econ 2450b, topic 4: education1 - harvard university...econ 2450b, topic 4: education1 nathaniel...
TRANSCRIPT
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Econ 2450B, Topic 4: Education1
Nathaniel Hendren
Harvard
Fall, 2018
1I would like to thank Raj Chetty for sharing his slides on education, which comprise
much of this lecture.
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Education Policy
Up until now: imagined taxable income the result of static e�ort
No role of “endogenous” wages
Human capital!
Large literature on the impact of education on outcomes
Excellent administrative data on inputs and outputs and sharpmicro-level variation
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Education Policy
Main Questions
1 When/why should the government intervene? What do we need toestimate for the welfare impact of intervention?
2 How can we estimate the impact of education policies?
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Motives for Government Intervention
Motives for government interventionSocially ine�cient choices:
Fiscal externalities: higher incomes increase future tax revenue
Externalities on others: more education may reduce crime, make for
more enjoyable conversations, other externalities?
Privately ine�cient choices
Divergence between parent and child preferences
Borrowing constraints: Children cannot e�ciently invest
Optimization failures: individuals misperceive returns to education
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Fiscal Externalities
Part of there return to education falls on the government budgetModel setup
l is labor e�ort (unobserved)y is an individual’s production (observed)q is an individual’s type (unobserved)h is human capital investment (observed)
Arbitrary production:y = f (h, l , q)
Condition for maximizing production for each q:
∂f
∂h= 1
Utilityu (c , l , h, q)
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Bovenberg and Jacobs (2005)
Follow Bovenberg and Jacobs (2005, JPubEc)Assume h only a�ects production of y
QUESTION: What if h only entered the utility function and not the
production function?
Production functiony = qlf (h)
Production maximized for each q i�
qlf0 (h) = 1
Utility
u = c � l1+ 1
e
1 + 1
e
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Hamiltonian
Common method for solving uni-dimensional screening problems: Usea Hamiltonian
Government chooses menu of observable variables,{c (q) , y (q) , h (q)}q to maximize social welfare:
Zu (q)y (q) dq
where u (q) = u
⇣c (q) , y(q)
qf(h(q))
⌘and y (q) is a social welfare weight
Subject to IC constraints and aggregate resource constraints (definedbelow)
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Switch to utility space
Often helpful to solve these problems in utility space, instead ofconsumption space
Define consumption required to obtain utility level u for individualwith income y and human capital h
c (u, l) = u +l1+ 1
e
1 + 1
e
Helpful to have quasilinear utility...why?
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IC and Resource Constraints
Start with IC constraint:
Define utility a type q obtains if they say they are type q:
v�q, q
�= u
�c�q�, y
�q�, h
�q�; q�= c
�q��
y(q)
f(h(q))q
�1+ 1
e
1 + 1
e
IC constraint is (with abuse of notation):
u (q) = maxq v�q, q
�8q
Each type prefers truth-telling
Resource Constraint:Z
T (y (q)) =Z
(y (q)� c (q)) dq � 0
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First Order Approach
Under a single crossing assumption, the global incentive constraintscan be replaced with local incentive constraintsLocal IC constraints described by envelope theorem:
u0 (q) =
∂u
∂q= �
✓y (q)
f (h (q))
◆1+ 1
e d
dq q�(1+ 1
e )
1 + 1
e
= �✓
y (q)f (h (q))
◆1+ 1
e d
dq q�(1+ 1
e )
1 + 1
e
= �✓
y (q)f (h (q))
◆1+ 1
e
q1
e
=1q
✓y (q)
f (h (q))
◆1+ 1
e
Note that u0 (q) > 0. Implies more productive types must get higher
utility...Nathaniel Hendren (Harvard) Education Fall, 2018 10 / 62
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Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian:
Think of q as “time”
u (q) is the state variable (we have a constraint for u0 (q))
Control variables (aka co-state variables): h (q), y (q), and c (q)
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Hamiltonian
H = u (q)y (q)� gIC (q)
2
4 1
q
✓y (q)
f (h (q))
◆1+ 1e
3
5+ gRC
y (q)� h (q)� c
✓u (q) ,
y (q)qf (h (q))
◆�
Key insight: at the optimum, ∂H
∂f (X ) = 0 for all ctsly di� functions ofcontrol variables f (X ).
Trick: substitute back l (q) instead of y (q).
H = u (q)y (q)� gIC (q)1
ql (q)1+
1e + gRC [ql (q) f (h (q))� h (q)� c (u (q) , l (q))]
Now, take derivative wrt h holding l and v constant:
∂H
∂h= gRC
ql (q) f0 (h (q))� 1 � dc
dh|l,v
�= 0
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Full Deductibility
Note that dc
dh|l ,v = 0, so that:
ql (q) f0 (h (q)) = 1
All education expenses, h, should not be taxed!
If all income is taxed, then h should be deductible.
How general is this?
Depends on shape of incentive constraints (Stantcheva 2013).
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Stantcheva 2016
Consider general case: y (q) = f (h, q):
v�q, q
�= c
�q��
y(q)
f(h(q),q)
�1+ 1
e
1 + 1
e
Then, IC constraints imply:
v0 (q) =
"y�q�
f�h�q�, q�# 1
ey (q) ∂f
∂q
f2=
"y�q�
f�h�q�, q�#1+ 1
e ∂f∂q
f
Note∂f∂qf does NOT depend on h when f = hq.
The general IC constraint now enters derivative of H wrt h
Hicksian coe�cient of complementarity:
r =∂2f∂q∂h
f∂f∂q
∂f∂h
Subsidize human capital more (less) than taxes if r < 1 (r > 1)Nathaniel Hendren (Harvard) Education Fall, 2018 14 / 62
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Weak Separability (Hendren + Kaplow ongoing...)
Can frame this as weak separability / Atkinson-Stiglitz:
Note that
u (c , y , h; q) = u (v (c , h) , y ; q) =) h, c same tax rate
implies tax h as consumption
Similarly
u (c , y , h; q) = u (c , v (y , h) ; q) =) h, y same tax rate
implies tax y as pre-tax income (i.e. don’t tax it!)
Sigh...turns out we didn’t need the Hamiltonian at all!
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Externalities
Education provides fiscal externalities
What about other externalities?
Ex: crime, voting behavior, others’ wage rates
Classic Pigouvian externality (recall ∂u
∂E
dE
dq )
Focus here on Lochner and Moretti (2003), who study e�ects ofschooling on imprisonment using 1960-80 Census data
Research design: changes in state compulsory schooling laws thata�ect cohorts di�erentially
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Impact of Schooling Laws on Educational Attainment
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E�ect of Years of Schooling on Imprisonment
Source: Lochner and Moretti 2003
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Externalities: Lochner and Moretti (2003)
Lochner and Moretti show an extra year of schooling reducesincarceration rates significantly
0.1 pct decline for white males relative to a mean of 1%
0.3 pct decline for black males relative to mean of 3%
Gap in schooling between whites and blacks accounts for more thanone-fourth of di�erence in crime rates
Externality from crime reduction is about 20% of private return
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Private Optimization
Socially ine�cient choices provide rationale for governmentintervention
Suggests need to measure externalities
But only externalities?
But what about the impact of education on children? Can this matterfor welfare?
Not if investment is privately e�cient
Do children privately optimize their choice of eduction?
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Private Optimization
Becker: YesChild-parent bargaining leads to e�cient allocation
Even if parent and child preferences di�er
Why?Parents invest and children repay in future (or take less bequest)Implies optimal investment in human capital as long as bequests arepositive (Becker and Tomes)
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Becker
Child utilityuk (ck , lk)
Earnings given byyk = f (lk , hk ; qk)
Budget constraintck yk + t
where t is transfers from parents
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Becker
Parents altruistic utilityup (cp, lp, uk)
Budget constraintcp + t + h fp (lp; qp)
Note: t and h do not a�ect up other than through uk .Therefore, choose t versus h to maximize uk .Should be indi�erent to $1 more of h and $1 less of t:
∂f
∂h= 1
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Private Optimization
Optimal private investment requires no constraints on t and h
Optimal allocation may involve t < 0...feasible?Key questions:
Are there borrowing constraints?Do individuals / parents know the returns to education?
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Borrowing Constraints
U.S. govt. disbursed $47 billion in grant aid and loans in 2000
Does this have a significant causal e�ect on college attendance?
Dynarski (2003) studies elimination of SSA program to provide aid tostudents with deceased or disabled SSA beneficiaries in 1982
Average annual payment to children attending college with deceasedparent pre-1982 was $6,700
DD estimates of impacts on college attendance using NLSY data
Treatment group: children with deceased father
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E�ect of SSA college aid on probability of attending college
Source: Dynarski 2003Nathaniel Hendren (Harvard) Education Fall, 2018 26 / 62
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Optimal Level of Investment in Education
Reason to think that human capital is privately and sociallyunder-provided
Setting riddled with externalitiesCan’t just rely on envelope theorem and private optimization forwelfare analysis
Exercise: If human capital is mis-allocated, then causal e�ect of
policies on private choices a�ects private welfare
Key empirical objects of interest:Impact of investment in education on outcomes
Tax revenue (FE)
Externalities (dE
dq )
Earnings? Under what conditions does this measure∂U
∂G
l ?
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Large Literature Looking at Impact of Education Policies
Common outcome: test scores
More recent estimates of long-run outcomes
Focus here: Head Start
Two empirical approaches:
Quasi-experimental approach: e.g. Deming (2009)
Experimental Approach: HSIS
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Siblings Design: Deming (2009)
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Siblings Design: Deming (2009)
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Hamilton Project Summary
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BUT! HSIS Finds minimal e�ect
Head Start Impact Study
Randomized controlled trial
Finds minimal e�ect of being o�ered head start!
Quasi-experimental design flawed?
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!0.3%
!0.2%
!0.1%
0%
0.1%
0.2%
0.3%
0.4%
0.5%
Age%3% Age%4% Kindergarten% 1st%Grade%
IV#Es&mates#of#Test#Score#Impacts#
3%year!old%cohort% 4%year!old%cohort%
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Evaluating Public Programs with CloseSubstitutes: The Case of Head Start
Patrick Kline Christopher Walters
UC Berkeley and NBER
November 2016
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This Paper
Revisit HSIS results in view of wide availability of substitutepreschools
Key facts:
1/3 of HSIS control group attended other preschools
Fraction increased after first year of experiment
Most of these preschools were publicly funded
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Cost-Benefit Analysis
Basic cost-benefit analysis: would it pay o↵ to admit an extraperson into Head Start?
Toy model: focus on a single benefit (earnings) and compareto impact on government budget
When market for preschool substitutes clears:
IV-LATE is policy-relevant benefit
But costs need to be adjusted for “fiscal externalities”
When substitutes are rationed: LATE is not enough
Empirical analysis:
PDV projected earnings impacts ⇠ HS enrollment costsBut accounting for public savings ) Benefits > CostsWith rationing: Benefits � Costs
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Technology vs Market Structure
Develop selection model parameterizing heterogeneity in e↵ects of Head
Start vs home care / other preschools
Identify using interactions of experimental status withhousehold and site characteristicsDecompose LATE into “subLATE’s” with respect to particular
alternatives
Predict e↵ects of changing selection into the program
Findings:
Head Start and other preschools have roughly equivalent average
impacts on test scores relative to home care
“Reverse-Roy” selection: those with lowest gains most likely to
participate
Rate of return can be raised further by drawing in new populations
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Background on Head Start
Enrolls one million 3- and 4- year-olds at a cost of $8 billionper year
Grants awarded to public, private non-profit, and for-profitorganizations
Eligibility: 100% of FPL, with some exceptions
Competing center-based care programs are ubiquitous:
State preschool programsTANFChild Care Development Fund (CCDF)
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The Head Start Impact Study
1998 Head Start reauthorization included a mandate todetermine program’s e↵ects: resulted in the HSIS, alarge-scale randomized trial
Stratified random sample of Head Start centers
Baseline randomization in Fall 2002Two age cohorts: 55% age 3, 45% age 4
We focus on summary index of cognitive outcomes basedupon average of PPVT and WJ III test scores
Normed to have mean zero, std dev. one in control group eachyear
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Other centers attended Head Start Other centers by c -> h compliers
Largest funding source (1) (2) (3)Head Start 0.842 0.027 0.038
Parent fees 0.004 0.153 0.191
Child and adult care food program 0.011 0.026 0.019
State pre-K program 0.004 0.182 0.155
Child care subsidies 0.013 0.097 0.107
Other funding or support 0.022 0.118 0.113
No funding or support 0.000 0.003 0.001
Missing 0.105 0.394 0.375
Table 3: Funding Sources
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Other centers attended Head Start Other centers by c -> h compliers
Largest funding source (1) (2) (3)Head Start 0.842 0.027 0.038
Parent fees 0.004 0.153 0.191
Child and adult care food program 0.011 0.026 0.019
State pre-K program 0.004 0.182 0.155
Child care subsidies 0.013 0.097 0.107
Other funding or support 0.022 0.118 0.113
No funding or support 0.000 0.003 0.001
Missing 0.105 0.394 0.375
Table 3: Funding Sources
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Other centers attended Head Start Other centers by c -> h compliers
Largest funding source (1) (2) (3)Head Start 0.842 0.027 0.038
Parent fees 0.004 0.153 0.191
Child and adult care food program 0.011 0.026 0.019
State pre-K program 0.004 0.182 0.155
Child care subsidies 0.013 0.097 0.107
Other funding or support 0.022 0.118 0.113
No funding or support 0.000 0.003 0.001
Missing 0.105 0.394 0.375
Table 3: Funding Sources
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Other centers attended Head Start Other centers by c -> h compliers
Largest funding source (1) (2) (3)Head Start 0.842 0.027 0.038
Parent fees 0.004 0.153 0.191
Child and adult care food program 0.011 0.026 0.019
State pre-K program 0.004 0.182 0.155
Child care subsidies 0.013 0.097 0.107
Other funding or support 0.022 0.118 0.113
No funding or support 0.000 0.003 0.001
Missing 0.105 0.394 0.375
Table 3: Funding Sources
Inputs
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Benefits and Costs of Head Start
Benefits
Increased earnings
Tuition / time savings forparents
Reductions in crime
Health improvements
Net Costs
Administrative costs
Reduced funding ofcompeting preschoolprograms
Extra tax revenue from moreproductive children
Extra tax revenue fromparents Table
Reduced participation intransfer programs
Savings from reduced graderepetition / Special Ed
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Standard approach (CEA, 2015)
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Notes: This figure plots predicted test score effects and marginal values of public funds for various values of the program feature f , which shifts the utility of Head Start attendance. Horizontal axes shows the Head Start attendance rate at each f , and a vertical line indicates the HSIS attendance rate (f = 0). Panel A shows marginal treatment effects and competing preschool compliance shares. The left axis measures test score effects. MTE h is the average effect for marginal students, while MTE nh and MTE ch are effects for subgroups of marginal students drawn from home care and other preschools. The right axis measures the share of marginal students drawn from other preschools. The shaded region shows a 90-percent symmetric bootstrap confidence interval for MTE h . Panel B shows predicted marginal values of public funds for structural reforms, using the same parameter calibrations as Table IV. P -values come from bootstrap tests of the hypothesis that the marginal value of public funds is less than or equal to one at f = 0.
Panel A. Test score effects Panel B. Marginal value of public funds
Figure I. Effects of Structural Reforms
.35
.4.4
5.5
Oth
er p
resc
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com
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r sha
re
-.10
.1.2
.3.4
.5.6
Test
sco
re e
ffect
(std
. dev
.)
.2 .4 .6 .8Head Start attendance rate
MTEh MTEnh
Sc MTEch
p-values forMVPF≤1:
p = 0.00
p = 0.10
p = 0.59
01
23
4M
argi
nal v
alue
of p
ublic
fund
s
.2 .4 .6 .8Head Start attendance rate
φc = 0.75φh, η = 0 φc = 0, η= 0φc = 0.75φh, η = 0.5
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Additional Literature
RCTs aren’t always available
And, often di�cult to see long-run outcomes.
Focus on three quasi-experimental policy variations here:Classes (and class size)TeachersSchools
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Class Size
Robust evidence that smaller class sizes improve outcomes
Quasi-experimental evidence: RD estimates using maximum class sizelimits (Angrist and Lavy 1997, Fredriksson et al. 2013)
Angrist and Lavy: test score impacts in Israel
Fredriksson et al.: long-term impacts in Sweden
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Angrist and Lavy, 1999 QJE
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RD Evidence: Class Size vs. Enrollment in Grade 4
Source: Fredriksson et al. (QJE 2013)Nathaniel Hendren (Harvard) Education Fall, 2018 31 / 62
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Test Scores at Age 13 vs. Enrollment in Grade 4
Source: Fredriksson et al. (QJE 2013)
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Earnings vs. Enrollment in Grade 4
Source: Fredriksson et al. (QJE 2013)Nathaniel Hendren (Harvard) Education Fall, 2018 33 / 62
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Class Size
Experimental evidence: Project STAR (Krueger 1999, Chetty et al.2011)
Random assignment of 12,000 kids in Tennessee to classrooms ingrades K-3 in mid 1980’s
Small classes: 15 students, large classes: 23 students
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STAR Experiment: Impacts of Class Size
Source: Chetty et al. (QJE 2011)
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Project STAR
Project STAR also provides random allocation of children toclassroomsMaybe more than class size matters?Idea: Look for impact of unobservables of classroom (teacher,students, etc.)Notation: child i randomly assigned to classroom c
Define s�i ,c to be the test scores of other children in the classroomMeasured at the end of the school year
yi = a + bs�i,c + ei
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STAR: Impact of Class Size (Chetty et al 2011)Figure 4a: Effect of Early Childhood Class Quality on Own Score
Ow
n Te
st S
core
Per
cent
ile
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
-20 -10 0 10 20
Class Quality (End-of-Year Peer Scores)
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STAR: Impacts of Class Size (Chetty et al 2011)Figure 4c: Effect of Early Childhood Class Quality on Earnings
Mea
n W
age
Ear
ning
s, 2
005-
2007
Class Quality (End-of-Year Peer Scores)
$15.0K
$15.5K
$14.5K
$16.0K
$16.5K
$17.0K
-20 -10 0 10 20
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STAR: Impacts of Class Size (Chetty et al 2011)Figure 5a: Effect of Class Quality on Earnings by Year
Wag
e E
arni
ngs
$875
$8K
$10K
$12K
$14K
$16K
$18K
2000 2002 2004 2006 Year
Below-Average Class Quality Above-Average Class Quality
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Teacher Value-Added Metrics
Classes matter. Is this:Teachers?Peers?Quality of the blackboard?The air?
How do we isolate the impact of teachers?Common method: value added modeling (Hanushek (1971), Murnane(1975), Kane and Staiger (2008), Rothstein (2010)
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Debate About Teacher Value-Added
Basic idea: measure teacher’s impact on child test scores byconditioning on lagged test scores
1 Potential for bias [Kane and Staiger 2008, Rothstein 2010]
Do di�erences in test-score gains across teachers capture causal
impacts of teachers or are they driven by student sorting?
2 Lack of evidence on teachers’s long-term impactsDo teachers who raise test scores improve students’ long-term
outcomes or are they simply better at teaching to the test?
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Chetty, Friedman, Rocko� 2014
Chetty, Friedman, Rocko� (2014a,b) study 2.5 million children fromchildhood to early adulthood
1 Develop new quasi-experimental tests for bias in VA estimates
2 Test if children who get high VA teachers have better outcomes inadulthood
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Constructing Value-Added Estimates
Model the estimation of VA as a forecasting problem
Simplest case: teachers teach one class per year with N students
All teachers have test score data available for t previous years
Objective: predict test scores for students taught by teacher j in yeart + 1 using test score data from previous t years
Define µj,t+1 as forecasted impact of teacher j in year t + 1
Use test scores from teacher’s past classes from 0 to time t
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Constructing Value-Added Estimates
Three steps to estimate VA (µj,t+1) for teacher j in year t + 1
1 Form residual test scores Ais , controlling for observables Xis
Regress raw test scores A⇤is
on observable student characteristics Xis ,
including prior test scores A⇤i ,s�1
2 Regress mean class-level test score residuals in year t on class-level testscore residuals in years 0 to t � 1:
Ajt = a + yt�1Aj,t�1 + ...+ y0Aj0 + #jt
3 Use estimated coe�cients y1,. . . , yt to predict VA in year t + 1 basedon mean test score residuals in years 1 to t for each teacher j :
µj,t+1 =t
Âs=1
ys Ajs
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Constructing Value-Added Estimates
Two special cases:
1 Forecast VA in year t using data from only year t � s:
µjt = rs Aj,t�s
where rs = Corr (At , At�s ) is autocorrelation at lag s
2 Without drift, put equal weight on all prior scores:
µjt = A�t
j
s2µ
s2µ+(s2
q +s2e /n)/T
Bayesian interpretation: shrinkage based on signal-noise ratio (Kaneand Staiger 2008)Why does this deal with measurement error in Aj,t?
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Autocorrelation Vector in Elementary School
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Distribution of VA Estimates
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Test Score Residuals vs. VA in Cross-Section
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Are VA Estimates Biased?
Let g denote causal impact of 1 unit increase in teacher’s estimatedVA on student’s test score
Define forecast bias as B = 1 � g
Ideal experiment to estimate forecast bias (Kane and Staiger 2008):randomly assign students to teachers with di�erent VA estimates
Does a student who is randomly assigned to a teacher previouslyestimated to be high VA have higher test score gains?
Use teacher switching as a quasi-experimental analog
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Teacher Switchers in School-Grade-Subject-Year Data
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Impact of High VA Teacher Entry on Cohort Test Scores
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Impact of High VA Teacher Exit on Cohort Test Scores
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Changes in Mean Scores vs. Changes in Mean Teacher VA
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Estimates of Forecast Bias with Alternative Control Vectors
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Impacts of Schools: Combining Lotteries and Value Added
Large literature exploiting lotteries for over-subscribed schools
Use lottery to generate exogenous variation in child assignment toschools
Note: Schools (as opposed to Classes and Teachers)
Estimates of more bias at school level (e.g. B = 0.1 � 0.2)
Angrist et al. (2016): Combine Value Added and Lotteries
Lotteries available for some schools (but noisy)Value added available for all schools
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Angrist et al. (2016)
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Impacts on Outcomes in Adulthood
Do teachers who raise test scores also improve students’ long-runoutcomes?
CFR, paper #2: Regress long-term outcomes on teacher-level VAestimates
Then validate using cross-cohort switchers design
Interpretation of these reduced-form coe�cients (Todd and Wolpin2003):
Impact of having better teacher, as measured by VA, for single yearduring grades 4-8 on earnings
Includes benefit of better teachers, peers, etc. in later grades viatracking
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College Attendance at Age 20 vs. Teacher Value-added
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Earnings at Age 28 vs. Teacher Value-Added
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Women with Teenage Births vs. Teacher Value-Added
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Unanswered Questions
Many important questions remain
Distributional incidence: Are some teachers better at teaching sometypes of students?
Which grades are most important?
Optimal allocation of students to classes/teachers/peers
Redistribution vs. e�ciency tradeo�?
GE E�ects:
Evidence of Peer E�ects (Hoxby, 2000) using cohort variation
Benefits capitalized into housing prices
Even for school choice policies de-linked from neighborhood choice
(Avery and Pathak (2015, NBER WP #21525))
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Welfare Implications
More broadly, value-added methodology can be used in othercontexts:
Tax preparer e�ects, manager e�ects, doctor e�ects, neighborhoode�ects (next topic...)
Quasi-experimental designs growing in applied work
Can validate using experimental evidence
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