark six cities study foundthat after controlling for otherrisk factors, mortality was 26%higher in the most pollutedcity versus the least pollutedone (Docke ry et al., 1 9 9 3 ) .Other studies demonstratethat even at much lower levelsof pollutant gases (under U.S.ambient air quality standardsand the guidelines set byW H O ) , t h e re are significanthealth effects of air pollution(Pope et al., 1991; Schwartz eta l . , 1 9 9 3 ; S c h w a rtz andDockery, 1992; Schwartz andMorris, 1995; Schwartz et al.,1996).

Diesel engines are one of themost significant contributors

Figure 5: Average monthly asthma visits compared with PM-10

concentrations

37

to urban air pollution, accounting for 44% of theNOx emissions and 69% of particulate emissionsf rom transport a t i o n . R e s e a rchers estimate thatparticulate pollution causes tens of thousands ofdeaths annually in the U.S. (Cifuentes et al., 2001).The impacts of diesel exhaust on lung function havebeen well studied (Rudell et al., 1996). Particulatematter is known to irritate the eyes and nose andaggravate respiratory problems including asthma,discussed earlier. Additionally, the PM-2.5s found indiesel exhaust have been directly associated withan increased risk of premature death. These parti-cles absorb hundreds of chemicals onto their sur-faces, including many known or suspected muta-gens and carcinogens, as well as pollen grains (seebelow). Because of their size, these chemicals andallergens can penetrate deep into lung tissue.

Diesel exhaust (mostly from school busesand trucks) is often emitted in close proximity towhere people live and work, intensifying the expo-sure in inner cities. More studies demonstrate thecorrelation between increased symptoms of asth-ma and respiratory disease and proximity to majorroads or heavy traffic (Edwards et al., 1 9 9 4 ;Brunekreef et al., 1997;Wissow et al., 1988). Dieselengines contribute significantly to the problem,releasing NOxs, SOxs, and particulate matter.

In its ninth annual report of suspected car-cinogens, the National Institute of EnvironmentalHealth Sciences lists diesel exhaust particles as"reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens"(HEI, 1995). Several national and internationalorganizations re g a rd particulates from dieselexhaust as a potential or probable human carcino-gen. These organizations include the NationalTox i c o l o gy Pro g r a m , the California EPA , t h eInternational Programme on Chemical Safety, theNational Institute for Occupational Safety and theCalifornia Air Resources Board (California EPA,1998; IARC, 1989; IPCS, 1996; NIOSH, 1996; NTP,1998). The U.S. EPA is considering a similar classifi-cation. This classification is based on a growingnumber of studies demonstrating that exposure tohigh levels of diesel exhaust causes lung tumors inrats, and that humans who are routinely exposedto diesel exhaust have a higher risk of developinglung cancer. The California EPA estimates that 450in every 1 million Californians are at risk of devel-

oping cancer because of exposure to diesel exhaust(California EPA, 1998).

Diesel particles and allergensIn addition to increasing the risk of respira-

tory disease, studies indicate that diesel exhaustparticles can act as carriers of allergens, possiblyaggravating allergies and asthma (Behrendt et al,1 9 9 7 ; D evalia et al, 1 9 9 4 ; K n ox et al., 1 9 9 7 ;Ormstad et al., 1998; Takafuji et al., 1989). About25% of the U.S. population suffers from hay feveror allergenic asthma. Several in vitro studies havedemonstrated that many common allergens (grasspollen, cat, dog and birch pollen) will bind withdiesel exhaust particles (Knox et al., 1997; Ormstadet al., 1998), suggesting a mechanism by which aller-gens can remain suspended in the air and enterinto the lungs. Scientists believe that diesel exhaustplays a major part in exacerbating allergies andallergenic asthma in our cities.

In addition, ragweed plants grown in elevat-ed carbon dioxide conditions (700ppm) produce61% more pollen than those grown at current lev-els (360ppm) (Wayne et al., 2002).This is consistentwith other studies (Ziska and Caulfield, 2000).Withthe potential for increasing amounts of pollen as aresult of increased carbon dioxide levels and con-tinued use of diesel, more pollen-diesel particlescan be generated and deposited into the lungs.

Finally, because air pollution, and particularlydiesel exhaust, is most prevalent in cities, urbanresidents will experience the most severe impacts.Moreover, within cities, the highest density of busesand bus stations are found in the poorest neighbor-hoods, and poverty, race and asthma rates are posi-tively correlated (Weiss and Wagener, 1990). In theearly to mid-1980s, for example, the asthma mor-tality rate among black residents of the UnitedStates, aged 5 to 34 years, was three to five timesas great as the rate among whites. A study done in1992 found that asthma hospitalization rates forthe city of Boston were 4.2 per 1,000 residents;twice the state rate of 2.1/1,000. Moreover, withinBoston, the asthma rate varied significantly, from alow of 0.7/1,000 persons in the Kenmore Squarearea to a high of 9.8/1,000 in Roxbury (Gottlieb etal., 1995) (See Figure 3.)

38

Other air pollutants have significant healtheffects as well. There is a growing body of evidenceindicating that some VOCs, specifically benzene, arecancerous (Hayes et al., 1996; Behrendt et al.,1997). The physiologic effects of CO have longbeen understood. CO reduces the ability of theheme molecule in red blood cells to carry oxygenand exposure to CO is especially hazardous topeople with cardiac, respiratory and vascular dis-ease.

39

Figure 6: Age- and gender-adjusted asthma hos-

p i t a l i z ation rates in Boston (from CHEST

108(1):28-35 (Jul 1995)

VII. ACID RAIN

As early as 1852, acid rain was recognized to be aconsequence of fossil fuel combustion, yet it con-tinues to plague the world, particularly in industrial-ized nations. Acid rain causes an array of problemsnow known to be much more complex and diversethan previously believed. The impacts of acid rainare no longer considered as isolated effects, but arerecognized to impact entire ecosystems. The grow-ing understanding of acid rain’s complexity and itsongoing driving forces bring into question theextent of anticipated benefits of current controlefforts.

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides(NOx) released from the combustion of fossil fuelshave been found to be the leading contributors toacid rain production. As both SO2 and NOxs enterthe atmosphere, they become oxidized into sulfuricacid and nitric acid respectively. The reactions areenhanced in areas of increased pollution as ammo-nia and ground level ozone act as catalysts. Theseacids dissolve readily into water and help formacidic water droplets, returning to the earth in theform of acidic rain, snow, or fog. Natural rainwaterhas an inherent acidic pH of 5.6. But acid rain com-monly reach pH levels as low as 4, about 40 timesthe acidity of natural rainwater.

Once acid rain returns to the surface, itbegins a cascade of harmful environmental effects.The consequences of acidic precipitation are com-plicated by the relationships within ecosystems.From terrestrial to aquatic environments, the indi-vidual effects are each detrimental.

A. Terrestrial Effects

Upon reaching the ground, acid rain begins to takeimmediate effect in soils. Natural rainwater’s slightacidity is normally countered by soil buffe r i n gcapacity. This buffering capacity plays an integralpart in the ecosystem, allowing for tolerance withina range of fluctuating conditions. Cations such asCa

++(calcium), Mg

++(magnesium), and K

+(potassi-

um) neutralize acidity in the soil. As the concentra-tion of these cations increases, the buffering capaci-ty of soil correspondingly increases, raising therange of soil’s acidic tolerance. Acid rain over-

whelms soil’s buffering capacity, disrupting carefullyestablished pH balances.

One consequence has been the leaching ofbase cations from soil. Long-term studies showthat prolonged exposure to acid rain causesdecreased levels of calcium and magnesium in soils.The increased acidity of soil dissolves the cations,allowing drainage waters to wash them away. Anincreased level of these cations in nearby streamwaters further strengthens evidence of this leach-ing process (Likens et al., 1996). The soil developsmineral and nutrient deficiencies with the loss ofthese base cations.

The increased acidity also helps to mobilizealuminum in soils. Aluminum is normally benign inits organic form, but as it becomes dissolved in theacidic soil, it converts to an inorganic form. In thisfo r m , a l u m i num becomes toxic to ve g e t a t i vegrowth through several mechanisms. First, alu-minum decreases the availability of calcium by dis-placing adsorbed calcium and increasing the suscep-tibility of the calcium to leaching (Lawrence et al.,1995). Second, aluminum decreases the efficiencyof calcium uptake by plant roots. Aluminum’s high-er affinity for negative ly charged binding sitesallows it to out-compete calcium for root absorp-tion. Consequently, soils with calcium to aluminumratios of less than one are at risk for aluminiumtoxicity (Cronan and Grigel, 1995). Even soils withratios above one are at risk as continued leachingof base cations causes soils to shift toward lowercalcium to aluminum ratios. Finally, at high enoughc o n c e n t r a t i o n s , a l u m i num has been shown toadversely affect plant life through direct toxicity toroots (Anderson, 1988).

Beyond changes in soil chemistry, acid rainnegatively impacts the growth of trees. Researchfocusing on the dieback or reduced growth andmortality of trees has found strong associationswith acidic deposition. The red spruce, native toM a i n e, s u f fe red from significant dieback in the1970s and 1980s. Greater than 50% of trees diedin the higher elevations of the Adirondack andGreen Mountains. This immense dieback has beenlinked to increased acidic deposition in severalways. Red spruce needles lose some of their coldtolerance after acidic mist or cloud exposure,

40

increasing their susceptibility to death during win-ter (DeHayes et al., 1999). Low calcium to alu-minum in the soils of the red spruce have likelycaused nutrient deficiencies as the aluminum blockscalcium uptake (Shortle and Smith, 1988). Onereport indicates a link between calcium to alu-minum ratios of less than one and impaired growthin greater than 50% of the red spruce (Cronan andGrigal, 1995).

Studies of the episodic dieback of the sugarmaple in the Northeast have also shown associa-tions with acidic precipitation. Seasonal deficien-cies of base cations such as calcium and magnesiumwere found to correlate with the episodic timing ofthe diebacks (Horsley et al., 1999).

The red spruce and sugar maple are justtwo examples of the negative impacts of acid rainon vegetation. The soil changes that initiate theseeffects are found in other areas and among otherplant species. It is difficult to overestimate theimportance of plant life on earth. An integral partof the food web, plants support all life, providefood, and filter atmospheric gases; and help to alle-viate greenhouse gas buildup.

B. Aquatic Effects

Once acid precipitation saturates the soil's buffer-ing capacity, runoff and drainage play a large role inthe spread of acidification. Aquatic systems such aslakes, streams and groundwater are all susceptible.Soil runoff not only lowers the pH levels of aquaticbodies, but also exposes them to increased levelsof aluminum.

Acidification of surface waters occurs intwo broad ways: episodic acidification and chronicacidification. Episodic acidification usually occurs inresponse to seasonal changes, p a rt i c u l a r ly theonset of spring. Ecologists consider springtimesnowmelts to be the major contributor. Studies ofstreams in the northeastern United States havedemonstrated shifting levels of pH, nitrate, and alu-m i num in correspondence with seasonal shifts(Wigington et al., 1996). The effects of chronicacidification have been difficult to ascertain giventhe need for data dating back to the IndustrialRevolution and the need for several years of data

collection. However, use of acidification modelsthat utilize current emission data and projected his-torical data have demonstrated a significant level ofc h ronic acidification over the last 150 ye a r s(Driscoll et al., 2001).

Acidification of bodies of water affects thevast the array of aquatic organisms that live inaquatic systems. Changes in pH, nitrate concentra-tion, and aluminum concentration shifts the naturalbalances established within an ecological system.While some organisms are able to flourish undersuch conditions, others are harmed. The suscepti-bility of fish in these changing environments hasbeen clearly documented. Studies show both lowpH and aluminum are toxic to fish (Baker andSchofield,1982). Acid-sensitive species are at great-est risk and are the first to be eliminated in aquatice nv i ro n m e n t s . Studies have shown significantlyfewer species of fish in lakes with decreased pH(Schindler et al., 1985). Episodic acidification hasbeen particularly associated with larger amounts offish loss in streams and rivers. These water bodiesare more sensitive and more susceptible to largeand abrupt changes from snowmelts, having smallerrefuge areas for fish. Episodic acidification alsoimpacts fish mortality, migration and reproductivefailure, further reducing fish populations (Baker etal., 1996).

Studies show that acid rain impacts a widevariety of species across the food web, particularlyamong the egg and younger stages of development.Lower pH has been linked to decreased hatchingand weaker eggs of species such as water mites andaquatic insects (Rousch et al., 1997). These organ-isms play an integral role in the food web and inthe predation of mosquitoes, and their loss jeop-ardizes the sustainability of entire ecosystems.

Although many species suffer the effects ofacid rain, some “ weedy species” thrive in it.Changes in environmental chemistry and biodiver-sity have given some organisms a window ofopportunity to flourish. Harmful algal blooms(HABs) have disrupted marine environments suchas the Chesapeake Bay, Indian Ocean, and Bay ofBengal. Rain carries nitrogen and phosphorus fromsewage and fertilizers into surrounding streams,estuaries, and eventually into coastal waters, pro-

41

viding a rich environment the algal growth. Nitratesproduced from acid rain deposition also contributesignificantly to the nitrogen loading of water bod-ies; 20 to 35% of the Chesapeake Bay’s controllablenitrate loads have been linked to NOx emissionsand their resulting acidic deposition (Dennis, 1997).The explosion of algae, the algal "bloom," can havea variety of environmental effects. Overgrowthclouds the water decreasing sunlight penetration,harming aquatic vegetation and animals that needsunlight to survive. Once algae die, they settle tothe bottom where they decay, a process that con-sumes vital oxygen. This causes so-called “deadzones.” Eutrophication contributes to HABs thatlead to shellfish poisoning and algae and zooplank-ton can harbor pathogens (Epstein et al., 1993)Eutrophication can also lead to coral reef degreda-tion and collapse of food webs (EPA, 2001)

C. Acid Rain Recovery

In 1970, the Clean Air Act instituted emissionsstandards that could not be met with existing tech-nologies while imposing stiff penalties for failures tocomply with these standards (Hunter et al., 1998).Bemoaned by industry, this ‘technology-forcing’ leg-islation is credited with providing the incentivesand disincentives required for significant cuts ine m i s s i o n s . Sulfur dioxide reductions have beenexemplary, having surpassed the 50% decrease goalstated as part of the Acid Deposition ControlProgram. Theoretically, decreased acid rain deposi-tion should help promote ecosystem recovery.Signs of recovery had been demonstrated in sever-al lakes and streams in Maine through increasedalkalinity But the same study reports ongoing acidi-fication despite the decline in levels of SO2. Thestudy concluded that significant loss of base cationsfrom the soil and increasing levels of nitric acid inprecipitation contributed greatly to continuing acid-ification (Stoddard et al., 1999). Because of thesepervasive forces, aquatic recovery will likely beslower than originally anticipated. Similarly, studiesof forest soil recovery have shown continued sus-ceptibility to acidic deposition and evidence ofdelayed recovery (Likens et al., 1996).

Although the Clean Air Act has madestrides in reducing the effects of acid rain, more isneeded to advance the recovery process. Addingalkaline limestone to aquatic systems, a process

called liming, can help counter the affects of acidifi-cation by neutralizing acid. The process requiresmultiple treatments and is quite expensive, but itdoes sustain aquatic organisms for the short term.Extensive use of liming has contributed to acceler-ated recovery in Sweden.

The costs of liming are high and alternativeefforts can focus on stronger emission reductions.The Clean Air Act was successful in reducing SO2

emissions but did not cap the emission of NOxgases. The contribution of NOx gases to acid rainand eutrophication is increasing as fossil fueldependence grows.

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VIII. GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL

WARMING

A. Introduction

The greenhouse effect describes a natural phenom-enon -- the capacity of certain gases in the atmos-phere to trap heat emitted from the Earth’s sur-face. This naturally occurring and constantly evolv-ing mechanism has provided insulation that warmsthe earth’s surface. Without the thermal blanketprovided by the greenhouse effect, Earth’s climatewould be about 33ºCelsius (60ºF) colder than it istoday;too cold for most living organisms to survive(Encarta®, 2001).

Over the last twenty years there has beenincreasing concern that human activities, namelythe burning of fossil fuels plus changing land useand clearing for agriculture and livestock are modi-fying the natural atmospheric processes that main-tain surface temperatures (Watson et al., 1997).These atmospheric gases are now at levels higherthan they have been in the last 420,000 years (Petitet. al, 1999). As the gases build up in the earth’satmosphere, they trap more heat and ultimatelyraise the Earth’s temperature at a rate far greaterthan any natural change since the beginning of agri-culture 10,000 years ago (McMichael and Haines,1997).

The unnatural warming of the earth isre fe rred to as global warming. T h eIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change -- amultidisciplinary body established by the UnitedNations -- forecasts an estimated 1.4-5.8 degreesCelsius increase in the Earth’s surface temperatureover the next 100 years (IPCC, 1996). The project-ed temperature rise this century was increasedsubstantially in the most recent Third Assessment(IPCC, 2001a). Disturbances to ecological systemsare projected to negatively impact global publichealth, especially in developing countries, with theaftershocks felt in economies wo r l d w i d e(IFRC&RC, 1998; Epstein, 1999; Epstein, 2000).

B. The Greenhouse Effect

The interaction of sunlight with certain gases in

our atmosphere leads the greenhouse effect. Asthe sun’s radiation hits the earth’s atmosphere, 25%of the energy is radiated back into space andapproximately 20% is absorbed; the upper atmos-phere absorbs gamma rays and ozone absorbsultraviolet light. The remaining 50% of the sun’senergy reaches the earth’s surface. Oceans, plantsand soils absorb almost 85% of this heat energy,while the rest is reflected back into the atmos-phere, predominantly by snowcaps, ice-sheets anddeserts. Atmospheric greenhouse gases trap someof this outgoing energy, retaining heat and, in turn,emitting infrared radiation back into the atmos-phere. This heat energy is absorbed by greenhousegases and warms the lower atmosphere (EPA,2001b; Factmonster.com,2001).

Without this natural greenhouse effect, heatenergy absorbed and reflected from the earthwould be lost into space and surface temperatureswould be much lowe r, about zero degre e sF a h renheit (-18ºC) rather the present 60°F(~15°C) (NCDC, NOAA, 2001). However, increas-ing concentrations of atmospheric gre e n h o u s egases enhances the atmosphere’s capacity to retaininfrared radiation, creating an artificial warming ofthe earth’s surface and lower atmosphere (the tro-posphere, extending ~8 km from Earth’s surface).

History

Scientists first began investigating the greenhousee f fect in the 1800s. But in 1957, the firstInternational Geophysical Year, researchers from

43

Figure 7: The Greenhouse Effect (Image from

EPA)

the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Californiabegan monitoring carbon dioxide levels in theatmosphere on Mauna Loa in Hawaii. They subse-quently found that carbon dioxide concentrationwas increasing every year. These findings were laterconfirmed wo r l d w i d e, motivating scientists toexamine more closely at the potential risk ofhuman-induced climate change. In 1988 the UnitedNations Environment Programme, in collaborationwith the World Meteorological Organization,formed the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPCC). The IPCC has produced threeassessment reports on the science and impacts ofclimate change, and, in other reports, explores poli-cy options for controlling greenhouse gas emis-sions.

In 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio deJaneiro, Brazil, the IPCC played a fundamental rolein the development of the most comprehensivee nv i ronmental treaty ever draw n : the UnitedNations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCCC). The treaty set out a plan ofaction for the control of greenhouse gas emissions.A protocol established in 1992 was modified andadopted in 1997 at the Third Conference of theParties held in Kyoto, Japan. This agreement out-lines practical steps for reducing the wo r l d ’sdependence upon fossil fuels. Under the KyotoProtocol the Parties agree to decrease the overallemission of greenhouse gases to an average of 5.2%b e l ow levels in 1990, with deadlines rangingbetween 2008 and 2012. Individual reduction per-centages for countries reflect the capacity for thatcountry to reduce its emissions, while consideringits potential for economic growth (Eddis, 2001;Sheridan, 2001).

In November 2000 the Sixth Conference ofthe Parties of the UNFCCC met in The Hague withthe intent of enacting the guidelines outlined in theKyoto Pro t o c o l . Without U. S . a g re e m e n t , t h eParties failed to reach a consensus (Lowen, 2000).In July 20001, the Kyoto protocol was agreed uponby over 160 nations, though the U.S. did not agreeto participate.

The Greenhouse Gases

Atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) are both

naturally occurring and human-made. The mostabundant natural greenhouse gas is water vapor,fo l l owed by carbon diox i d e, m e t h a n e, n i t ro u soxide, ozone and CFCs. GHGs can contribute tothe greenhouse effect directly -- when the gas itselfabsorbs outgoing infrared radiation -- or indirectly,when a chemical transformation produces a gasthat has the properties of a greenhouse gas (e.g.,ground-level ozone), or when the gas influences theatmospheric lifetimes of other gases (e.g., warmingincreases the holding capacity of water vapor).

·Carbon dioxide is released into the atmospherewhen wood and wood products, solid wastes andfossil fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas areburned. Also, deforestation releases stored carbonand reduces the natural "carbon sink."

·Methane is emitted during the production andt r a n s p o rt of oil, natural gas and coal.Decomposition of organic wastes and livestockalso produce methane.

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The Carbon Cycle

Approximately 5.5 Gigatons (billion tons) of car-bon is released by burning fossil fuels each year.Changes in Land Use/Land Cover contributeanother ~1.5GtC/year.Thus the total is ~7GtC/y.The ocean absorbs ~2 GTC/y; the terrestrialbiosphere another ~ 2GtC/y. This leaves ~3GtC to accumulate yearly in the atmosphere.

Ice core records from Antarctica showthat CO2 levels have held between 180 parts permillion and 280ppm for the past 420,000 years(Petit et al., 1999). Feedbacks in the global car-bon cycle -- including the ocean and terrestrialsinks -- may have helped maintain levels withinthese two boundaries. The lower levels haveaccompanied Ice Ages and the higher levels haveaccompanied warm, interglacial, periods. Today,we have exceeded these levels with atmosphericCO2 concentrations of 360ppm, apparently over-whelming the buffering capacity of the biologicalsinks to take up C. Changes in land cover andsoil composition (e.g., acidification) may furtheralter the terrestrial sink, and ocean warming mayreduce its capacity to take up CO2.

·Nitrous oxide is released during agricultural andindustrial activities as well as during combustion ofsolid waste and fossil fuels.

·Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons

(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexa-

fluoride (SF6) are generated from a various indus-trial processes.

Each greenhouse gas differs in its ability toabsorb and trap heat in the atmosphere. Human-made chemicals are the most heat-absorbent.Methane and NOxs trap over 20 and 250 timesmore heat respectively per molecule than carbondioxide. Estimates of greenhouse gas emissions aremeasured in units of millions of metric tons of car-bon equivalents (MMTCE), classifying each gas byits global warming potential (GWP) value (IPCC.1996, 2001; EPA, 2001b). The concept of a GWPpermits a comparative assessment of the ability of agreenhouse gas to trap heat in the atmosphere rel-ative to another gas. Consistent with the IPCCguidelines, carbon dioxide has been used as the ref-erence gas (McMichael et al., 1996). The GWP of agreenhouse gas as listed below is the ratio of globalwarming from one unit mass of a greenhouse gasto that of one unit mass of carbon dioxide over atime period of 100 years.

The atmospheric concentration of GHGshas steadily increased since the mid-1800s. Threegases account for the majority of the enhancedheat-trapping capability of the earth’s atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide levels have increased by 30%

Methane levels have increased by 145%

Nitrous oxide concentrations have increased by

approximately 15%

(EPA,2001b; EIA, 2001).

C. GHG Emissions

The primary GHG emitted through human activi-ties is carbon dioxide. Prior to the IndustrialRevolution, the decomposition of organic matterand other natural systems produced 10 times asmuch CO2 as human activities. In 1998, combus-tion of fossil fuels accounted for 98% of the totalU.S. CO2 emissions, 24% of methane emissions, and18% of NOx emissions. Increased agriculture,deforestation, industrial manufacture and miningfurther contributed to emissions. In 1997, the

United States, with 4% of the world’s popula-

tion, was responsible for one-fifth of total global

GHG emissions (McMichael and Haines, 1997). Inan effort to combat the growing impact of globalemissions, emission inventories were devised toaccount for the amount of air pollutants releasedinto the atmosphere. These inventories are usedby scientists to develop air quality models, by policymakers to develop strategies and by governmentsto ensure compliance with emission limits.

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GAS GWP

Carbon Dioxide 1

Methane 21

Nitrous Oxide 310

HFC-125 2,800

CF4 6, 500

C2F6 9,200

HFC-23 11,700

SF6 23,900

Figure 8: Global Warming Potentials (GWP)

over 100 Years

The Nitrogen Cycle

Approximately 100 million metric tons of Nfrom the atmosphere is "fixed" by plants and soilfungi. The chief anthropogenic sources of N area) fertilizers, b) animal waste (human, hog andcow) and c) the burning of fossil fuels. Thesesources together have doubled the amount of Ngoing into soils, the aquatic and marine environ-ments. The chief results are a) increased GHGwarming, b) acid precipitation, and c) eutrophica-tion from sewage, fertilizers, and fossil fuel com-bustion.

Energy and Fossil Fuels

Activities related to energy are responsible fornearly all the CO2 emissions in the U.S. between

1990 and 1998. In 1998, the burning of fossil fuelsaccounted for almost 85% of the energy expendi-ture in the U.S., while only 15% came from otherenergy sources. Four end-sector industries are pri-marily responsible for contributing to carbon diox-ide emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels;industrial activities accounted for 33% of emissions,transportation for 31%, residential for 20%, andc o m m e rcial activities accounted for 16% (EPA ,2001b).

Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbondioxide into the atmosphere because of the highquantity of carbon stores within the fuels. Coalproduces the largest amount of carbon dioxide perunit of energy generated, followed by petroleumand natural gas. Petroleum, however, is the mostcommon source of fossil fuel energy in the U.S.,accounting for 39% of the total energy consump-tion in the U.S. in 1998 -- primarily for transporta-tion. From 1990 to 1998 CO2 emissions increasedin the U.S. an average of 1.3% annually. The boom-ing economy of the 1990s, the low price of fossilfuels and the increased use of fossil fuels by electriccompanies all increased the consumption and CO2

emissions (EPA, 2001b).

Estimates of future emissions and concen-trations depend upon a num-ber of factors, i n c l u d i n gdemographics, policies, eco-nomic development andtechnological and institution-al trajectories (Haines et al.,2000). It has been projectedthat, by 2100, in the absenceof emission control policies,levels of carbon dioxide willbe anywhere between 30-150% higher than curre n tlevels (IPCC, 2001a).

D. The Changing Climate

Since the late 1800s Earth’st e m p e r a t u re has incre a s e d

about 0.6°C, and 0.2 to 0.3°C during the past 25years. Increasing concentrations of GHGs are pro-jected to accelerate the rate of global climatechange. Warming of the earth has not been uni-form across the continents -- some areas like thesoutheastern U.S. have become cooler, while tem-peratures have increased over northern NorthAmerica and Europe. Arctic and Boreal regions(Canada and Siberia) are warming faster than tem-perate and tropical zones (IPCC, 2001b). The 10hottest years of the past 100 years have occurredin the last 15 years. Of the ten years, 1998 was thewarmest year on record (EPA, 2001b; NCDC,NOAA, 2001).

Scientists have predicted that the global sur-face temperature could rise 1-4.5°F (0.6-2.5°C) inthe next fifty years, and 2.2-10.4°F (1.4-5.8°C) inthe next century, with significant regional andnational variation (IPCC, 2001a).

Since 1950, winter and nighttime tempera-t u res (minimum temperatures or TMINs) haveincreased at twice the rate as overall warming(Easterling et al., 1997); a change that has alreadyaffected the timing of seasons and the distributionof flora and fauna on land and in the ocean (IPCC,2001b).

I n d i rect indicators of warming, such asborehole temperatures, decreased floating ice inthe Arctic Ocean (Rothrock et al., 1999; Parkinsonet al., 1999) and snow cover in the Northern

Figure 9: Global Temperature Changes 1880-200

46

Hemisphere, glacier recession data, a global sealevel rise by 4-8 inches over the past century andthe increase in worldwide precipitation are evi-dence of climate change (IPCC, 2001a&b).

In addition, extreme weather events (chiefly,droughts and heavy rain) have increased in intensityand are projected to increase in frequency (IPCC,2001a). The long-term effects of climate change onglobal temperatures and weather patterns, and theresulting impacts on human health, are attractingincreasing attention in the fields of international,public and environmental health medicine (NCDC,NOAA, 2001; IPCC, 2001b). The changes in theintensity and frequency of weather extremes mayhold the most profound impacts for agriculture,societal infrastructure, economies, ecosystems andhuman health (IPCC, 2001b).

E. Health Impacts

Global climate change is projected to have adiverse range of impacts on human health, with thenegative impacts expected to outweigh the positiveones. Climate change is already affecting ecologicaland social systems, creating conditions conduciveto expanding the range and intensity of infectiousdisease outbreaks. Prolonged droughts have alteredfood production and contributed to population dis-p l a c e m e n t , while intense flooding has altere deconomies.

There are many variables in quantifying howclimate change will impact human health. Socialfactors (poverty, poor nutritional status and crowd-ing), along with ecological change (deforestationand loss of coastal wetlands), render many develop-ing countries particularly vulnerable to extremeweather events and subsequent outbreaks of infec-tious diseases (IPCC, 2001b). Aging populations inindustrialized nations face other health risks, partic-ularly from growing temperature and precipitationextremes (heat and cold, rains and ice storms)(Woodward et al., 1998). Variations in climatechange from region to region suggest that theimpacts on human health will take both direct andi n d i rect pathways (McMichael et al., 1 9 9 6 ;McMichael and Haines, 1997; Haines et al., 2001).

Direct Effects

Direct health effects include increases in heat relat-ed mortality and morbidity from illnesses associat-ed with heat waves and thermal stress, principallya f fecting the elderly and the urban poor(McMichael and Haines, 1997; EPA, 2001c; Last andWallace, 1992).

Meteorological findings suggest that elevat-ed nighttime temperatures are the most significantfactor contributing to heat-related mort a l i t y.Studies predict a three to four-fold increase inheat-related mortality in large U.S. cities if carbondioxide levels were to double, likely in the absenceof emission controls (Patz, 1995).

While warmer winters may decrease cold-related mortality in many temperate countries(IPCC, 2001b), increased variability in temperaturesin summer and winters may have the greatestimpacts on mortality (Braga et al., 2001).

Extreme weather events, such as intenserainfall (>2 inches/day is the NCDC, NOAA index)can lead to increased runoff and thus exposure tochemicals, nutrients and microorganisms in watersupplies, as well as physical damage, food shortages,population displacement, and death. Damage tocommunities can then have psychological and eco-nomic impacts. Severe weather systems can alsocreate conditions conducive to clusters of infec-tious disease outbreaks as a result of flooding,standing water, water contamination and loss offreshwater availability following the initial insult,increasing mortality and morbidity (Epstein, 1999).

In recent years, a number of severe climate-related disasters adversely affected human health --including floods in China, repeated floods inMozambique, Bangladesh and parts of Europe, andre c o rd flooding in Central America inN ovember1998 accompanying Hurricane Mitch(Epstein, 1999). In 2001, prolonged droughts affect-ed Afghanistan and Iran, Mongolia and Sri Lanka,and many other parts of the developing and devel-oped world. These climatic events illustrate howpopulations with few resources, lacking the neces-s a ry infrastructure essential to mobilize re l i e fefforts, are more susceptible to the adverse effectsof severe weather (IPCC, 2001b; Haines et al.,

47

2001).

Increased rainfall and warmer temperaturescan increase molds. The same conditions allowtrees to produce more seeds than usual (DeLuciaet al., 1999). Increased CO2 itslef causes lobhollypine to increase seed and cone pro d u c t i o n(LaDeau and Clark, 2001). Increased levels of pollenare produced from ragweed with increased levelsof CO2 (Wayne et al., 2002). The highest pollencount recorded (over 6000 grains per cubic meter;alerts being issued with levels over 250g/m3) wasrecorded in New York in May 2001 (Daley, 2001).

Indirect Effects

Indirect effects on biological systems may be ofeven greater consequence for human health.Theseimpacts include:

•Increased transmission of vector-borneinfectious diseases

•Increasing populations of water-bornepathogens

•Decreased agricultural productivity•Social disruption, economic decline andpopulation movements

•Sea level rise

Infectious Diseases

One of the major impacts of climate change forinfectious diseases may be felt through the influ-ence on the vectors (carriers) that spread malaria,dengue fever, leishmaniasis, viral encephalitides andschistosomiasis (Patz et al., 1 9 9 6 ; Rogers andPacker, 1993). Infectious parasites and viruses thatcycle through cold-blooded insect vectors to com-plete their development are highly susceptible tosubtle changes in the climate. In temperateregions, alterations in climate could affect vector-borne diseases by increasing the vector's reproduc-tive and biting rates, as well as the rate of pathogendevelopment within the vectors (Martens et al.,1997).

An increase in temperatures create the con-ditions conducive to the transmission of key vector-borne diseases to extend to higher altitudes, affect-ing immuno-susceptible highland populations to

new diseases.

Such changes are already being observed

in highland regions, where plant communities

a re migrating upwa rd , glaciers are rapidly

retreating and the level at which freezing occurs

all year round (the freezing isotherm) has

moved up ~500 feet or close to 2ºF warming in

the past three decades (Epstein et al., 1998).Highland areas are particularly sensitive gauges ofchanging isotherms. Studies of ticks suggest thatconditions conducive to transmission have begunto shift in latitude as well (lindrigan and Gustafson,2001)..

Higher temperatures, in combination withaltered rainfall patterns, may also prolong transmis-sion seasons along the southern and northern mar-gins where these diseases currently circulate. Theimpact of these diseases will depend upon the levelof economic development, public health infrastruc-ture and previous exposure of the population inthe newly affected areas. Compounding the newgeographical reach of infectious diseases are theexisting social patterns of health care access ---those most vulnerable are those who have limitedor inadequete services (Patz, 1995; McMichael andHaines, 1997; EPA,2001c).

The current geographic range of malaria isgenerally limited to the tropics and subtropics sincethe Plasmodium parasite requires an average tem-perature above 16°C to mature (Martens et al.,1997). Malaria has been observed in non-endemicexposing populations at high elevations inZimbabwe, Rwanda and Ethiopia during unseason-ably warm conditions, populations previously pro-tected because of their altitude (Loevinsohn, 1994;Tulu, 1996). Today, one-half of the world’s popula-tion is exposed to malaria on a daily basis.Deforestation, drug resistance and inadequate pub-lic health measures have all contributed to a recentresurgence. Warming and extreme weather addnew stresses. Dynamic models project that thewarming accompanying the doubling of atmospher-ic CO2 could increase the transmission capacity ofmosquitoes some 100-fold in temperate zones, andthat the area capable of sustaining transmission willgrow from that containing 45% of the world’s pop-ulation to 60% (Martens et al. 1997). Statistical

48

modeling projects less of a change (Rogers andRandolph, 2000). Notably all these analyses rely onaverage temperatures, rather than the more rapidchanges in minimum temperatures being observed,and thus may underestimate the biological respons-es.

I n c reased temperatures also drive thedynamics of dengue fever. Warmer water tempera-tures found in mosquito breeding vessels reducesthe size of the emerging adult, forcing female mos-quitoes to feed more frequently to develop a viableegg batch, increasing exposure to humans. Viraldevelopment time inside the mosquito also short-ens with higher temperatures -- increasing the pro-portion of mosquitoes that become infectious atone time (Patz et al., 1996).

The diseases that are most likely to beaffected by climate change in temperate regionsinclude malaria, dengue fever, viral encephalitides,and Lyme disease. With profound changes in thetemperature, malaria may breach existing publichealth interventions and bring malaria back toEurope (McMichael and Haines, 1997).

Water-Borne Pathogens

Global warming also raises sea surface tempera-tures, leading to higher incidence of water-bornecholera and shellfish poisoning. Marine phytoplank-ton blooms proliferate in warmer waters, providedsufficient nutrients (Harvell et al., 1999). Vibriocholerae has been found to correlate with warmersea surface temperatures as marine zooplanktonand blooms are natural reservoirs for this bacteriaThe algae and zooplankton reservoir could poten-tially be a source for future cholera epidemics(Colwell, 1996). Changes in surface water quantityand quality are known to increase the incidence ofother diarrheal diseases.

Heavy rain events and flooding, as well asdrought (with inadequate water supplies and sanita-tion) are also conducive to outbreaks of water-borne diseases (Epstein, 1 9 9 9 ) . O u t b reaks ofCryptosporidiosis are associated with heavy rainfallin the U.S. (MacKenzie et al., 1994; Rose et al.,2001).

Food and Malnutrition

Climate change puts additional pressure on theworld food supply as agricultural productivity isseverely affected by floods and droughts. Warmerclimates are expected to increase crop yields athigher latitudes and to decrease yields at lower lat-itudes. Regional differences will greatly affect theclimatic impact on agricultural yield, with beneficialeffects on production expected only in the devel-oped world. However, the negative effects in thedeveloping world will pose yet another setback foran already impoverished and vulnerable community,increasing the number of malnourished people inthese regions (IPCC, 2001b). Human susceptibilityto disease may be further complicated by malnutri-tion. Hunger and malnutrition not only increaseinfant and child mortality, but cause both physicaland intellectual stunting. Studies estimate that cli-mate change will push an additional 40-300 millionpeople into starvation, adding to the estimated 600million people already considered hungry (Parryand Rosenzweig, 1993).

In addition, climate change is projected toincrease the range of crop-consuming herbivores,while the extreme weather associated can precipi-tate significant outbreaks. Floods foster fungi, whiledroughts encourage aphids, whiteflies and locust(Rosenzweig et al., 2002)..Social, Economic and Population Factors

Both severe weather events and gradual warminghave the potential to cause social and economicdisruption and the displacement of populations.The ability of populations to contend with suchevents depends upon the social, political and eco-nomic conditions within the country (IPCC,2001b). The potential health impacts associatedwith such social-economic dislocation and popula-tion displacement are unknown at present.

Sea Level Rise

The IPCC (2001a) has projected that sea levels willrise from 10-90cm by the year 2100. Moreover,even if GHG emissions and the climate are stabi-lized, sea level rise (SLR) will continue on into the22

ndCentury (IPCC, 2001a). Since over half the

49

world’s population lives within 60km of the sea, ris-ing seas could have devastating effects on coastalpopulations. Sea level rise can affect food produc-tion, water and sanitation and public health (viasalinization). Currently 46 million people experi-ence coastal flooding every year. This number isprojected to double with SLR, primarily due toincreased severity of storm surges.

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IX. OIL AND MACROECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

In 1944, as World War II was ending, world leadersconvened in Bretton Woods, NH to create a frame-work capable of stabilizing the international econo-my. Three rules were established: 1) free trade ofgoods, 2) control of capital flows, and 3) fixed cur-rency exchange rates. N ew institutions we reestablished during this period, including the WorldBank, the International Monetary fund, and theUnited Nations. Soon after, The Marshall Fundboosted former allies in Europe while, in the U.S.,the GI Bill subsidized the growth of housing,schools and employment.This group of regulations( s t i c k s ) , funds (carrots) and institutions helpedestablish the post WWII world order and propelthe global economy.

In 1972, the collapse of rules restrainingcapital flows allowed greater speculation on cur-rencies.Together with the abandonment of the goldstandard, the creation of OPEC and the oil embar-go, an exponential rise in oil and gold prices fol-lowed. The resulting costs of oil imports for manynations was staggering and required extensive bor-rowing.This alone began the escalation of debt.Andas profits from oil were placed in internationalbanks, these "petrodollars" were loaned to under-d eveloped nations for large-scale deve l o p m e n tprojects. By the end of the 1970s,with many of thep rojects not producing re t u r n s , a debt crisisemerged. By 1983, funds flowing out of developingnations to repay the debts exceeded moneys flow-ing in. Inflation of interest rates and currencies tinthe 1980s compounded the debt crisis.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)responded to the debt crisis by institutingStructural Adjustment Programs (SAPs). SAPs are aset of policy devices designed to increase theGross National Product (GDP) per capita in debt-burdened countries. The policies involved devaluingdomestic currency to improve the competitivenessof exports and discourage imports, creating importsubstitutions, increasing export products, often atthe expense of domestic foods, and increasing gov-ernment austerity. Government budgets for health,education, housing and other government serviceswere to be cut to reduce expenses. The effects ofthese policies have been described in detail in

development and medical literature. Overall thesecuts in government expenditures have weakenedstate infrastructures. The consequences of inade-quate debt management --- in large part propelledby the generation of petrodollars -- have fallen dis-proportionately upon the poor.

By the early 1990s it became apparent to all-- including policy makers -- that SAPs were widen-ing the income gap between rich and poor whileraising the hurdles to the alleviation of poverty (theprimary goal of the World Bank). Programs, proj-ects and policies were begun to address the pover-ty generated, and a modicum of debt-relief hasbeen provided for Heav i ly-Indebted Po o rCountries (HIPC). But there has been littleprogress in addressing the underlying debt crisisand the unequal terms of trade of commoditiesthat maintain the inequities.

As globalization is changing the terms ofinternational trade, creating new entities for inter-national trade governance such as the World TradeOrganization (WTO ) , m a ny economic policiesfavoring transnational corporations are being calledinto question. Protests display a growing concernover the environmental and social equity conse-quences of globalization and liberalization of tradepolicy. Most oil companies continue to encourageliberalization of trade in goods and capital. Andsince much of the world's oil is harvested in devel-oping countries and consumed in developed coun-tries, trade with little regulation poses a continuingthreat to social and environmental equity.

OIL AND SECURITY

In the U.S., energy is inextricably linked with thenation’s political and economic security. As notedabove, fossil fuels account for 85% of the nation’senergy expenditures. Two-thirds of the oil used isfor the transport sector and two-thirds of theworld’s oil reserves are in the Middle East. Sinceenergy fuels the U.S. economy, and so much of it isdependent on Middle Eastern supplies,likely disrup-tions in the future may severely impact the nation’sstability and economic growth. The United Statescurrently imports over 50 percent of its oil withnearly a quarter coming from the Persian Gulf.Refineries, transport vessels and power production

51

infrastructure all represent potential targets forterrorist attacks. Long-term energy security, andthus economic security, depends on the provisionof adequate, uninterrupted power. Recent policyproposals have suggested increased production intraditional power sources as a means of increasingenergy security, providing inadequate support fordecreased consumption and the development ofalternate sources.

Environmental Justice and the Impacts of Oil

From drilling to refining to air pollution andclimate change, the most severe impacts fall dispro-portionately on poor nations and disadvantagedpopulations within wealthier nations.

Exploration can introduce infectious dis-eases that affect isolated, indigenous populations inEcuador, for example. Emerging diseases associatedwith land use changes – conversion from forests tofarm land -- often strike poor populations first.Poor populations are also vulnerable due to inade-quate access to health care.

Localized oil spills and habitat degradationcontaminate water supplies, farming lands and fish-eries in poor regions of Ecuador and the NigerRiver Delta.

Refineries in the U.S. are often located nearAfrican-American and Native American popula-tions. Cancer-causing chemicals such as benzeneprimarily affect the health of those living in closeproximity to refineries.

Populations living in inner cities often suffermost from concentrated air pollution -- soot andozone -- due to the proximity with truck and busroutes.

Heat waves often take a disproportionatetoll on those living in poor housing without airconditioning and those lacking adequate social sup-ports. The majority of those affected during the1995 heat wave in Chicago, for example, wereAfrican-Americans living in substandard housing.

E x t reme weather events -- such asHurricane Mitch in Honduras (1998), killing over

10,000; severe storms and flooding in Venezuela( 1 9 9 9 ) , killing an estimated 20,000 and leav i n g150,000 homeless; and extensive floods inMozambique (2000 and 2001) – take their greatesttoll on poor nations with inadequate resources forrecovery (IPCC, 2001b).

X. CONCLUSIONS

Oil provides many benefits to society, and energy isnecessary for all out activities. Meanwhile eachstage in the life cycle of oil carries hazards forecosystems, wildlife and humans. Through multiplepathways, the processes of exploration to combus-tion result in ecological changes, losses to biodiver-sity, introduction of infectious diseases, air pollu-tion, acid rain and climate change.

In addition, dependence on oil has affectedthe social fabric within, and the enormous amountof wealth generated is now exerting an overwhelm-ing impact on international relations. We mustsearch for solutions that address oil independenceand security, protect the global environment andstimulate the global economy.

Among the proposed solutions includedevelopment of new, technologies to improve ener-gy efficiency and generate energy while minimizingpollution. Technologies for carbon sequestrationare under investigation.

Fossil fuel use could be significantlydecreased if advanced vehicle technologies, such aselectric-hybrid and hydrogen-fuel cells, were widelyd e p l oye d . Distributed generation of re n ew a b l eenergy sources is a way to diversify the nation'senergy supply and disburse the locations of energygeneration. Renewable energy resources, such asbiomass, geothermal, solar, tidal and wind, are abun-dant and located throughout the United States.Combined heat and power co-generation can alsogreatly increase the efficiency of a distributed ener-gy network. Efficiency gains and more diffuse anddistributed generation could transform the currentsystem into one that is resilient to stresses anddeliberate attacks, lowering the nation’s energy billin the process. In addition, "smart-growth" ofurban areas can help minimize transport and opti-mize activities. Green building technology can com-

52

53

plement new urban planning approaches.This transition will depend on international-

ly and nationally coordinated policies.Understanding the causes, health consequences andcosts of our dependence on oil can lay the founda-tion for add ressing evolving global gove r n a n c eissues A broad perspective will be needed as weattempt to erect the reward and incentive scaffold-ing structures upon which to build more equitable,sustainable and healthy development in the decadesto come. The clean energy transition could proveto be the engine of growth for the global economyin this 21st Century.

January, 1971 - Standard Oil of California - San

Francisco Bay, CA

Birds Treated: 7,000Mortality: 6,700Released: 300Release Rate: 4.5%

January, 1973 - Source Unknown - Oakland

Estuary, CA

Birds Treated: 308Mortality: 165Released: 143Release Rate: 46 %

D e c e m b e r, 1973 - Source Unknown - San

Francisco, CA

Birds Treated: 100Mortality: 75Released: 25Release Rate: 25%

Fe b ru a ry, 1974 - Source Unknown - San

Francisco, CA

Birds Treated: 77Mortality: 36Released: 41Release Rate: 53 %

September, 1975 - Source Unknown - San Mateo

Coast, CA

Birds Treated: 635Mortality: 476Released: 159Release Rate: 25%

January, 1976 - Matson Lines - Crockett, CA

Birds Treated: 140Mortality: 35Released: 105Release Rate: 75%

April, 1976 - Colgate - Aquatic Park, Berkeley, CA

Birds Treated: 50Mortality: 22Released: 25Transferred: 3Release Rate: 56%

February, 1977 - Bethlehem Ship Yard, San

Francisco, CA

Birds Treated: 330Mortality: 288Released: 42Release Rate: 13%

December, 1977 - Source Unknown - Martinez,

CA

Birds Treated: 44Mortality: 3Released: 41Release Rate: 93%

M a rc h , 1978 - Steuart Tr a n s p o rt ation -

Chesapeake Bay, VA

Birds Treated: 400Mortality: 260Released: 140Release Rate: 35%

54

APPENDIX

WILDLIFE STATISTICS FOR OIL SPILLS RESPONDED TO BY THEINTERNATIONAL BIRD RESCUE RESEARCH CENTER

BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA

This is a list of oil spills involving wildlife that IBRRC has responded to since 1971. Other IBRRC spill respons-es that did not include oiled wildlife are not listed here. IBRRC's ongoing aquatic bird research/rehabilitationprogram in Berkeley, California cares for individual oiled wild animals throughout the year. These animals arenot listed here, as they are not associated with actual responses. These "mystery" animals average about 50 to100 a year. Survivability of oiled wildlife varies with each species and each oil spill.There are many variablesthat can affect the survivability of oiled wildlife. Rehabilitation facilities or lack of them,species affected, weath-er, location, animal migrations and cooperation from agencies and responsible parties can all effect survivabili-ty. The release rates listed below are prime examples of the effect that these variables can have on survivabil-ity.

March, 1978 - Source Unknown - Concord, CA

Birds Treated: 100Mortality: 29Released: 66Transferred: 5Release Rate: 71%

May, 1979 - Source Unknown - Concord, CA

Birds Treated: 82Mortality: 14Released: 68Release Rate: 83%

May, 1980 - Marathon - Platte River, WY

Birds Treated: 289Mortality: 198Released: 91Release Rate: 32%Total Mammals Treated: 16Mortality: 16Released: 0Release Rate: 0%Total Animals Treated: 305

January 4, 2001

Office of Overall Release Rate: 30%

February, 1981 - Source Unknown - Myrtle

Beach, SC

Birds Treated: 252Mortality: 72Released: 180Release Rate: 71%

April, 1984 - Mobil - Columbia River, OR

Birds Treated: 458Mortality: 174Released: 284Release Rate: 62%

November, 1984 - Puerto Rican - Marin County,

CA

Birds Treated: 624Mortality: 309Released: 315Release Rate: 50%

D e c e m b e r, 1985 - ARCO Anchorage - Po rt

Angeles, WA

Birds Treated: 1,562Mortality: 1,243Released: 281Transferred: 38Release Rate: 18%

February, 1986 - Apex Houston - San Francisco,

CA

Birds Treated: 2,512Mortality: 1,405Released: 1,107Release Rate: 44%

April, 1988 - Shell - Martinez Marsh, CA

Birds Treated: 414Mortality: 117Released: 297Release Rate: 72%

September, 1988 - Mobil - Los Angeles River, CA

Birds Treated: 67Mortality: 23Released: 41Release Rate: 61%

December, 1988 through February, 1989 - Gray's

Harbor - Nestucca, WA

Birds Treated: 3,058Mortality: 2,099Released: 959Release Rate: 31%

March, 1989 through September, 1989 - Exxon -

Alaska

Birds Treated: 1,604Mortality: 803Released: 801Release Rate: 50%

February, 1990 - American Trader - Huntington

Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 565 (includes pelicans) Mortality: 226Released: 310Transferred: 29Overall Release Rate: 60%Total Pelicans Treated: 141Mortality: 39

55

Released: 102 Pelican Release Rate: 78%

February, 1990 - Source Unknown - San Mateo,

CA

Birds Treated: 173Mortality: 111Released: 53Transferred: 9Release Rate: 36%

June, 1990 - Western Transport - San Mateo, CA

Birds Treated: 67Mortality: 37Released: 28Transferred: 2Release Rate: 52%

December, 1990 - Source Unknown - San Mateo

Coast, CA

Birds Treated: 195Mortality: 154Released: 41Release Rate: 21%

January, 1991 - Sammy Superstar - Long Beach,

CA

Birds Treated: 56Mortality: 24Released: 32Release Rate: 57%

February, 1991 - Texaco - Anacortes, WA

Birds Treated: 87Mortality: 49Released: 38Release Rate: 44%

February 1991 - Mobil - Santa Clara River, Los

Angeles, CA.

Birds Treated: 166Mortality: 41Released: 123Release Rate: 72%Total Mammals Treated: 3Mortality: 1Released: 2Total Reptiles Treated: 1Released: 1Total Fish Treated: 1

Mortality: 1Total Animals Treated: 171Overall Release Rate: 75%

May, 1991 - Unocal - Los Angeles, CA

Birds Treated: 6Mortality: 3Released: 3Release Rate: 50%

June, 1991 - Alphius - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 1Release Rate: 1

July, 1991 - Tenyo Maru - Washington Coast, WA

Birds Treated: 700Mortality: 550Released: 150Release Rate: 21%

October, 1991 - La Esperanza - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 1Mortality: 1Released: 0Release Rate: 0%

September, 1991 - Source Unknown - Punto

Tumbo, Argentina

Birds Treated: approximately 400Expired/Euthanized: unknown (recordsroughly kept)Released: approximately 150 Release Rate: data incomplete

November, 1991 - Source Unknown - Crescent

City, CA

Birds Treated: 5Mortality: 3Released: 2Release Rate: 40%

December, 1991 - U.S. Navy - San Diego Harbor,

CA

Birds Treated: 26Mortality: 6Released: 20Release Rate: 77%

January, 1992 - Chevron - Alcatraz Island, CA

Birds Treated: 3Mortality: 1

56

Released: 2Release Rate: 67%

August, 1992 - Unocal - Avila Beach, San Luis

Obispo, CA

Birds Treated: 42Mortality: 26Released: 15Transferred: 1Release Rate: 38

October, 1992 - Green Hill Petroleum - Timbalier

Bay, LA

Birds Treated: 10 Mortality: 0Released: 10 Release Rate: 100% Mammals Treated: 1Mortality: 0Released: 1Release Rate: 100%Total Animals Treated: 11

January, 1993 - Prado Basin - Riverside, CA

Birds Treated: 20Mortality: 10 Released: 10Release Rate: 50%Mammals/Reptiles/Amphibians Treated: 10Mortality: 0Released: 10Release Rate: 100%Total Animals Treated: 30Overall Release Rate: 67%

January, 1994 - Bush - Oxnard, CA

Birds Treated: 46Mortality: 30Release: 16Release Rate: 34%

January, 1994 - Four Corners - Valencia, CA

Birds Treated: 32Mortality: 11Release: 21Release Rate: 66%Mammals Treated: 1Mortality: 0Release: 1

Release Rate: 100%Reptiles Treated: 4Mortality: 1Release: 3Release Rate: 75%Total Animals Treated: 37Overall Release Rate: 68%

June, 1994 - Tidelands - Dominguez Channel,

Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 15Mortality: 0Release: 15Release Rate: 100%

July, 1994 through September, 1994 - Apollo Sea

- Cape Town, South Africa

Approximate numbers from Cape NatureConservationBirds Treated: 9,672Mortality: 4,633Release: 5,003

An additional 86 birds treated at Langebaan and507 abandoned penguin chicks released.

Release Rate: 51.7%

January, 1995 - McDonell Douglas- Long Beach,

CA

Birds Treated: 14Mortality: 9Transfer: 1Reptiles Treated: 1Mortality: 0Release: 5Octopus: 1Mortality: 0Release: 1Release Rate: 36% Release Rate: 100%Total Animals Treated: 16Total Mortality: 9Total Release/Transfer: 7Overall Survival Rate: 44%

January, 1995 - Chevron - Venice, LA

Birds Treated: 24Mortality: 1Release: 23Release Rate: 96%

57

February, 1995 Metrolink - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 96Data currently unavailable

March 11, 1995 Chevron - Kettleman City, CA

Birds Treated: 23Mortality: 5Release: 18Release Rate: 78%

July 7 through September 1, 1995 BHP -

Tasmania, Australia

Birds Treated: 2,124Mortality: 110Release: 2014Release Rate: 95%

September, 1995 - Dyer Spill - Cape Town, South

Africa

Birds Treated: Data not yet availableMortality:Release:Release Rate: %

November 28 through December 15, 1995 -

Back Bay Spill - Newport Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 9Mortality: 7Release: 3Release Rate: 30%

February 21 through March 31, 1996 - Pribilof

Island Spill - Pribilof Islands, AK

Birds Treated: 165Mortality: 35Release: 127Transferred: 3Release Rate: 77%

March 31, 1996 - Evergreen Oil Spill - Newark,

CA

Birds Treated: 2Mortality: 1Release: 1Release Rate: 50%

April 24 & April 25, 1996 - Brea Oil Spill -

Brea, CA

Birds Treated: 8

Release: 8Release Rate: 100%

July 29 through August 11, 1996 - Cerritos

Channel Spill - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 35Mortality: 9Release: 26Release Rate: 74%

October 29 through November 17, 1996 - Cape

Mohican Spill - San Francisco, CA

Birds Treated: 58Mortality: 22Release: 36Release Rate: 63%

November 20 through December 31, 1997 -

Cordigliera Spill - Port Elizebeth, South Africa

Birds Treated: 1,200Mortality:Release:Release Rate: Date not yet available

January 9, through February 1, 1997 - Bollona

Creek Spill - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 160Mortality: 50Release: 100Release Rate: 63%

January through February 19, 1997 - Nakhodka

oil Spill, Japan

Birds Treated: 136Mortality: 49Release: 87Release Rate: 58%

July 17 & 18, 1997 - Penitencia Creek Spill -

Milpitas, CA

Birds Treated: 7Mortality: 1Release: 6Release Rate: 86%

September 29 through October 23, 1997 - Torch

Oil Spill - Lompoc, CA

Birds Treated: 53Mortality: 33Release: 18

58

Transferred: 2Release Rate: 34%

October 25 through Nove m b e r, 1997 -

Fish/Vegetable Oil Spill - Santa Cruz, CA

Birds Treated: 505Mortality: 250Release: 255Release Rate: 50%

N ovember 5 through Nove m b e r, 1997 -

Humboldt Bay Oil Spill - Eureka, CA

Birds Treated: 484Mortality: 177Release: 195Release Rate: 40%

November 16 through December 25, 1997 - Pt.

Reyes Mystery Oil Spill # I, Pt. Reyes, CA

Birds Treated: 303Mortality: 196Release: 79Release Rate: 27%

January 11 through January 20, 1998 - Carson,

CA

Birds Treated: 153Mortality: 6Release: 147Release Rate: 96%

December 26 through March, 1998 - Pt. Reyes

Mystery Oil Spill # II, Pt. Reyes, CA

Birds Treated: 635Mortality: 345Release: 290Release Rate: 46%

February 26 through March 8, 1989 - Santa

Barbara Mystery Spill, Santa Barbara, CA

Birds Treated: 39Mortality: 28Release: 6Release Rate: 23%

June 25, 1998 - Vaya Con Dios Spill, Pacifica, CA

Birds Treated: 1Mortality: 1Release: 0Release Rate: 0%

July, 1998 Lake Union Spill - Seattle, WA

Birds Treated: 5Mortality: 1Release: 4Release Rate: 80%

September 28 through November 6, 1998 -

Command Spill, San Mateo Coastline, CA

Birds Treated: 76Mortality: 46Transferred: 1Release: 29Release Rate: 38 %

September 8 through October 24, 1998 - HMS

Hose Spill - Kauai, HI

Birds Treated: 33Mortality: 14Transferred: 0Release: 19Release Rate: 55%

November 1998 - Pallas Spill, Fohr & Amrum

Island, Germany

Data not yet available

December 14 through 30, 1998 - Winterburg

Channel Spill, Huntington Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 50Mortality: 24Transferred: 0Release: 28Release Rate: 56 %

December 15 through 22, 1998 - El Segundo

Refinery, El Segundo, CA

Birds Treated: 23Mortality: 7Transferred: 0Release: 16Release Rate: 70%

January 7 through January 20, 1999 - Delphi

Heating Oil Spill, Astoria, OR

Birds Treated: 12Mortality: 11Transferred: 0Release: 1Release Rate: 8%

59

January 22 through February, 5 1999 - College

Park Spill - Huntington Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 15Mortality: 3Transferred: 0Release: 12Release Rate: 80%

January 25 through February 9, 1999 - Golden

West Spill, Huntington Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 35Mortality: 14Transferred: 0Release: 21Release Rate: 60%

Feb 8 through March 29, 1999 - New Carissa Oil

Spill, Coos Bay & Waldport, OR

Birds Treated: 175Mortality: 43Transferred: 0Release: 129Release Rate: 74%

June, 1999 - Calloway Canal Spill, Bakersfield, CA

Birds Treated: 25Mortality: 8Transferred: 0Release: 17Release Rate: 68 %

July, 1999 - Davis Golf Course Motor Oil Spill,

Davis, CA

Birds Treated: 11Mortality: 0Transferred: 0Release: 11Release Rate: 100 %

September 1999 - Stuyvesant Oil Spill, Eureka,

CA

Birds Treated: 644Mortality: 354Transferred: 0Release: 288Release Rate: %

October 12 through 14, 1999 - Bollona Creek,

Los Angeles, CA

Birds Treated: 5

Mortality: 0Transferred: 0Release: 5Release Rate: 100 %

O c t o b e r, 1999 Stockdale/Oildale Oil Spill -

Bakerfield, CA

Birds Treated: 21Mortality: 16Transferred: 0Release: 5Release Rate: %

November 25 through Dec. 4 - 1999 Four Bayou

Spill, Grande Isle, LA

Birds Treated: 15Mortality: 0Transferred: 0Release: 15Release Rate: 100%

January 3 through January 31, 2000 - Erika Oil

Spill - Brittany, France

Current numbers as of 5/22/2000Birds live and dead picked up: 63,573Mortality: 61,628Release: 1,945

February, 2000 - Canola Oil Spill - Vancouver,

British Columbia, Canada

Data not yet available

March, 2000 - Malibu Mystery Spill - Malibu, CA

Mortality: 2Transferred: 0Release: 1Release Rate: 33%

March, 1, 2000 -Berkeley Mystery Spill, Berkeley,

CA

Birds Treated: 2Mortality: 2Transferred: 0Release: 0Release Rate: 0%

60

March, 2000 - Hunter’s Point Spill- San Francisco,

CA

Birds Treated: 1Mortality: 1Transferred: 0Release: 0Release Rate: 0%

June, 2000 - Trona Spill #1, Trona, CA

Birds Treated: 18Mortality: 11Release: 7Release Rate: 39 %

September, 2000 - Trona Spill #2, Trona, CA

Birds Treated: 11Mortality: 6Release: 5Release Rate: 45 %

June through September, 2000 - Treasure Spill -

Cape Town, South Africa

Birds Treated: 20,251

Mortality: 1,957Release: 18,200Release Rate: 90 %

November, 2000 - Arco Refinery Spill - Los

Angeles, CA

Birds Treated: 3Mortality: 3Release: 0Release Rate: 0%

January, 2001 - Equalon - Long Beach, CA

Birds Treated: 12Mortality: 1Release: 11Release Rate: 0%

Note: Oil spills where IBRRC was not the leadorganization but assisted other organizations orstate and federal agencies in the management ofthe rehabilitation program.

Updated 11/ 10 / 2000

61

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