effects of informal/formal activities on effective traffic...
TRANSCRIPT
EFFECTS OF INFORMAL/FORMAL ACTIVITIES ON EFFECTIVE TRAFFIC FLOW
ALONG KARATINA – NYERI HIGHWAY
BY
MWANGI FREDRICK GACHAGUA
B65/53704/2012
A Planning Research Project Submitted In Partial Fulfilment for the
Requirements of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in Urban and Regional
Planning
DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
JUNE, 2016
ii | P a g e
DECLARATION
I, Mwangi Fredrick Gachagua, do hereby declare that this research project is my
original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university
Signed: ………………………………………. Date: …………/……………/20…….
Mwangi Fredrick Gachagua
(Candidate)
This Research project has been submitted for examination with my approval as
the University Supervisor.
Signed: ………………………………………. Date: …………/………/20…….
Prof. S.Akatch
(Supervisor)
iii | P a g e
DEDICATION
To my beloved family, my loving Dad (Peterson) and Mom (Catherine), my supportive friends
and all planners, this I dedicate.
iv | P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Firstly, I would like to give thanks to the Almighty God for giving me good healthy to enable me
to get this far and to pursue this course.
I would like to sincerely thank my supervisor Prof. S.Akatch, My tutors Dr.Opiyo and Mr.
Maleche for the great help and motivation they gave me through then entire process of
compiling my study. Their positive criticisms and encouragements propelled me into
completing the project to the required standards.
My sincere gratitude goes to my dad and mother for their support during this four year period,
the sacrifices they made and their prayers throughout my life.
Lastly I would like to thank my classmates (class 2012- 2016) for their undivided assistance
during the four years course period and the general support we have offered each other thank
you and God Bless you all.
v | P a g e
ABSTRACT Formal and informal activities which are uncontrolled, along roads are some of the main causes
of traffic conflicts. These conflicts take a variety of dimensions, and depend on different actors
and different circumstances in the transport sector. They inhibit the transport sector from
performing its role in respect to national, regional and international economies. This study
focuses on the effects of informal/formal activities on effective traffic flow along Karatina –
Nyeri highway.
The objectives of this study were to;
To determine the factors that attract activities to the road reserves
To identify the types of activities and developments are along the road reserve.
To investigate how these activities affect the transport system
To investigate the existing planning measures put in place to try and control these
roadside developments
To develop desired solutions
The methodology used in this study included data collection by use of structured questionnaires,
observations, photography and information from key informants, data analysis and presentation
The findings of the study indicated that the efficiency of the highway was affected by, the
narrow carriage way negatively affected, rogue informal businesses along the road reserves, lack
of footbridges, lack of footpaths and lack of organization of developments.
Some of the recommendations to these findings were Registration of all the informal business
along the highway designating strategy locations along the highway as trading centers connected
by service lanes and parking lots ,operation length of at least 20m from the highway reserves,
creation of buffer zone between the modified kiosk and the highway ,demolition and relocation
,provision of acceleration and deceleration lanes ,provision of rightful permits according to
zoning ordinance for a controlled development, construction of frontage roads and construction
of footpaths
vi | P a g e
List of Figures Figure 1 Zoning of land .............................................................................................................................. 15
Figure 2: Classifications of work for Karatina town. .................................................................................. 42
Figure 3 The dependency ratio in Karatina ................................................................................................. 43
Figure 4 Life Expectancy in Nyeri County ................................................................................................. 44
List of Graphs Graph 1: Fertility rate of Nyeri County....................................................................................................... 40
Graph 2: Population Composition of Nyeri County ................................................................................... 40
Graph 3: Population Projections and growth trends in Nyeri County ........................................................ 41
Graph 4 The total gender respondents for zone A ...................................................................................... 49
Graph 5 Reason for location of the businesses .......................................................................................... 53
Graph 6 : Reason for location of Businesses zone B .................................................................................. 54
Graph 7 Reason for location of Businesses zone A .................................................................................... 54
Graph 8 Reason for location of Businesses Zone B .................................................................................... 55
Graph 9 Ages of business owners at Zone A .............................................................................................. 55
Graph 10 Age percentages for Zone B ........................................................................................................ 56
Graph 11 Composition of Businesses ......................................................................................................... 60
List of line graphs Line Graph 1 World Urbanization prospects .............................................................................................. 23
List of Maps Map 1 Roads in Kenya ................................................................................................................................ 26
Map 2 ZONE A LAND USE MAP ............................................................................................................ 47
Map 3 stretch within Zone A ...................................................................................................................... 52
Map 4 Stretch within zone B....................................................................................................................... 53
vii | P a g e
List of Pictures Picture 1: The paths of the great North Road within Kenya ....................................................................... 27
Picture 2 Paths of the great North Road within Africa ............................................................................... 28
Picture 3Nyeri county government receipt for informal traders. ................................................................ 59
List of tables Table 1 Matrix............................................................................................................................................. 10
Table 2 Kenya road inventory ..................................................................................................................... 27
Table 3 Karatina Bus terminal .................................................................................................................... 45
List of acronyms
GIS Geographic Information System
G.o.K Government of Kenya
GPS Global Positioning System
KENHA Kenya National Highway Authority
KNHPC Kenya National Housing and Population Census
KURA Kenya Urban Roads Authority
NEMA National Environment Management Authority
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
viii | P a g e
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EFFECTS OF INFORMAL/FORMAL ACTIVITIES ON EFFECTIVE TRAFFIC FLOW ALONG KARATINA – NYERI
HIGHWAY ....................................................................................................................................................... i
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................................................. iv
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Graphs ............................................................................................................................................... vi
List of line graphs ........................................................................................................................................ vi
List of Maps ................................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Pictures ............................................................................................................................................ vii
List of tables................................................................................................................................................ vii
LIST OF ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER ONE: ........................................................................................................................................ 2
1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Problem statement ............................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Research Purpose .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Research Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 6
1.5 Research Assumptions ...................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Hypothesis .......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7 Justification ....................................................................................................................................... 6
1.8. Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.9. Organization of the study ................................................................................................................ 7
1.11. Study Methodology ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.11.1. Sampling Method .................................................................................................................... 8
1.11.2 Primary data ............................................................................................................................. 8
1.11.3 Secondary data ....................................................................................................................... 10
1.11.4. Data Matrix ........................................................................................................................... 10
ix | P a g e
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 11
2.1 OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................................... 11
2.2. Functional use of road reserves .................................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Footpaths infrastructure for pedestrian use .............................................................................. 12
2.3. Roads reserves and utility amenities constructed along road reserves ..................................... 13
2.3. Influence of highways to the land adjacent to roads ............................................................... 14
2.4. Studies on formal and informal sector in developed and developing countries ....................... 15
2.4.1 Informal activities in less developed countries ...................................................................... 15
2.4.2 Informal activities studies about developed countries .......................................................... 16
2.4.3 The relationship between the formal and informal sector ................................................... 18
2.4.4 Reasons, Motives, and Causes of Informalization ................................................................. 20
2.5. Urban planning and the informal Sector in developing Countries ........................................... 21
2.6 Urban poverty as a contributor to informal activities ................................................................. 22
2.6 Urban transportation problems ..................................................................................................... 23
2.7. Road influence to adjacent land ................................................................................................... 24
2.8 Road design guide in Kenya ........................................................................................................... 25
2.9. Building line .................................................................................................................................... 26
2.10. Transportation in Kenya ................................................................................................................ 26
2.10.1 Roads in Kenya ...................................................................................................................... 26
2.11 The great North road. ................................................................................................................... 27
2.12 legal framework ............................................................................................................................ 29
2.12.2 Development control of formal and informal activities (The Physical Planning Act
Revised Edition 2012.) ...................................................................................................................... 30
2.12.3 Road reserves protection (The Traffic Act (Revised Edition 2014) ................................... 33
2.12.4. Decentralization of services (County Government Act 2012) ........................................... 34
2.12.5 National Land Management (National Land commission Act of 2012) ............................ 34
2.12.6 Land Acquisition (Land Acquisition Act) ............................................................................ 35
2.12.7 Urban Areas and Cities Act NO. 13 0f 2011 ........................................................................ 35
3.3. Existing policies guiding development along Karatina- Nyeri highway ................................... 35
x | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA ........................................................ 37
3.0 Overview .......................................................................................................................................... 37
3.1 Background history of Karatina and Karatina- Nyeri highway ................................................ 37
3.1.1 History of Karatina .................................................................................................................. 37
3.1.2 Geography ................................................................................................................................ 38
3.1.3 Tourism ..................................................................................................................................... 38
3.1.4 Karatina Culture ...................................................................................................................... 38
3.1.5 Karatina Market ...................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.6 University .................................................................................................................................. 39
3.1.7 Schools ....................................................................................................................................... 39
3.1.8 Population ................................................................................................................................. 40
3.2 Description of the study area ......................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................. 47
4.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................... 47
4.2 Socio-economic background of the respondents .................................................................... 48
4.2.1 Age composition of respondents for both formal and informal businesses ........................ 48
4.2.2 Gender composition of respondents for both formal and informal businesses .................. 49
4.3. Factors encouraging location of the businesses along the Karatina-Nyeri Highway ............... 52
4.3.1. Availability of Customers ....................................................................................................... 52
4.3.2 Lack of another site.................................................................................................................. 54
4.3.3. High Rates of Unemployment among youths ....................................................................... 55
4.3.4 Business which pay license fees ................................................................................................... 56
4.3.5 Rents paid by traders along the Karatina-Nyeri Highway ...................................................... 57
4.4. Types of activities along the road reserves .............................................................................. 59
4.6. Summary of the findings ............................................................................................................... 61
CHAPTER FIVE: PLANNING IMPLICATIONS ................................................................................ 63
5.1. Increasing Urbanization and Population ..................................................................................... 63
5.2 Encroachment by Uncontrolled Development.............................................................................. 63
xi | P a g e
5.3 Inadequate and ineffective market facilities ................................................................................. 63
5.4 Inappropriate carriage way standards ......................................................................................... 63
5.5. Inadequate sewer and storm water drainage system .................................................................. 64
5.6 Inappropriate solid waste management mechanism .................................................................... 64
5.7 Lack of implementation of the controlling and regulating legal policies ................................... 64
5.8 Proposed Alternative Approaches for improving the efficient and effective traffic flow along
Karatina- Nyeri Road ........................................................................................................................... 64
5.8.1. Alternative 1: Provision of Adequate and Accommodative marketing facilities in Mathira
Sub-County followed by demolition and relocation of informal businesses along the highway. ....... 64
5.8.2 Alternative 2 ............................................................................................................................. 65
5.8.3 Alternative 3 ............................................................................................................................. 66
5.8.4. Alternative 4 ............................................................................................................................ 67
5.8.5 Preferred Alternative: Integration Approach (Alternative 2 & 3) ...................................... 67
CHAPTER SIX: RECOMMEDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ....................................................... 68
Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 68
6.0. RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................................... 68
6.1. Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 68
6.2. SHORT TERM RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 68
6.2.1. Registration of all the informal business along the highway ............................................... 68
6.2.2. Designating strategy locations along the highway as trading centers connected by service
lanes and parking lots ....................................................................................................................... 68
6.2.3. Only Properly Designed formal trading hubs meeting certain standard requirements
should be allowed along the road ..................................................................................................... 69
6.2.4. Operation length of at least 20m from the highway reserves .............................................. 69
6.2.5. Creation of buffer zone between the modified kiosk and the highway .............................. 70
6.3. LONG TERM ................................................................................................................................. 70
6.3.1. Removal of the carriage way bumps near Uchumi Supermarket and Total supermarket
............................................................................................................................................................ 70
6.3.2. Demolition and relocation ...................................................................................................... 70
6.3.3. Provision of acceleration and deceleration lanes .................................................................. 70
xii | P a g e
6.3.4. Provision of rightful permits according to zoning ordinance for a controlled development
............................................................................................................................................................ 70
6.3.5. Development of standard accommodative markets in Mathira Sub-County .................... 70
6.3.6. Construction of footpaths ........................................................................................................... 71
6.3.7 Construction of frontage roads ................................................................................................... 71
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 71
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 73
2 | P a g e
EFFECTS OF INFORMAL/FORMAL ACTIVITIES ON EFFECTIVE
TRAFFIC FLOW ALONG KARATINA – NYERI HIGHWAY
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between two places. Roads are basically smoothened,
paved or prepared so as to allow easy travel; though they need not be. Historically many roads
were recognizable routes without any formal construction or maintenance and some of the early
roads that almost closely related to modern ones are the roman roads.
Roads are also described as linkages/channels/networks, elements that connect various objects
of the urban system to enhance flow. An active system is one where there is a level of flow from
one element to another.
Channels include roads, railways, airways, water routes, telecommunication lines and air waves.
The rapidly urban development and the increased globalization of major cities in the world have
drastically increased the quantities of passengers and freight moving within urban areas due to
interdependence. Due to the increased distance the travel speed has increased dramatically with
improvement of transport channels and networks.
Transport has many benefits for both commercial and personal use. Transport allows personal
mobility of both work and leisure activities. A well-developed transport system mostly in the
developed country has encouraged planning for residential suburb areas as mobility has been
greatly advance and also there is also a wide variety. People in most industrialized countries now
have a much wider choice of where they can live in relation to their employment than they
enjoyed in the past. They also have access to much wider and more diverse range of leisure
pursuits- a fact of no small consequences as more time is given over to non-work activities.
Transport provides a vital linkage to trade and has allowed the advantages of geographical
specialization in production to be more fully exploited.
A travel way can be referred to a location in space which passengers and goods flow on. Roads
are therefore man made travel ways on land where land vehicles are transmitted through; in
Kenya roads make the major travel way being the most frequently used and readily available.
The land vehicle includes animal drawn, those propelled by people such as bicycles and hand
carts and those propelled by motors. In urban areas vehicle drawn in Kenya take the smallest
share due to the urban environment.
In urban areas travel ways consist of:
Local streets/ access streets; these are the lowest rank in the urban transportation
network and their core function is accessibility. They serve to provide access to
3 | P a g e
individual plots at low speeds and don not accommodate heavy commercial vehicles.
They have a road reserve of 9-12 meters.
Collector streets/ secondary distributors; having a road reserve of 12-24 meters, these
roads filter traffic from local streets and conduct them to the arterials or to local traffic
generators including shopping centers and community centers.
Arterial streets/primary distributors; these move large volumes of vehicles from one
zone of the town to the other usually at very high speeds. They are mostly dual carriage
roads with a road reserve of 50-70 meters and access to private property is usually
restricted.
Urban highways; usually connect one town to the other or two different sections of the
same town. They are usually access free dual carriage roads and convey traffic at a very
high speed.
Intensive use of road infrastructures especially for the transport sector is an important component
of the economy and a common tool used for development. This is even more so in a global
economy where economic opportunities have been increasingly related to the mobility of people,
goods and information. A relation between the quantity and quality of transport infrastructure
and the level of economic development is apparent. High density transport infrastructure and
highly connected networks are commonly associated with high levels of development. When
transport systems are efficient, they provide economic and social opportunities and benefits that
result in positive multipliers effects such as better accessibility to markets, employment and
additional investments. Transport systems have their downsides such as congestions and this has
economic cost such as reduced or missed opportunities and lower quality of life. Authors: Dr.
Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom
However Congestion is termed as an indication of a growing economy where capacity and
infrastructure have difficulties keeping up with the rising mobility demands. Along these roads
with congestion especially in developing societies often are endowed with large numbers of
small informal businesses (often concentrated at transport intersections and adjacent to formal
business centres) that are undifferentiated from other surrounding competitors. Often these
informal entrepreneurs are an unproductive entrepreneurship is essentially business formation
aimed at survival in a situation of unemployment and poverty and is particularly prevalent in the
informal sector. This distinction between productive and unproductive entrepreneurs closely
resembles the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (Herrington et al. 2010) categories of
entrepreneurs who pursue business opportunities (opportunity entrepreneurs) and those who are
involved in entrepreneurial endeavors because they have no other choice of work (necessity
entrepreneurs). Necessity entrepreneurs are strongly associated with the informal economy,
representing a large percentage of economic activities in developing societies and countries
(Schneider & Klinglmair2004).
Urban area developments take place along the road reserves as the traders seek to have
interactions with their clientele. Traders usually setup informal businesses along the road
4 | P a g e
reserves technically pushing pedestrians on the highway carriageway. The human traffic along
the highway causes human conflicts along the road thus slowing traffic flow. For the formal
businesses such as petrol stations, supermarkets and restaurants, traffic flow is disrupted mostly
when road users‘ access or exit these facilities. The disruption is either through human conflicts
while people cross the road to access the facilities mostly during peak hours or during weekends
through the occurrence of accidents. The other form of disruption is vehicular conflicts,
vehicular traffic disruption happens when vehicular traffic needs to either turn left or right to
access the various business and social facilities. A major traffic conflict occurs since the vehicles
first need to stop and request a way of passage before making the turn. The other area of
vehicular conflict occurs as the vehicles exist these facilities and back to the highway carriage
since again the need to disrupt traffic flow especially during peak hours arises. Most of the
conflicts in all these cases take the form of accidents, and slowing down the speed of flow of
traffic along the highway.
1.2 Problem statement
Planning for roads is part of planning for transportation. Road transport is the most commonly
used mode of transport worldwide. In Kenya the road transport network accounts for over 80%
of the country‘s total passenger and 76% of freight traffic. Kenya's road network consists of
about 64000 kilometers of classified road system giving a total of about 177000 kilometers of
road networks. Classified road system can be differentiated into three main types of roads which
can help in understanding the difference. Firstly, the international trunk roads which are main
roads or highways, running to the neighboring countries such as Ethiopia, Somalia, Tanzania,
Uganda and Sudan, National trunk roads and the Primary road system which links important
provincial urban centers.
The unclassified road system, also known as the secondary or minor road system, falls under the
responsibility of county government, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, the
Ministry of Tourism and other organizations. The surface of these roads is mainly gravel or earth
standard and the entire length reaches almost 32,000 km, out of which less than 3% are paved.
These roads serve mostly local needs and provide general access to the rural areas by linking
them together. (Kolossa – The Kenyan Transport System)
The urban road networks covers approximately 10,000 kilometers (5.6%) of the total road
network but with a carrying capacity of over 70% of all vehicles in the country (Draft national
transport policy 2004).
Karatina-Nyeri highway is a segment of the great North road officially referred to as Kenol-
Marwa, the highway passes through the heart of Karatina town which is 137 km North of
Nairobi and lies between the coordinates of 0.4832 o S, 37.1274
o E.
From survey maps the portion that is tarmacked is 15 Metres wide and is a two way road, the
width of the road greatly narrower than the standard specification of the physical planning
handbook 2007 specification of the total carriage to be 60 Metres.
5 | P a g e
Karatina-Nyeri highway segment within Karatina total petrol station to D.E.B primary is
characterized by formal and informal businesses which have set up along the highway segment
within the town. These businesses have established along the highway given the busy nature of
the highway in terms of vehicular and pedestrian traffic meaning a ready customer base from
passersby.
The informal businesses have setup along the road reserves which should be used by pedestrians.
The pedestrians have been pushed on the carriage way and thus creating human-vehicular traffic
conflicts during peak hours of the evenings.
The formal businesses thou not on the road reserves have turned the road reserves to their
personal parking lots which causes traffic conflicts when vehicular traffic needs to exit and
access these from the parking lots on the road reserves.
Most of the informal businesses lack services lanes to direct traffic to their facilities and this
causes traffic conflicts especially when vehicles on the opposite lane needs to access these
businesses on the opposite direction from the vehicle, the vehicles need to seek way of passage
and cross the carriage way to the other direction
The other segment of the road from DEB primary school to Kerugoya road junction
approximately 800 meters has had an emergence of unplanned development. The emergence of
these uncontrolled developments is due to the nature of the land tenure system since land is
freehold and not common hold. This has encouraged family members adjacent to the road to
convert agricultural land to commercial land use. At the Kerugoya junction agricultural land has
been converted to residential land use. The trend is evident with numerous single dwelling
housing units along the road to Kerugoya and the Karatina-Nyeri highway. The houses are
advantageous since tenants easily access their homes at night and also have a small market where
they can buy groceries when they retire for the day. The trend has been reciprocated from farm to
farm with the construction of these single dwellings housing units along the road towards
Karatina town. The commissioning of the new Karatina University has fueled the need for these
single dwellings for the students. The numerous single dwellings have created small unplanned
residential areas, concentrated along the road shoulders.
1.2 Research Purpose
The study intends to carry out an in-depth investigation of the effects of informal activities on the
road reserve on the transport system. It seeks to explain the nature of activities taking place along
the road reserve and how they affect traffic flow. The study will look at the possible effects on
development that these informal business may have to the maintenance and possibly expansion
of the road.
The study will further investigate what causes the increased numbers of the informal
developments and some of the measures that have been taken to control the trend and what have
been the short comings of the measures. The study will also seek to establish the pattern taken by
6 | P a g e
the developments for example the linear settlement influenced by the town and the effects of the
linear settlements are along the stretch. The study will examine the causes of the process of
conversion of land uses and their influences on the price of the lands within the stretch and
possible ways of planning and improving the situation in the future.
1.3 Research Questions
What types of human activities take place on the road reserves in the study area?
Why do these activities operate on the road reserves?
How do these activities affect the transport system?
How does the conversion of agricultural land affect the long term efficiency of the road?
What is the desired solution?
1.4 Research Objectives
To determine the factors that attract activities to the road reserves
To identify the types of activities and developments are along the road reserve.
To investigate how these activities affect the transport system
To investigate the existing planning measures put in place to try and control these
roadside developments
To develop desired solutions
1.5 Research Assumptions
For efficiency traffic flow on this major highway it will be necessary to effectively
control these road side developments in the future.
The mushrooming of development activities within the road reserves along Karatina
highway has significant effects on the flow of traffic on the main road.
1.6 Hypothesis
Poverty is the main reason for the encroachment of road reserves by informal businesses and need for
additional space for services such as parking lots the reason for encroachment by formal businesses.
1.7 Justification
In developing counties specifically Kenya there has been little or no research done to identify
some of the causes, benefits, advantages and disadvantages of the informal settlement. Lack of
studies has left towns such as Karatina without a policy action to manage informal activities
along the road reserves. The lack of a policy guide has resulted to encroachment of road reserves
within and outside Karatina town thus disrupting smooth flow of transport. Apart from disrupting
flow of transport these informal activities are proving troublesome as the governments tried to
improve the road to a dual carriage.
The information of this study therefore will help give a clear detailed knowledge base of the
main causes and effects for the informal business activities. The study will also add on how to
manage the problem in the future by identifying the direction of growth of Karatina especially
7 | P a g e
along the road and come up with a more innovation policy options of how development should
be carried on. The knowledge of the study will be useful to other small towns currently suffering
the same problem. The lesson drawn from Karatina study will not only guide in planning of other
informal urban development activities but also make significant contribution towards effective
planning and management of urban development generally.
1.8. Scope of the Study
The study will be covering approximately one and a half kilometer stretch on the Karatina-Nyeri
highway. The stretch starts from the Kerugoya junction up towards DEB primary school and
runs all the way to Total petrol station at the periphery of the town. The stretch is divided into
two zones. The first zone begins from Kerugoya junction to DEB primary school which is
approximately 1.2 kilometer and the other zone from DEB primary school to Total primary
school which is approximately 300 meters.
The study will take a keen look at the temporary and permanent informal activities taking place
along the stretch. The permanent include the super markets, petrol stations and restaurants, while
the temporary structures are kiosks and umbrella covered structures mostly within the town
limits. The study will try and show how the activities are distributed linearly and the direction of
distribution. In the study effects of the linear distribution will be emphasized to show the
outcomes of linear distribution on the adjacent land and their effects on the flow of traffic along
the road.
1.9. Organization of the study
The research project will be finally being organized in the following six chapters.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The introduction chapter outlines the background information, problem statement, research
purpose, research question and objectives, justification and significance of the study, the scope of
the study as well as the methodology to be followed in carrying out the research.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter focuses on the review of related literature on what has been written on this topic. It
also examines related case studies and best practices and develops a conceptual framework to
guide the management of informal activities along Karatina-Nyeri highway.
CHAPTER THREE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA
This chapter will outline the existing situation of Karatina-Nyeri highway. It presents the
historical aspect of the site, land use patterns, locational setting as well as the administrative
aspect within the stretch under study.
8 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
This chapter presents the data collected from the field articulating the real issues of the problem
with respect to the field findings. The data is to be presented in the form of charts and graphs
among other data presentation.
CHAPTER FIVE: PLANNING IMPLICATIONS
This chapter will evaluate and critically discuss the emerging issues realized and outlined in
every chapter in detail looking at the causes and effects, their relationships to each other and
their implications for future improvement.
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF RECOMMEDATIONS AND CONCCLUSIONS
This chapter summarizes the findings and conclusions of this research and thus makes
recommendations and proposals that may accommodate the current and future demands on the
use of the highway.
1.11. Study Methodology
The study will generally involve review of existing literature on population, urbanization,
transport system and urban poverty. Secondary data will be collected from the libraries, internet,
journals and department sources.
Primary data will be collected from the field.
1.11.1. Sampling Method
Simple random sample was used. The sample comprised of (30) commercial operators along
Karatina-Nyeri highway, fifteen (15) of whom were from the town‘s suburbs and the other
fifteen (15) from the town‘s limits. The sample also included five (5) pedestrians randomly
chosen; three (3) people were picked from the formal businesses and the rest from the informal
businesses. Variety of activities was also considered in sampling. The activities with more
traders were given preference to ensure effective representation.
1.11.2 Primary data
Primary data was collected from the field. It involved administration of questionnaires.
Questionnaires were administered to the traders. It also involved oral interviews with the
pedestrians using a list of questions. Interviews schedules were also done with sub county
planning officer, trader licensing, sub county inspectorate and enforcement department of the sub
county of Karatina. Observation, photographs were also utilized to capture various aspects from
the field i.e. traffic movement and business types.
The following will be some of the objectives of the study and data needs
To determine the factors that attracts informal activities to the road reserves.
Data needs
9 | P a g e
The building typology (material used) of the informal businesses along the stretch. Data
Source: Field survey
The comparative difference in licensing fee for informal businesses along the road over
formal businesses along the stretch. Data source: Traders
The comparative advantages informal businesses enjoy in locating along the road
reserves over other areas. Data Source: Trader
The advantage informal businesses have over local authority remittance along the stretch.
Data source: Trader and licensing Officer
The preferred data collection method is use of questionnaires on the trader. The questionnaires
will be administered randomly on the traders from both zones of the study five traders on either
side for every 100 meters. The questionnaire data will be analyzed using SPSS data analysis
framework. The data from the SPSS frame work will then be presented in forms of graphs, pie
charts and linear graphs for easy interpretations.
For the town‘s administrator an interview will be used guided by specifically chosen questions.
Data from the administrator will be presented in the report to fill gaps that may arise and require
a definite response.
To identify the type of roadside activities and development along the road reserves
Data needs
The distance from the road where the informal and formal businesses operate. Data
source: Field survey
The area along the road reserve where formal and informal businesses operate. Data
source: Field survey
The town‘s development approval policy in Karatina town. Data source: town‘s planning
officer and town‘s administrators
To analysis the buildings‘ typology observations will be most preferred.
To investigate how these informal activities affect the transport system
Data needs
The width of the road reserve. Data source: town engineer
The effects of informal activities to government‘s efforts upgrade the road to a dual
carriage. Data source: town engineer
10 | P a g e
The effects of the informal activities by causing conflicts along the town‘s limit. Data
source: town engineer
The design of the road which lacks the deceleration and acceleration lanes. Data source:
town engineer
To investigate the existing planning measures put in place to try and control these roadside
developments.
Data needs
Some of the by-laws passed by the town‘s legislature to control informal activities. Data
source: town administrator
Planning control the town has put in place by the town administrators. Data source: the
planning officer/ the town administrator
By laws on development approvals and land use conversion policy. Data source: town
planner/town administrator.
Interviews will be used on officials guided by specifically selected questions. Data from the
officials will be presented in excel reports to fill some of the data gaps that require their specific
output.
1.11.3 Secondary data
Review of existing literature from libraries, internet and documents center was done. Relevant
books, journals and documents were reviewed. Some of the reviewed documents include
government documents such as the physical planning Handbook, physical planning act,
Municipal by laws, traffic act and county government act.
1.11.4. Data Matrix
Table 1 Matrix
OBJECTIVES TYPE OF DATA DATA
COLLECTIO
N METHODS
DATA
SOURCES
INSTRUMENTS
11 | P a g e
To determine the
factors that
attracts informal
activities to the
road reserves.
Primary data Administering
of
questionnaire
Administering
interviews
Traders
The town
administrator
Questionnaires
Interviews
To identify the
type of roadside
activities and
development
along the road
reserves
Primary data
Administering
interviews.
Field survey
The town
administrators
The town
planning officer
Interview questions
To investigate
how these
informal
activities affect
the transport
system
Primary data Field survey
administering
questionnaires
administering
interviews
The town
administrators
The Municipal
Engineer
Road users
Questionnaires
Interview questions
To investigate the
existing planning
measures put in
place to try and
control these
roadside
developments
Primary data
sources
Secondary data
sources
administering
interviews
Journals
The town
administrator
The Municipal
engineer
The planning
official
The road users
Journals
Town by-laws
Physical planning act
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OVERVIEW
An active transportation system is one where there is a level of flow from one element to
another. Channels include roads, railways, airways, water routes, telecommunication lines and
12 | P a g e
air waves. The rapidly urban development and the increased globalization of major cities in the
world have drastically increased the quantities of passengers and freight moving within urban
areas due to interdependence. Due to the increased distance the travel speed has increased
dramatically with improvement of transport channels and networks.
Transport has many benefits for both commercial and personal use. Transport allows personal
mobility of both work and leisure activities. A well-developed transport system mostly in the
developed country has encouraged planning for residential suburb areas as mobility has been
greatly advance and also there is also a wide variety. People in most industrialized countries now
have a much wider choice of where they can live in relation to their employment than they
enjoyed in the past. They also have access to much wider and more diverse range of leisure
pursuits- a fact of no small consequences as more time is given over to non-work activities.
Transport provides a vital linkage to trade and has allowed the advantages of geographical
specialization in production to be more fully exploited.
This literature reviews the following in to the formation of this research project, the sections
addressed include: functions of a road reserve, location determinants of informal activities,
compatibility of informal activities with functions of road reserves, challenges to usage of road
reserves, legal and policy frameworks determining functions of road‘s reserves and informal
activities.
This chapter of the research project will involve critical analysis of different literature guided by
the objectives of the study.
The literature will explain the different objectives such as the cause of encroachment of road
reserves by the formal and informal businesses along Karatina-Nyeri highway due to social and
economic factors of the society, the effects of formal and informal businesses to the stretch under
study and the legal documents that are in existence that can be used to control these
developments along the highway.
2.2. Functional use of road reserves
Road reserves in Kenyan transportation corridors have the following activities which take place
along them, the activities include informal business activities, walk-paths, bicycle lanes,
provision of space for utility services such as electricity posts, telephone lines, and pipeline
functions. These activities create a lot of contestation of space among other land-uses to the little
available land for road reserves.
2.2.1 Footpaths infrastructure for pedestrian use
Despite our increasingly dependence on automobile for transportation walking is still the largest
for of transport. Despite this being the case pedestrian facilities remain the most poorly designed
and developed. Pedestrian safety, comfort and conventionally have been seriously neglected in
most areas. It is worth noting that pedestrianization has become a secondary consideration of
transportation and Urban Planning in Africa and in Kenya. Pedestrians face problems of
13 | P a g e
congestion, discomfort, poor or no accessibility, poor visibility and exposure to dangers thanks to
poor planning and encroachment of areas meant for pedestrian facilities.
Rising number of change of users and extensions consequently bring about increase in the
number of pedestrians who walk along the corridors. There is hence a lot of movement of people
across and long the road; this coupled with poor provision for pedestrian movement exposes
them to the risk of accidents. John and Gary (2003) note that a look at the trends on serious
injuries reveals that pedestrian also constitute the highest single victim group. These accidents
are aggravated by the fact that most roads are too narrow to accommodate the traffic flow. Most
roads lack the necessary facilities that guide movements for example traffic lights, traffic
indicators and signs like zebra crossing among others. Due to congestion and poor facilities such
as bus stops, public services vehicles stop right in the middle of the road for passengers to alight
or board.
This pattern of movement is closely related to residential patterns, location of shopping zones
and entertainment places such as restaurants.
Ogonda (1976), Maina (1978), Omwenga et al (1993) reveal that the dangerous places are those
with heavy pedestrian traffic in the CBD and along main distributors leading to the CBD from
low income, high density residential areas.
2.3. Roads reserves and utility amenities constructed along road reserves
Motorization, urbanization, population growth and change in population density have led to
traffic congestion along major networks. In Karatina, congestion has reduced efficiency of
transportation infrastructure and increase travel time, air pollution and fuel consumption. In
Kenya urban areas, there has been uncontrolled and uncoordinated development which have both
efficiency and inefficiency. Unplanned development along road reserves have created difficulties
and have added cost associated with obtaining and maintaining the right way and access for
infrastructure that have to be provided post-hoc to the planned settlements. Road reserves have
been encroached (Nabutola, 2003)
In land planning there must be an area reserved for road construction to provide means of
transport and communication to the society. The width of road carriageway during construction
depends on existing level of future development projection like 15-20 years to come. The
expectation is that with time there will be more need for transport services as the number of
vehicles increase.
Different roads have different width requirements depending on the kind of traffic that they
handle.
Wide roads in industrial areas are suggested to provide for easy movement of people and heavy
trucks, storm water drainage, conveyance of industrial effluents, laying out of subsystems like
14 | P a g e
water mains, electrical cables, gas mains etc. and for curb-parking, where necessary. The
following widths of carriageways are suggested:
(a) Major Communication routes (Highways)………………….13.5m to 16m.
(b) Spine roads (Major roads) ………………………………….11.5m to 13.5m.
(c) Collector Roads ………………………………………………. 9m to 11.5m
(d) Access streets ………………………………………………… 7m to 8.5m
The road reserves for the above suggested carriageways should take into account provisions for
storm water drainage, conveyance of industrial effluents, water mains, footpaths and curb
parking, where necessary. The following road reserves are therefore recommended:
(a) Major communication routes (Highways) ………………………….60m.
(b) Spine road (major roads) ……………………………………………25m.
(c) Collector roads ……………………………………………………….18m
(d) Access streets ………………………………………………………. 15m
(e) Service lanes ………………………………………………………… 6m.
(Source: physical planning handbook 2002)
Road reserves are used for the essential amenities like water pipes, electricity and telephone
lines. Road reserves are left for special use and not for construction of residential or business
building. Buildings in these areas are in violation of the law and misuse of road reserves,
building on the road reserves is public risk since they limit visibility of vehicles as pedestrians
use the road.
Roads are required to provide for easy movement of people and traffic, storm water drains and
other utility facilities such as water mains, electrical cables, gas mains, to provide these facilities
there needs to be a road reserve.
2.3. Influence of highways to the land adjacent to roads
Mohring in 1964 set out to perform a study on the benefits of highways to lands adjacent to
roads. Mohring noted the ease to access to the highway traffic as a major benefit. The benefit of
having closer contact to road users influence land owners near the periphery of the road to
redevelop their lands. Redevelopment of land is manifested in two zones; the first zone is mostly
associated with numerous business setups while the second zone is associated with numerous
single dwellings. The numerous business premises along the road create a trade center which
grows linearly towards the town. The trading center attracts people looking for cheap housing
and easily accessible houses; this encourages the second zone of land users to put up single
dwellings. The trend is rampant due to the notion that since most land is family owned (freehold)
land use can be changed without necessarily seeking approval. The trend has been the reason for
mushrooming of informal developments along the road networks in Kenya. Most of such
developments decisions by individuals land owners are made owing to general ignorance of the
provision of planning laws and regulations.
15 | P a g e
The zones of development of land adjacent to the road at zone B
Figure 1 Zoning of land
Agriculture land use
Residential converted land use
Informal/ formal business land use
Karatina- Nyeri highway
Informal/ formal business land use
Residential converted land use
Agriculture land use
2.4. Studies on formal and informal sector in developed and developing countries
2.4.1 Informal activities in less developed countries
Keith Hart (1971, 1973), a social anthropologist, was the first one to bring the term ‗informal
sector‘ (in a Third World context) into the academic literature. He introduced the concept of the
‗informal sector‘ as a part of the urban labor force, which takes place outside of the formal labor
market. Hart considered the ‗informal sector‘ as almost synonymous for the categories of small
self-employed. This was thereafter typically used to refer to ways of making a living outside the
formal wage economy, either as an alternative to it, or as a means of supplementing income
earned with it (Bromley and Gerry, 1979). In addition, Hart distinguished formal and informal
income opportunities on the basis of whether the activity entailed wage or self-employment,
implying that wage-earning employment is a characteristic of the formal sector only. Even
though Hart‘s original notion of the ‗informal sector‘ is limited to the ‗self-employed‘, the
introduction of the concept was able to incorporate activities that were previously ignored in
theoretical models of development and in national economic accounts (Swaminathan, 1991).
This was an important characteristic of the subsequent use of the term.
In spite of the early work by Hart, the pioneering research on the informal sector is widely
considered to be the report of the International Labor Office on employment in Kenya (ILO,
1972). Informality in this report is mainly characterized by the avoidance of government
regulations and taxes. Initially, ILO considered the main aim of the informal sector to be the
provision of subsistence to families. It related the growth of the informal sector to its positive
effects on the labor market and the distribution of income. As a consequence, it argued that
solving the problems of the informal sector is only possible if the problems in these domains are
solved6. After this initial study, ILO carried out numerous research studies on the informal
sector, bringing new developments to the field every time. One of these new developments was
16 | P a g e
the recognition of a new aspect of the informal sector7, which is its dynamism and potential for
economic growth and employment.
Initiated by the well-known research of H. De Soto (1989) and followed by many others, the
conceptualization of the informal sector took yet another meaning. This new course of research
studied the informal sector in a regulatory framework. In this approach, the legal status is the
main element distinguishing informal from formal activities.
2.4.2 Informal activities studies about developed countries
The literature on the ‗informal sector‘ is fraught with terminological confusion (Harding and
Jenkins, 1989). Some of the early phrasings of ‗informal sector‘ are the ‗bazaar economy‘ and
the ‗firm-centered economy‘ (Geertz, 1963); the wartime notion of the ‗black market‘ (Smithies,
1984); popular conceptions about the criminal ‗underworld‘, or images of ‗the world turned
upside down‘. Feige (1989) introduces the term ‗underground economy‘, whereas many others
have labeled it subterranean, shadow, informal, hidden, parallel, black, clandestine, second,
household, etc. The generation of these concepts is explained by the simple fact that what Feige
calls the ‗underground economy‘ is a mixture of multi-fold activities. This explanation clarifies
to some extent the terminological confusion. In addition, it illustrates why different domains (e.g.
labor economics, sociology, finance, macroeconomics, statistics, criminology, etc.) give it a
different meaning. It appeared that no single definition of the underground economy could serve
all these diverse domains (Feige, 1989). Therefore, researchers gave up trying to formulate a
unique definition, but instead, based on several criteria, they have attempted to define the
informal sector in accordance with the problem at hand.
The more specified sub-criteria, which are used to define the amalgam of the informal sector
activities, vary across the main criteria.
The main sub-criteria used regarding the political aspect of the informal sector are:
1. Government regulation;
2. Illegal activities; and
3. National statistics (GNP).
The main idea behind this classification is that it captures the influence of the informal sector
[involving lack of government regulation, illegal activities and as a consequence substantial
errors in measuring the national product (GNP)] in politics and vice-versa.
Even though the introduction of a political aspect in the study of the informal sector was an
achievement, the basic criterion - which has also received most attention - is the economic one.
The sub-criteria used in this category are numerous. However, I will try to cover the most
significant ones, which consist of the following:
(1) Labor market or status of labor (including undeclared labor, no social benefits, under
minimum wage, non- appropriate working conditions, etc.)
As expected, this criterion is essential in defining the informal sector. Many studies have based
their notion of the informal sector on its consequences for the labor market. Based on this
criterion the informal sector is the sum total of all income-earning activities with the exclusion of
17 | P a g e
those that involve contractual and legally regulated employment. Among others, Harding and
Jenkins (1989), Renooy (1990) and especially the International Labor
Office (ILO) emphasize this criterion.
(2) Unreported income or tax evasion
Tax evasion appears to be another essential sub-criterion under the category ‗economic‘.
The general definition of informal sector using this criterion is the sum of all unreported taxable
money income, with the intention to evade taxes. Obviously, a combination of economic and
legal aspects takes place when the element of tax evasion is used in defining the informal sector.
Several researchers8, such as the Internal Revenue Service
(IRS, 1979) in US, Feige (1981) and Tanzi (1982-1989), specifically emphasize this criterion.
(3) Size of activity
This criterion used to be quite dominant especially in the beginning of the research on the
informal sector. It was usually considered in terms of the number of people employed.
For example, S.V. Sethuraman (1976) claims that employment of less than ten persons should be
considered part of the informal sector. It is thought that the main feature of the informal sector
activities is the small-scale of operation. This criterion has been particularly helpful in carrying
out enterprise surveys. However, table 1 shows that not many researchers of the informal sector
in developed countries have used this criterion.
(4) Professional status (i.e. self-employed, employer, family worker, apprentice, wage employee,
etc.)
This criterion is meant to distinguish between wage employees and non-wage employees
involved in the informal sector activities. Since the beginning (Hart, 1971, 1973), self-
employment is considered to be a dividing criterion. For a while, this criterion comprised the
core of the informal sector. Informal workers are defined as ‗the sum of the self-employed,
unremunerated family workers and domestic servants‘. In addition, informal sector activities are
basically labor intensive. The criterion ‗professional status‘ no longer seems to have many
supporters, however.
(5) Regulation or registration of the activity
Whereas the labor market criterion is based on the status of labor, definitions based on regulation
consider the standpoint of an activity/enterprise towards government regulations. Swaminathan
(1991), who has mostly elaborated this criterion defines the informal sector enterprises as
establishments which are unregistered and unlicensed.
However, he does not seem to be alone; many others share the same view
The third institutional criterion used in definitions of the informal sector is the social one.
Its main sub-criteria are:
1- Social networks or easy of entry
Surveys on the informal sector indicate that ‗A friend of a friend‘ are the key words in this
sector. Breman (1980) emphasizes this by stating that the social network is very significant in
18 | P a g e
dividing the informal economy into different types. In addition, the International Labor Office
(ILO) and various other researchers have often stressed one of the main advantages of the
informal sector - easy of entry – which has also been considered the defining feature of the
informal sector. Tables 1 and 2 show that about half of authors use this criterion in their
definitions.
2- Autonomy and flexibility
Many informal sector participants, especially in developed countries, choose to participate in the
informal sector because of more autonomy, flexibility and freedom they find in this sector
compared to the formal one. In other words, the participants have the freedom of operating their
own business; they have flexibility regarding hours or days of operation; they can use and
develop their creativity, etc. About half of the researchers selected in tables 1 & 2 seem to share
this criterion, however.
3- Survival
Survival does not appear to be an aspect of the informal sector in developed countries. Some
think that the growth of the informal sector in these countries is indeed related to reorganization
of productive activities on a global scale. As a matter of fact, this criterion used to be considered
by the pessimistic viewers of the informal sector in early times, who therefore suggested State
intervention should be reduced. Conversely, the optimists suggest that accumulation is indeed
possible, hence the expansion of the informal sector should be supported.
2.4.3 The relationship between the formal and informal sector
In the earliest studies of the informal economy (approximately 1960-1970), the dominant theory
was one which considered the informal economy a separate economic domain or in other words
which supported dualism. The concepts of dual economy and social marginality were already
mentioned in 1953 by the ‗colonial economist‘ Boeke. He describes the dual economy as
consisting of an urban market economy (capitalist nature) on one hand and a rural subsistence
economy (static agricultural system of production) on the other. This theory was later criticized
for its descriptive rather than explanatory nature; the acceptance of economic dualism; and the
assumed autonomous relationship between the formal and informal sectors instead of the one of
domination and subordination.
Research in the following years showed the significance of the informal sector and its complete
integration into the national economy. The mainstream theory of this period considered
informality a reality, characterized by ‗its own right, with its own rules, conditions and
characteristic modes of representation‘ (Harding and Jenkins, 1989).
Supporters of this theory reject the notions of economic dualism and social marginality.
They do not see the informal economy as a set of survival activities performed in a ‗marginal
society‘. This theory is characterized by its explanatory power and the recognition of another
relationship between the formal and informal sectors. This is a linking relationship where the
informal sector is dependent on the formal sector.
19 | P a g e
In a parallel way, two important theoretical approaches (mainly as subordinates of the latter
theory) emerged: the so-called ‗production-rationale‘ approach and ‗illegality based‘ approach.
The first approach emphasizes the influence of the State in the economic cycle and distribution
of resources. Conversely, the second approach supports the traditional economics (laissez-faire),
where there is no need for State regulation or intervention. As a consequence, ‗the production-
rationale‘ approach favors State regulation of the informal sector in order to integrate it into the
formal economy. The ‗illegality-based‘ approach, on the other hand, argues that the informal
sector should be left free, and let the market forces rule. Despite their positive developments,
Guerguil (1988) has criticized them because ‗neither of the two approaches performs the dual
function: to establish an analytical framework and a measurable indicator‘. Research went
further on developing several new approaches within the framework of the mainstream theory.
These typically try to explain certain aspects of the informal sector. An example is the ‗tax
evasion‘ approach mainly analyzed by Feige and Tanzi. According to Tanzi (1982), the main
determinants of tax evasion are:
(1) the perceived fairness of tax laws;
(2) The attitude of tax-payers vis-à-vis their government;
(3) Their basic religious and cultural characteristics;
(4) The severity of penalties imposed on the tax evaders that are apprehended;
(5) The facility with which taxes can be evaded; and,
(6) The monetary rewards to the taxpayers associated with not paying taxes.
There is a causality correlation between the ‗tax evasion‘ approach and the one which deals with
the reliability of the nation‘s information system. Feige (1989) contemplates a split up of the
unobserved economy in two elements: a monetary sector which utilizes money as a medium of
exchange and a non-monetary sector in which the exchange occurs through barter or its goods
and services are self-consumed. Due to the unreported income (tax evasion) from both these
sectors, the national accounting system is misleading. Consequently, Alford and Feige (1989)
suggest that ‗information must be treated as an endogenous variable in social systems whenever
there exist behavioral incentives and mechanisms to manipulate the information system‘. They
argue that the apparent economic stagnation may partly result from the statistical illusion or
distortion (due to the exclusion of the informal economy in the conventional measures of
national income). Conversely, some other researchers like O‘Higgins (1989) and Broesterhuizen
(1989) claim that the informal economy is greatest during stagnation periods.
All these ideas have been extensively discussed by Frey (1989), who refers back to two theories
about the informal economy, launched for the first time in earlier studies.
The first theory is the theory of optimal taxation or the social-welfare-maximizing approach. Its
pioneers are Ramsay (1927), Allingham and Sandmo (1972), Srinivasan (1973), Singh (1973)
and Kolm (1973). This theory is used to determine that tax rate which maximizes economic well-
being as described by a social welfare function, taking into account the effect taxes have on the
supply of labor and on the production of goods as well as on the distribution of income23. The
second theory is the economics of crime as it is called by Becker (1976), who studies the
20 | P a g e
possibilities for controlling illegitimate activities, looking both at the supply of and demand for
(i.e., the partial neglect of protecting oneself against) offenses. These two approaches are
primarily concerned with the individual behavior regarding taxes and illegal activities, through
which, the informal economy (tax evasion and illegal) is analyzed.
Frey‘s main criticism about the social-welfare-maximizing approach is that ‗government is not
an exogenous actor in the political-economic system free to pursue the social good but is
dependent on other decision makers, particularly on the support of voters and interest groups‘.
Alternatively, he suggests another approach: the theory of democratic economic policy.
According to this theory, ‗in a system of decision makers each of which pursues his own utility,
the size of the official as well as that of the unobserved economy is the unintended outcome of
their actions‘. In other words, the informal sector activities are the consequence of self-interested
decision makers.
In his theoretical approach, Renooy (1990) models the informal sector as a simple cyclical
phenomenon in which subjects undertake activities (work), which may or may not lead to
transactions, from which payments may or may not result, which produce income, which again
may be used in various ways. This approach yields several distinct features of the informal sector
compared to the formal economy: (1) formal regulations and rules are absent; (2) there is often a
higher degree of flexibility than in the formal labor market; (3) it is not the organization but the
form of payment which differs compared to the formal economy; (4) these activities take place
both within and outside formal contexts and they strongly interact with each-other; (5) there is no
complete information; (6) this sector is highly fragmentary; (7) there is a combination of various
(informal) activities because sometimes one activity alone does not produce sufficient income;
(8) there is a low entrance threshold to the informal economy; (9) the price of goods and services
in this economy is lower than in the formal one; (10) there is a lower capital intensity; (11) there
is a lower level of productivity; (12) the informal sector relies predominantly on social/family
networks, where subcontracting is its connection with the formal economy; and (13) sometimes
absence of channels of access to the formal activities.
2.4.4 Reasons, Motives, and Causes of Informalization
The existence of an informal economy and its persistence over time has been explained by a
variety of reasons, motives and related causes. Public attention was drawn to the underground
economy during World War II when higher tax rates, price controls, and rationing programs
provided incentives for firms and individuals to participate in various ‗black market‘ activities
(Feige, 1989). The study of these elements is considered to be very important, in order to
understand this phenomenon more in depth and to reach a scientific conclusion regarding its
overall significance.
The majority of analysts have agreed, to a large extent that one of the foremost causes of the
development and tenacity of the informal economy is the recession in which any country may go
through. As a consequence of this potential stagnation, a lot of unpleasant economic phenomena
appear to happen, such as unemployment, depreciation of capital, etc., which in turn influence
21 | P a g e
the informal activities. Some of the earliest primary reasons to participate in the underground
economy mentioned in the literature are: (1) to evade taxes; (2) to avoid losing government
benefits; (3) to circumvent regulations and licensing requirements; (4) a reaction by both firms
and individual workers to the labor unions; and (5) the impact of international competition.
In broader terms, the motives for participation can be economic and noneconomic.
The economic reasons are related to unemployment and an inflexible formal labor market; the
declining real price of capital; and the high cost of formal production.
The non-economic motives are related to a greater flexibility and greater satisfaction in work; a
complete use of their professional qualifications; and the increased leisure time.
A very important element, which motivates the participation in the informal economy, seems to
be the role of the State. Beyond economic considerations, State-related variables are decisive in
creating a climate suitable for the expansion of the informal sector (Gershuny 1979). These
State-related variables and other motives are discussed by Renooy (1990) from another
perspective, behavioral economics. He claims that there are two groups of factors which
determine the decision to become active in the informal economy, specifically, the ‗structural‘
and ‗opportunity‘ factors. The structural factors consist of financial pressure; socio-
psychological pressure26; and institutional constraints.
The opportunity factors, which imply free choice, consist of individual background; skills;
education; contacts and living situation, or non-individual components such as environment;
cultural tradition; values and standards; and geographical factors. The author suggests that these
‗opportunity‘ factors explain why different sorts of informal economies exist. The individual free
choice affects the decision on tax payments based on a combination of inadequate information
and a lack of any trust in the way taxes are spent. In an atmosphere in which the government
loses the trust of the population, in which people no longer feel that government supports them, a
step into the twilight economy will be taken much more lightly (Renooy, 1990).
The last but not the least reason for participation in the informal sector, mentioned by several
researchers, is the governmental over-regulation of the market sector, for example ‗not only via
the taxes, but also through labor legislation and legislature relating to labor conditions, quality
regulations, and production limitations‘. This over-regulation increases the transaction costs of
participation in the formal economy, so that it becomes relatively more appealing to switch over
to the informal sector.
2.5. Urban planning and the informal Sector in developing Countries
Informal sector plays a key role in the urban economy so rather than seeking to eliminate their
presence urban planning should seek to accommodate this important component of urban
economies. Urban planning in developing countries particularly cities with rapid urbanization
like Kenya is facing a major problem with the informal sector. These businesses that
compromise the informal sector typically operating on streets and along the roads are often seen
as an eye-soar and undesirable activities. Thus conflicts arise between urban authorities trying to
manage the city and the urban informal sector operators who need space for their activities.
22 | P a g e
In most cases authorities forcibly evict informal sector activities in the pretext of urban order and
cleanliness. Yet such eviction does not address the problem of informal settlements. It only post
pones and relocates the problem to other areas as well as increasing negativity and enmity
between the traders and the urban authorities. Often most traders return to these areas after a few
days or just change the time. Prior to the 1970s there was no attention paid to economic activities
carried out outside the formal economy, however few studies of developing countries begun to
explore the role of the informal sector and the concept gained attention after a report by the
international labor Organization in the early 1970s.
Almost 40 years later it‘s hard to ignore the importance of the informal sector in many cities
particularly in developing countries such as Kenya where the informal sector boast of providing
employment to over 3 million people. Informal sector in Indonesia in 2004 accounted for 64% of
the total employment.
The proportion of informal sector employment in urban areas was even higher during the
economic crisis in the late 1990s when most factories closed down due to the crush of the global
economy. Most employees were laid off and these pushed them to informal sector. The growth
of the urban informal sector was also nourished by the influx of migrants from rural regions
surrounding urban agglomerations in search of work. With the formal sector unable to
accommodate such large numbers of workers, the informal sector becomes the primary source of
employment. Without the economic opportunities generated by such activities the poor would
certainly become a larger burden for the urban authorities.
Many middle-classes in urban areas in developing countries greatly benefit from economic
activities carried out outside the formal sectors. The continuing study of urban informality has
revealed the important role of the informal sector in the process off urbanization.
These findings seem to point to a need for new urban theories that can fully explain the phenomenon of
urban informality in cities, something mostly absent from urban theories such as urban ecology of
Chicago school and post-modern urbanism of the Los Angeles school, which are both rooted from cities
in developed countries. Yet the understanding on the positive impact of the informal sector, many
planners and officials still worry about the resulting urban blight.
2.6 Urban poverty as a contributor to informal activities
Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas, with 54 per cent of the world‘s
population residing in urban areas in 2014. In 1950, 30 per cent of the world‘s population was
urban, and by 2050, 66 per cent of the world‘s population is projected to be urban. Today, the
most urbanized regions include Northern America (82 per cent living in urban areas in 2014),
Latin America and the Caribbean (80 per cent), and Europe (73 per cent). In contrast, Africa and
Asia remain mostly rural, with 40 and 48 per cent of their respective populations living in urban
areas. All regions are expected to urbanize further over the coming decades. Africa and Asia are
urbanizing faster than the other regions and are projected to become 56 and 64 per cent urban,
respectively, by 2050.
23 | P a g e
Line Graph 1 World Urbanization prospects
Source: World Urbanization Prospects (The 2014 Revision) (United Nation)
Kenya has a projected population of 44.35 million people (population census of 2009) with about
80% living in the rural areas. The population in absolute poverty was estimated at 45.9%
(KIHBS, 2008).this was an improvement from the estimated 52.3% for 1997. Poverty and
hunger are some of the major challenges facing Kenya today. High unemployment levels. The
proportion of the population which is long below the poverty line increased from 52.3% in 1997
to 56% between 2000 and 2002. This has been due to a weak policy environment, poor
governance, unfavorable weather conditions and general decline in the economic performance.
The rising levels of urbanization and population growth in large cities has been considered
problematic because governments and international agencies fail to ensure that infrastructure and
service provision keeps up with the growth in population and governments often fail to enforce
pollution control and other regulation needed to protect the quality of life in urban areas. Urban
growth can be argued to have been influenced by economic growth. Urban poverty mostly in
developing countries has contributed to survival entrepreneurs in terms of informal traders who
start businesses not to.
2.6 Urban transportation problems
Cities are location which have a high level of accumulation and concentration of economic
activities and are complex spatial structures that are supported by a well-established transport
system. The most important transport problems are often related to urban areas when transport
systems cannot satisfy the numerous requirements for urban mobility. Urban productivity is
highly dependent on the efficiency of the transport system to move labor, consumers and freight
between multiple origins and destinations. The most notable urban transport problems are;
24 | P a g e
1. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties: Congestion is one of the most prevalent
transport problems in large urban agglomerations in the world and urban centers in
Kenya are not an exemption. It is a particularly linked with motorization and the
diffusion of the automobile, which has greatly increased demand for transport
infrastructure. However due to the fact that transport infrastructure is very capital
intensive the supply has not been able to keep up with demand. In urban areas vehicles
spend most of its time parked motorization has expanded the demand for parking space,
which has created space consumption a problem particularly in central areas.
2. Public transport inadequacy. Many public transit system or parts of them are either
over or under used. During peak hours crowds create discomfort or users. Low ridership
makes many services financially unsustainable particularly in suburbs areas. In spite of
strong subsidies almost every public transit system cannot generate sufficient income to
cover its operating and capital costs.
3. Difficulties for pedestrians. Difficulties are either the outcome of intense traffic where
the mobility pedestrians and vehicles is impaired, but because of a blatant lack of
consideration of pedestrians in the physical design of facilities.
4. Reduction of public space. Majority of roads are publicly owned and free of access.
Increase in traffic has an adverse impact on public activities which once crowded the
streets such as market. These have a gradual disappearance to be replaced by
automobiles. In many cases these activities have shifted to shopping malls while in other
cases they have been abandoned. Traffic flow has an influence in life and interactions of
street activities.
5. Environmental impacts and energy consumption. Pollution including noise generated
by circulation has become a serious impediment to the quality of life and even the health
of urban population. Further energy consumption by transportation has dramatically
increased and so is the dependence on petroleum.
6. Accidents and safety. The growing traffic in urban areas has been linked to the number
of accidents and high fatalities numbers especially in developing countries.
7. Consumers and extensive land. The territorial imprint of transportation is significant
particularly for the automobile. Between 30 and 60% of a metropolitan area may be
devoted to transportation an outcome of the over-reliance on some of urban
transportation.
2.7. Road influence to adjacent land
Owen (1979) contends that although scholars have argued that urbanization brings about
economic progress and rising income, the motorization that accompanies this trend, and helps to
support them has brought high levels of congestion and pollution that are degrading the quality
of the urban environment mostly in the developing countries. This motorization has comes as a
result of increased demand for mass transit.
25 | P a g e
This need is caused by population increased and issues of urban sprawl which result from the
unavailability of affordable housing near the city center. A combination of these factors, leads to
transport conflicts. The numerous changes that are taking place to the different land uses ranging
from change to user and extension of use, reorganization and rezoning which bring about change
and in most cases increase in plot ratios and coverage. Rukunga (1990), points out that transport
is the prime mover of the urban system. However these changes in land use bring about
increased generation and attraction of traffic. This greatly impacts negatively to the affected
corridors. Due to congestion which comes as a result of traffic generated, convenience is
hampered. Convenience is measured by the travel time saved. Congestion brings about slow
traffic and hence extension in traveled time due traffic jams. The result is delays on the roads that
are caused by impaired access of the vehicles, journey time increases with decline in speed of
travel.
The rising number of change of user and extension bring about increase in the number of
pedestrians who walk along the corridors. There is hence a lot of movement of peopl across and
along the road; this coupled with poor provision for pedestrian movement exposes them to the
risk of accidents. John and Gary (2003) note that a look at the trends on serious injuries reveals
that pedestrians also constitute the highest single victim group. These accidents are aggregated
by the fact that most roads are too narrow to accommodate the traffic lights, traffic indicatirs and
signs like zebra crossing among others. Due to poor congestion and poor facilitieas for example
bus stops, public servic vehicles stop right in the middle of the road for passengrs to alight or
board.
The pattern of movement is closly related to residntial patterns, location of shopping zones and
entertainment places.
2.8 Road design guide in Kenya
Roads are designed following certain specification that is laid down in the physical planning
handbook. The road system in Kenya follows a hierarchy ranging from local streets to urban
highways. Access points from higher order roads for example, primary distributors should be
kept to the minimum because they are high speed and carry high traffic volume. There should be
calculated based on half the width of the road being accessed into. Cross junctions or through
roads should be discouraged since they form conflict points. There should be direct access from
individual property into local streets. Roads should occupy less than 20% of the planned area.
Right angled intersections should be provided with clear sight angles.
For the safety of pedestrians, footpaths and walkways should be provided. Intersections for
junctions should be right angled or provided with a maximum permeable offsets of 70 degrees.
―Y‖ junctions should be discouraged since they obscure sight lines. Each road is meant to
intersect only with roads of the same class as the one immediately above or below it in the
hierarchy.
26 | P a g e
2.9. Building line
The objective of fixing building lines in industrial areas is to mitigate the effects of noise,
industrial fumes, odor, dust, vibration, fire, heat, glare and other hazards. The following are the
recommended setback lines from 23 Centre-lines of roads to the property lines. These refer to
sites devoted to only manufacturing industries and not to service industries.
(a) Major Communication routes (Highways) ………25m to 31m.
(b) Spine Roads (Major roads) ………………………18m to 21m.
(c) Collector roads …………………………………. 15m to 18m.
(d) Access streets ………………………………….. 12m. to 15m.
In exercise of the powers of the legislative supplement no. 43 legal notice 135 section 12 (1)
where a provision has not been made for an access road then the building line should be 6m
deep. Where an access road has been provided the building line may be 3m shallow.
(Source. Physical planning handbook 2002)
2.10. Transportation in Kenya
Kenya has a relatively well developed transport system as compared to other countries in the
region; Kenya has an extensive network of paved and unpaved roads. The railway system links
the country to her immediate neighbor Uganda and also links the nation‘s ports and major cities.
There are 15 airports which are paved.
Map 1 Roads in Kenya
Source: Google
2.10.1 Roads in Kenya
Road transport in Kenya is made of a total of 63 265 kilometers of interurban roads, 8933
kilometers are paved and 54332 kilometers are unpaved. There is over 100,000 kilometers of
27 | P a g e
rural roads and 14 500 of urban roads, creating a total infrastructure of 177, 765 kilometers
(2004). Kenya road system is constituted by three classified road types, as well as unclassified
roads and tracks.
Road Expansion Program which consisted of 2,200 km of roads constructed, 1,863km
rehabilitated/reconstructed,
2,649km on periodic maintenance and 236,603km routine maintenance.
• The completion of Nairobi-Thika super-highway, Northern Corridor Transport Improvement
Project (NCTIP);
• Decongestion of cities, towns and urban centers;
• Construction of Nairobi missing links;
• Improvement of rural accessibility through the Roads 2000 Program;
• Implementation of National Road Safety Program;
Table 2 Kenya road inventory
Classification Administrative agency Network length (km)
National roads( class
A,B,C)
Roads department 14 000
District roads:
Class D,E and
others
Unclassified rural
roads
District road committees
County government
49 000
100 000
Urban roads City and municipal
councils
14 500
Special roads
Park roads
Forest road
KWS
Forest department
9 000
8 000
Total 177,500
Source: KRB 2009
2.11 The great North road.
The trans-African highway was proposed during the colonial era and was a strategy by the
British to link her colony in the North and South. The road was to originate from Cairo Egypt-
Sudan-Ethiopia-Kenya-Tanzania-Zambia-Zimbabwe-Botswana and to South African.
Picture 1: The paths of the great North Road within Kenya
28 | P a g e
Picture 2 Paths of the great North Road within Africa
The path of
the great
North road
within
Kenya
29 | P a g e
Source: Google
2.12 legal framework
Overview
There are various legal instruments that can be used to control and guide the way informal
activities should be conducted along reserves to ensure they don‘t conflict with the flow of
transport. This is guided by the fact that despite these activities being a nuisance they play a
critical role in the urban environment. The legal provisions stipulate the standards pertaining to
road designs and developments adjacent to the roads in the two zones under the study.
2.12.1 Constitution
The Constitution classifies land as public land, private land and community land. The
Constitution also gives guidelines on how land is to be used equitable, efficiently, productively
and sustainably, Article 60(1). The State is given the authority to regulate the use of land or any
interest on or over land as stated in Article 66, for reasons as defense, public safety, public order,
land use planning, public morality and public health. The Constitution states that all land in the
country belongs to the state therefore any mineral within Nairobi is owned by the state.
30 | P a g e
The Constitution also requires that there is environmental conservation without which there
would be legal consequences.
The constitution stipulates that all Kenyans with any disability are entitled to reasonable access
to all places, public transport and information. This implies that traffic congestion must be
alleviated in order to promote accessibility. Traffic jams impedes accessibility.
Draft Integrated National Transport Policy Of 2003
The transport policy provides strategies that can be used to manage transport planning in the
country to facilitate movement and accessibility. This policy provides guidelines on the linkages
that should be established in the country.it aims at providing integrated, efficient, reliable and
sustainable road transport infrastructure that meets national and regional passenger and freight
transport goals. It‘s envisions a transport system that is effective and efficient in which there is a
faster flow of goods and people while being environmentally and economically sustainable
2.12.2 Development control of formal and informal activities (The Physical Planning Act
Revised Edition 2012.)
Petrol Service Station Planning
Plot Size
(a) The plot size of petroleum retail business should be pegged on the category of the business.
That is either petrol filling station or petrol service station.
(b) A petrol filling station should be of a minimum size of 0.08 hectares.
(c) A petrol service without convenient stores/shops should have a minimum lot size of
0.15 hectares
(d) A petrol service station with convenient stores/shops should be of a minimum size of a
minimum size of 0.2 hectares
Access
(a) No petrol stations should be sited opposite each other along two-way traffic corridor.
(b) Acceleration and deceleration lanes to be a minimum of 100 meters long each for dual
carriage ways and minimum of 30 meters long each of two-way roads
(c) Access to adjoining properties from feeder roads only
(d) Separate extended public access of not less than 15 meters to the nearest pump and 3 meters
wide pavement for public access from service front for vehicular/pedestrian segregation.
Parking
Every petrol service station with a convenient shop/stores etc. shall provide one car parking
space for every 4m square floor space of the shop/stores.
54. Transitional provisions
31 | P a g e
(1) Any approval for development granted under any building by-Laws, given under the
provisions of any written law, in force immediately prior to the commencement of this Act, shall
be deemed to be a development permission granted under this Act:
Provided that such approval shall cease to have effect unless the development in respect of which
approval was given has been commenced within twenty four months prior to the commencement
of this Act.
(2) The functions previously exercised by the Central Authority under the Land Planning Act
(Cap. 302) shall stand transferred to the Physical Planning Liaison Committees under this Act.
(3) An application for permission to develop land made to the Commissioner of Lands or any
local authority before the commencement of this Act, being an application that has not been
determined before such commencement shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be an
application for development permission made under this Act.
(4) An application for permission to develop land made to the Commissioner of Lands before the
commencement of this Act; being an application that has not been determined by the
Commissioner of Lands before such commencement shall for the purposes of this Act, be
deemed to be a development application made to the local authority for the area in which the
land is situated, and shall be deemed to have been made on the commencement of this Act.
41. Subdivision of land
Urbanization has created demand for land which has encouraged subdivision of land however
some caution has been put in place through this act to try and control subdivision through this
red tapes;
(1) No private land within the area of authority of a local authority may be subdivided except in
accordance with the requirements of a local physical development plan approved in relation to
that area under this Act and upon application made in the form prescribed in the Fourth Schedule
to the local authority.
(2) The subdivision and land use plans in relation to any private land shall be prepared by a
registered physical planner and such plans shall be subject to the approval of the Director.
(3) Where in the opinion of a local authority an application in respect of development, change of
user or subdivision has important impact on contiguous land or does not conform to any
conditions registered against the title deed of property, the local authority shall, at the expense of
the applicant, publish the notice of the application in the Gazette or in such other manner as it
deems expedient, and shall serve copies of the application on every owner or occupier of the
property adjacent to the land to which the application relates and to such other persons as the
local authority may deem fit.
(4) If the local authority receives any objection to, or representation in connection with, an
application made under subsection (1) the local authority shall notify the applicant of such
objections or representations and shall before the application is determined by it afford the
32 | P a g e
applicant an opportunity to make representations in response to such objections or
representations.
(5) A local authority may approve with or without such modifications and subject to such
conditions as it may deem fit, or refuse to approve, an application made under subsection (1).
(6) Any person aggrieved by a decision of the local authority under subsection
(5) May appeal against such decision to the respective liaison committee:
Provided that if such person is aggrieved by a decision of the liaison committee he may appeal
against such decision to the National Liaison Committee in writing stating the grounds of his
appeal:
Provided further that the appeal against a decision of the National Liaison
Committee may be made to the High Court in accordance with the rules of procedure for the
time being applicable to the High Court.
30. Development permission
In the revised physical planning act 2012 the act has tried to control developments through the
following guidelines;
(1) No person shall carry out development within the area of a local authority without a
development permission granted by the local authority under section 33.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable to
a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to an imprisonment not exceeding five
years or to both.
(3) Any dealing in connection with any development in respect of which an offence is committed
under this section shall be null and void and such development shall be discontinued.
(4) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (2)—
(a) The local authority concerned shall require the developer to restore the land on which such
development has taken place to its original condition within a period of not more than ninety
days;
(b) If on the expiry of the ninety days‘ notice given to the developer such restoration has not
been affected, the concerned local authority shall restore the site to its original condition and
recover the cost incurred thereto from the developer.
(5) Subject to subsection (7) no licensing authority shall grant, under any written law, a license
for commercial or industrial use or occupation of any building, or in respect of any premises or
land, for which no development permission had been granted by the respective local authority.
(6) For the purposes of subsection (5)—
(a) Commercial use includes shops, offices, hotels, restaurants, bars, kiosks, markets and similar
business enterprises and trade but does not include petroleum filling stations;
(b) Industrial use includes manufacturing, processing, distilling and brewing, warehousing and
storage, workshops and garages, mining and quarrying and other similar industrial activities
including petroleum filling stations.
33 | P a g e
(7) No local authority shall grant a development permission for any of the purposes mentioned in
subsection (5) without a certificate of compliance issued to the applicant by the Director or an
officer authorized by him in that behalf.
(8) Any person who contravenes subsection (5), or (7), shall be guilty of an offence and shall be
liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred thousand shillings or to an imprisonment not
exceeding twelve months or to both.
31. Development application
(1) Any person requiring development permission shall make an application in the form
prescribed in the Fourth Schedule, to the clerk of the local authority responsible for the area in
which the land concerned is situated.
(2) The application shall be accompanied by such plans and particulars as are necessary to
indicate the purposes of the development, and in particular shall show the proposed use and
density, and the land which the applicant intends to surrender for—
(a) Purposes of principal and secondary means of access to any subdivisions within the area
included in the application and to adjoining land;
(b) Public purposes consequent upon the proposed development.
NB Since the promulgation of the new constitution the local authority was replaced by Sub
County authority under the County government.
2.12.3 Road reserves protection (The Traffic Act (Revised Edition 2014)
Section 91 provides for the protection of road reserves against unlawful encroachment. It states:
Every person who, without the written permission of the highway authority—
(a) Encroaches on a road or on any land reserved therefore at the side or sides thereof by making
or erecting any building, fence, ditch, advertisement sign or other obstacle, or by digging thereon
or by planting or sowing any tree, shrub or seeds thereon; or
(b) Deposits or causes to be deposited in any manner whatever on a road any material or matter,
other than road-making materials deposited for the purpose of making up or repairing the road;
or
(c) Digs up, removes or alters in any way the soil or surface of a road, or of any land reserved
therefore at the side or sides thereof, or if done for the purpose of moving a vehicle without
immediately thereafter making good the damage; or
(d) Willfully fills up, alters or obstructs any ditch or drain, whether on a road or contiguous
thereto, made by or under the control of the highway authority, to carry water off the road or to
keep it from flowing on to the road; or
(e) Allows any sludge or any filthy or noisome matter to flow from any building or land in his
occupation on to a road or into any ditch or drain made by the highway authority; or
(f) Causes or allows any timber, sledge, plough or other heavy material, vehicle or implement not
wholly raised above the ground on wheels to be dragged on a road; or
34 | P a g e
(g) Pitches any tent, booth or stall on a road; or
(h) Makes any fire on any road,
I) shall be guilty of an offence.
(2) It shall be lawful for the highway authority to remove anything whatsoever which has been
placed or erected on a road or land reserved therefore in contravention of this section.
2.12.4. Decentralization of services (County Government Act 2012)
PART VI — DECENTRALIZED UNITS
50 (1) There shall be established at the level of each sub county the office of the sub-county
administrator.
(2) The sub-county administrator shall have qualifications and knowledge in administration or
management and shall be competitively appointed by the
County Public Service Board in accordance with the provisions of this Act.
(3) The sub-county administrator shall be responsible for the coordination, management and
supervision of the general administrative functions in the sub-county unit, including —
(a) The development of policies and plans;
(b) Service delivery;
(c) Developmental activities to empower the community;
(d) The provision and maintenance of infrastructure and facilities of public services;
(e) The county public service;
(f) Exercise any functions and powers delegated by the County Public Service Board under
section 86;
(g) Facilitation and coordination of citizen participation in the development of policies and plans
and delivery of services.
2.12.5 National Land Management (National Land commission Act of 2012)
This act establishes the national land commission whose functions are:
Manage public land on behalf of the national and county governments
Recommend a national land policy to the national government
Advise the national government on a comprehensive program for the registration of title
in land throughout Kenya
Conduct research related to land and the use of natural resources, and make
recommendations to appropriate authorities
Initiate investigations, on its own initiative .or on a complaint, into present or historical
land injustices, and recommend appropriate redress
Encourage the application of traditional dispute resolution mechanisms in land conflicts
Assess tax on land and premiums on immovable property in any area designated by law; and
Monitor and have oversight responsibilities over land use planning throughout the country.
35 | P a g e
This means that this commission will oversee land use planning throughout the country which
includes transportation planning to ease traffic jams and snarl ups. It will also conduct research
related to land use which will lead to effective transportation planning.
National land commission will be the overall coordinator of planning throughout the country
hence planning for all land uses in Kenya.
2.12.6 Land Acquisition (Land Acquisition Act)
This gives the state power to acquire land for any development which will be in the interest of
the public (Eminent Domain). In the constitution it is also stipulated that the State may regulate
the use of any land, or any interest in or right over any land, in the interest of defense, public
safety, public order, public morality, public health, or land use planning.
Part II of the land acquisition Act states that:
The Commissioner may in writing authorize any person, together with servants and workmen, to
enter upon any land specified in a notice published under section 3 and to survey the land and to
do all things which may be reasonably necessary to ascertain whether the land is suitable for the
purpose for which it may be required.
Where the minister is satisfied that: the acquisition of the land is necessary in the interests of
defense, public safety, public order, public morality, public health, town and country planning or
the development or utilization of any property in such manner as to promote the public benefit;
and the necessity therefor is such as to afford reasonable justification for the causing of any
hardship that may result to any person interested in the land.
2.12.7 Urban Areas and Cities Act NO. 13 0f 2011
This act sets out the criteria upon which urban areas and cities will be established. Part V is
about integrated development planning. Section 36 (1) requires that every city and municipality
established under this Act shall operate within the framework of integrated development
planning. Urban and city planning shall ensure provision of physical and social infrastructure and
transportation facilities. According to the act the capital city shall decentralize its functions and
the provision of its services to the extent that it is efficient and practicable to do so. Citizen
participation is also emphasized through citizen forum. The city or urban area integrated
development plan shall align to the county development plans. An integrated urban area or city
development plan shall reflect a board‘s or committee‘s vision for the long term development of
the city or urban area with special emphasis on the board‘s or committee‘s most critical
development needs. These critical development needs will be arrived at through citizen
participation.
3.3. Existing policies guiding development along Karatina- Nyeri highway
The major existing policies guiding development along Karatina-Nyeri highway include road
opening guidelines, physical planning Handbook and layout design manual.
The planning Handbook and the layout design manual are design manual by the department of
physical planning in the Ministry of land. The purpose of the planning handbook is to provide
supplemental guidance and standards on the process and practice of land use planning.
36 | P a g e
They make important provisions;
Kiosks
Kiosks and hawking in Kenya needs to be provided for special features in planning. These
informal sectors have remained unrecognized in Kenya and the rest of the developing world.
Kiosks require a minimum size of 3m by 3m if planned for and incorporated in the urban
environment. The most preferred location for these kiosks is near bus parks, open markets and
near tertiary institutions.
Commercial development along major highways such as Karatina-Nyeri highway
Commercial development should observe as guide where by roads which range between 6-18
meters wide the building lines should be 6m from the roads. For roads above 18m the building
lines should be 18m.
Beatification of the main highway- green area network along the shopping malls and complexes
needs to be located along major outlet corridors from the town and have a;
Minimum lot size of 4 acres.
Allow 25% plot coverage
Minimum parking space of one and half meters car park space per every 100sq meters.
37 | P a g e
CHAPTER THREE: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA
3.0 Overview
This chapter provides a summary for the locational context of the research area ranging from the
historical background, analysis of the project area in accordance to the physical/ landscape or
topographical aspects, natural environment characteristics such as temperature, sunshine,
rainfall, wind, drainage, soils, climatic conditions and their resultant effect to the project site over
a given period of time.
This section also discusses the population and demographic characteristics of the project site
including; socioeconomic, cultural and political profile of the currently existing heterogeneous,
homogeneous and catchment population to the project site.
3.1 Background history of Karatina and Karatina- Nyeri highway
Karatina is a town in Central Province, Kenya. It hosts a Mathira sub county and the
headquarters of Mathira East district. Mathira Sub County has a total population of 6,852, all
classified as urban (1999 census. Karatina municipality has six electoral wards, all falling in the
Mathira Constituency. The remaining five wards of Mathira constituency represent Nyeri County
Council. Karatina is on the Nairobi – Nyeri highway which was constructed in 1952, 20
kilometers southeast of Nyeri town and south of Mount Kenya. Karatina is at an elevation of
1868 meters. Karatina is famous for its fresh fruit and vegetable market which operates on
Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, with Saturdays being the busiest day. Karatina also boasts a
university college that is part of Moi University. The college is located 14 kilometers from the
Nairobi-Nyeri highway on the slopes of Mount Kenya. There are two major hospitals in
Karatina, the government funded Karatina General Hospital and Jamii Hospital. In addition,
PCEA TumuTumu Hospital is a few miles west of Karatina.
3.1.1 History of Karatina
The name Karatina is a diminutive term for Muratina - the name of a squash/courgette tree. The
town was founded before the British Colonization of Kenya by Gikuyu women who used to trade
their crafts and food under a courgette (muratina) tree. Women would direct each other on where
to sell or buy merchandise under the Karatina. Mathira means harvest for me. Women from the
area would be heard in the market sending each other to harvest something from their farms. The
British would hear "Mathira (this and that)" and they thought that was the name of the place.
Karatina and the Kenyan Independence Struggle Like many areas around Mount Kenya,
Karatina was a hot-bed of the Mau Mau independence struggle. Many Karatina residents have
real-life memories and have passed on the history of the sufferings meted upon the society
during the independence struggle. Being close to the Mount Kenya, the Mau Mau fighters would
leave the forests and come to find food in the villages created by the colonialists and many
38 | P a g e
residents will vividly tell of the tricks they used to feed the Mau Mau. Most of the elderly men
from this locality were in detention during the Mau Mau reprisals as the authorities feared they
would rebel. Dedan Kimathi, the Mau Mau leader, came from Aguthi, less than fifteen miles
from Karatina. The sons of colonial chiefs were the beneficiaries of the first independent Kenya
Government as was the case in the rest of the country.
3.1.2 Geography
The town lies on a plateau directly below the southern side of Mount Kenya. It is fed by radially
flowing streams running from Mount Kenya towards the lower slopes of the mountain that are
marked by the river Tana, the longest river in Kenya. There are many beautiful inter-locking
spurs, rapids and caves in the streams in this area. The sky-line is intercepted by hills and steep
slopes. River Tana originates from Mount Kenya and meanders through several districts in
Central and Eastern emptying its waters into the Indian Ocean. Its waters have been harnessed
for the Kindaruma Hydro-Electricity Power Station downstream. Its waters host numerous
tropical marine fauna and varied ecosystem ending in a delta at the coast. You are likely to see
some of the most beautiful small scale tea, coffee, dairy and horticultural farms around Karatina.
3.1.3 Tourism
The area has some of the best view points of Mount Kenya and the Aberdare Ranges. Tourist
areas of interest Nyeri Town and the cemetery of Scout movement; the Tree Tops and Arks
Game Viewing are all less than half an hour to the west of Karatina. Mount Kenya Safari Club is
less than fifty miles from Karatina. Karatina is only one and half hours away from Nairobi City.
3.1.4 Karatina Culture
Karatina is essentially an agricultural community with one of the most educated populations in
the country. It also has some of the most well established community built primary and
Secondary schools. Tumu Tumu and Bishop Gatimu Girls Schools have high reputations
nationally. All Boys High Schools including the most reputed were all community developed
through the Harambee movement. Harambee means "all pull together" in Swahili. The
Presbyterian Church of East Africa (PCEA) and Catholicism are the main religious faiths but
Karatina also is the home of a very strong African Independent Church. Antioch Independent
Baptist Churches also have a strong presence with their Headquarters in Karatina.
Languages spoken are predominantly Kikuyu, Swahili and English. Even in the most rural areas
any of these languages can be used as even the average farm worker has been at least to primary
(elementary) school. Commuters use car, bicycle, motorbike and foot even though there is a rail
service from the City and Nanyuki Town. It is an area with steep slopes, with some areas at
almost 80 degrees gradient.
39 | P a g e
3.1.5 Karatina Market
Karatina Market is reputed to be the largest open market in sub-Saharan Africa. The market is
currently dismantled for renovation. The market is the biggest market in the region for sale of
green vegetables and fresh fruits. The market had is market days at Tuesday and Saturday.
3.1.6 University
Karatina University College, which was established and launched in 2007, is 14 km north of
Karatina Town and boasts a spectacular view of the snowcapped peaks of Mount Kenya. The
serene, cool and green environment makes it conducive for academic work. Also boasts of the
clean and adequate water running from Mt.Kenya. It is near the Mt.Kenya forest which hosts all
types of indigenous trees and a home of wild animals. Karatina University College offers a range
of market driven degree, diploma and certificate programs. It runs day and evening classes in
Karatina Town. It is a constituent college of Moi University. Karatina University College as
currently constituted, replaced KTDA Kagochi Training Institute which was first built in the
early 1960s to train tea farmers and managers. The institute was upgraded in 1998-2001 with the
construction of modern infrastructure aimed at training senior KTDA staff.
3.1.7 Schools
Karatina has several private and public schools as listed below.
PRIMARY
D.EB Primary school
Rosewood Academy ( Private)
Brookfield Academy
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Karatina Secondary School
Brookfield High school ( Private)
40 | P a g e
3.1.8 Population
The population of Karatina town during the 1999 census was recorded at 6852 the population
had grown to 23,278 people by 2009. The population has being growing since 1999; the
population however has been slow due to a low infertility due to high consumption of alcohol by
the male populace.
Graph 1: Fertility rate of Nyeri County
Source: Fertility projection rate
Graph 2: Population Composition of Nyeri County
Population pyramid of Nyeri County
41 | P a g e
Population composition
Karatina was initially a Maasai pasture land before the colonial era however the Kikuyu
community pushed the Maasai away from Karatina and Nyeri County in the migration routes in
search for farming land. (Source: linguistic narrative)
This has left Karatina having a 90% composition of the Kikuyu community and the 10% is
shared amongst the Somali community, Ameru, Akamba, Luo and Asians.
Graph 3: Population Projections and growth trends in Nyeri County
Source: Population projection
From the projection of Karatina there has been a steady by slow population growth from 1999-
2009 mostly due to high consumption alcohol; however the low fertility rate is compensated by
the establishment of Karatina University which has balanced the population of the low fertility
rate. The population grows rapidly from 2019-2030 as Karatina has rapidly urbanized and
immigrants have moved into the Karatina ‗city‘. The Karatina-Nyeri highway (great north road)
has been expanded and has stimulated growth in Isiolo which is one of the major upcoming
towns set to benefit by the expansion of Karatina-Nyeri highway. The East Africa integration
process has fully take foot in terms of inter trade between the East African communities making
the road even busier.
Age sex ratio
The age sext ratio for Karatina is 100:103(Male: Female)
Working places
Most residents of Karatina are concentrated in the central business district where many
businesses are located. Most residents live around the towns suburbs such as Giakairu, Blue
42 | P a g e
valley; Muthua, Jambo and Kairudundu just to mention a few. The other percentage commutes
from neighboring villages.
Figure 2: Classifications of work for Karatina town.
Source: 2013 Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) and Society for International
Development (SID)
Average household size
In the study area there were a total of 5817 urban households from 2009 census.
Dependency Ratio
This is a measure of the portion of a population which is composed of dependents (people who
are too young or too old to work). The dependent ratio is equal to the number of individuals aged
between 15 or above 64 divided by the number of individuals aged 15 to 64 expressed as a
percentage. A rising dependency ratio is a concern in many countries that are facing an aging
population. In Karatina the dependence ratio is 100:68 as per 2007. The table below can show
the dependents from their participation in economic activities.
43 | P a g e
Figure 3 The dependency ratio in Karatina
Mortality rate
Mortality is a major contributing factor to population changes. Mortality influences the shape of
the age and sex structure of population. The study of mortality can be categorized into infant
mortality and maternal mortality. The infant mortality rate of Karatina 27/1000 and under five
mortality rates is 34/1000 as per 2007. This means in every 1000 births 27 children do not
survive through birth. This has been caused by home deliveries and also because most pregnant
women do not seek clinic services in between the pregnancies.
Morbidity rate
Morbidity refers to prevalent diseases in Nyeri County as a whole are malaria, urinary tract
infections and skin diseases.
Life expectancy
The life expectancy of Karatina as per 2015 is 61.2 for males and 65.6 for female.
44 | P a g e
Figure 4 Life Expectancy in Nyeri County
Source: population projection
3.2 Description of the study area
Karatina-Nyeri highway is located at the periphery of Karatina town.
History of Karatina-Nyeri highway
Karatina-Nyeri highway was constructed in 1957 by a European company called molem. The
road was meant to link Karatina to Nairobi give its large open air market which had plenty of
green vegetables. The paths of the road was initially through the town and besides Kirigu
primary school but was changed to the current path. The path of the road has influences
developments along the road from Kerugoya junction to total petrol station. Businesses, schools
churches and public utilities have developed along the road due to close proximity to the road.
Karatina sub railway station influenced the development of the road, the railway influenced
construction of warehouses which would collect coffee, maize grains and other goods that were
collected from the warehouse to Nyeri, Kerugoya town which did not have a substation of its
own and to Nairobi which was the major market destination.
45 | P a g e
Land uses along Karatina-Nyeri highway
Karatina-Nyeri highway has attracted major businesses along the stretch under study. These land
uses include commercial, public purpose, educational, recreational, residential land uses.
Residential land use
Major residential land use is in zone B of the study which is from D.E.B primary school to
Kerugoya junctions. The major is Jambo estate characterized by numerous single dwelling
housing mostly for university students and low income labor.
Commercial land use
Major commercial land use is in zone A from D.E.B primary school to Total petrol station they
are informal and formal businesses such as hotels, restaurants, car wash, butcheries, petrol
station and kiosks. However in zone B from D.E.B. primary school to Kerugoya junctions there
are numerous retail shops, kiosks mostly operating at the night, butcheries and car wash.
Public purpose land use
In the study are there are several public purpose land use such as Cemetery, Kiamoo stadium and
Karatina terminal.
Table 3 Karatina Bus terminal
Karatina bus terminal Town served Condition
Karatina bus terminal Karatina-Nairobi Numerous passengers waiting
bays but are not in use.
Its paved though in dilapidated
condition
No sanitary facilities
Numerous shops and fruit
vendors.
No acceleration and deceleration
lanes
46 | P a g e
Karatina bus terminal Karatina-Nairobi Numerous passengers waiting
bays but are not in use.
Its paved though in dilapidated
condition
No sanitary facilities
Numerous shops and fruit
vendors.
No acceleration and deceleration
lanes
Karatina bus terminal Karatina –Kerugoya Numerous passenger waiting
bays but are not in use.
Its paved though in dilapidated
condition
No sanitary facilities
Numerous shops and fruit
vendors.
No acceleration and deceleration
lanes
Karatina bus terminal Karatina- Ngandu Numerous passengers waiting
bays but are not in use.
Its paved though in dilapidated
condition
No sanitary facilities
Numerous shops and fruit
vendors.
No acceleration and deceleration
lanes
47 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.1 Overview
This chapter of the research project will present the field findings in form of bar graphs and pie
charts for better interpretation. The issues to be covered in this sections are factors that attract
activities to the road such as (availability of customers, lack of another site, cheap rents and land
rents, cheap licenses fees) and types of activities and developments (informal and formal) along
the road reserve.
The area under study is divided into two zone A and zone B the two zones are shown in the land
use map below.
Map 2 ZONE A LAND USE MAP
48 | P a g e
4.2 Socio-economic background of the respondents
4.2.1 Age composition of respondents for both formal and informal businesses
Most respondents from the two zones(A,B) are between the ages of 30-34 year and 35-39
respectively, these are young people who have not had formal employment and to earn them a
living they have opened up both formal and informal businesses along the stretch under the
study.
Chart 1 Zone A Age percentages for respondents
Chart 2 Zone B Age percentages for respondents
Source: Field Survey
49 | P a g e
4.2.2 Gender composition of respondents for both formal and informal businesses
The social-cultural beliefs of African communities has it that men should be the providers of the
household this believe is not different from the local community within the study area. The field
study has more male respondents than women at 61.9% and 38.1% respectively demonstrating
that males have taken the role of being breadwinners. Pie charts below will presented the
findings of the field study.
Graph 4 The total gender respondents for zone A
Source: Field Survey
The high number of males than females at zone B is greatly vested to the fact that land is
freehold and land is passed from father to male who determine how they will redevelop their
land. The household heads change use of land besides the roads from farming to commercial
land use to earn them a living.
Chart 3 The total gender respondents for zone B
Source: Field Survey
50 | P a g e
Source: Field Survey
Source: Field Survey4.2.3 Income and Businesses composition of respondents for both formal and
informal businesses
The study area has a mixed businesses composition which is both the formal and informal
businesses. Field survey showed the income gained by both the formal and informal businesses
along the stretch under study. Informal businesses (kiosks) took the high number of businesses
along the stretch and they have a relatively low income output per month which is 999 and below
while the formal businesses take a higher stake of income output above 10,0001 Kenyan
shillings. The pie chart below shows the income percentages of the various formal and informal
businesses at both Zone A and B.
Chart 4 Incomes for businesses along the stretch under study.
51 | P a g e
Source: Field Survey
Chart 5 Businesses along the stretch at Zone A
Source: field survey zone A
Chart 6 Businesses composition at Zone B
52 | P a g e
Source: Field survey Zone B
4.3. Factors encouraging location of the businesses along the Karatina-Nyeri Highway
The study has revealed that there are several reasons why business owners prefer Karatina-Nyeri
highway as their ideal site due to its comparative commercial advantage.
4.3.1. Availability of Customers:
This is the biggest underlying reason which influence both formal and informal businesses to
setup along the Karatina-Nyeri highway both in zone A & B.
Karatina-Nyeri highway links Karatina town with Nyeri, Nairobi, Othaya, Nanyuki and Isiolo
just to mention a few. The highway is part of the great North road which links Egypt to South
Africa this makes the road very busy with vehicle and pedestrian traffic, thus encouraging the
high number of formal and informal businesses along the Karatina-Nyeri highway.
Zone A 71.4% of the sample size identified that the reason they had setup along the highway was
because of the availability of customers due to the busy nature of the road.
The sample size bigger at zone B stood at 75% for those claiming that availability of customers
influenced their decision most to locate along the highway.
Map 3 stretch within Zone A
Adopted from Google Map
From Total Petrol station –D.EB Primary School
53 | P a g e
Graph 5 Reason for location of the businesses
4.8
71.4
19.0 4.80.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
Percent
Percentages of reasons for the location
Low cost of transportation Availabilty of customers
Lack of another site Easy Access of the business by Customers
SOURCE: Field Survey, 2015-2016 (zone A)
Map 4 Stretch within zone B
Stretch under Zone B from D.E.B Primary school- Kerugoya
Junction
54 | P a g e
Source: Field Survey
Graph 6 : Reason for location of Businesses zone B
75.0
10.0 10.0 5.00.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
Percent
Percentages of reasons for the location
Availabilty of customers Lack of another site
Easy Accessibility to Customers Availabilty of Personal Land
SOURCE: Field Survey, 2015-2016 (zone B)
4.3.2 Lack of another site
At zone A 19% of the sample size sighted that the reason they have setup along the highway was
the lack of another site where they can conduct business.
Most informal and formal traders sighted the delayed completion of the modern Karatina market
as the reason why they had to set up along the highway.
Below are Bar graphs of summary of the reason for the location of businesses in zone A and
zone B respectively
Graph 7 Reason for location of Businesses zone A
55 | P a g e
Source: Field Survey, 2015-2016 (zone A)
At zone B the number of respondents who sighted that the reason for location is lack of another
site are 10% less than the 19% at zone A. Zone B does not fall at the jurisdiction of the town and
thus it does not have the influence of an urban area to the locals such as rural-urban migration
and does not exert a lot of pressure for available land or lack of a facility where formal and
informal businesses can conduct business.
Graph 8 Reason for location of Businesses Zone B
Source: Field Survey, 2015-2016 (Zone B)
4.3.3. High Rates of Unemployment among youths
High rate of unemployment among the youth of Mathira Sub-County has encouraged them to
setup formal and informal businesses along the highway to tap on the existing market.
47.6% of the respondents are between the ages of 30- 34 and 23.8% between the ages of 25-29
all these respondents belong to zone A. As can be seen in the bar graphs below;
Graph 9 Ages of business owners at Zone A
Source: Field survey 2015-2016 zone A
56 | P a g e
Zone B is outside the jurisdiction of the town which makes the land freehold. This empowers
land owners to easily change use for their land from farming to commercial. There is a difference
of age brackets from zone A and zone B due to the fact that most of the formal business owner
practice both farming and business unlike in Zone A where informal business owners only have
one occupation. 40% of the respondents fall between the ages of 35-39 and 35% fall between the
ages of 30-34.
Graph 10 Age percentages for Zone B
Source: Field Survey 2015-2016 (zone B)
4.3.4 Business which pay license fees
71% of businesses pay license fee, these mostly are formal businesses and the informal mitumba
businesses the high number is because formal businesses are spread evenly along the stretch at
zone A and also since some informal businesses pay rents. 29% of the total sample size do not
pay license fee mostly kiosk with the exception of mitumba businesses which pay license fee.
Chart 7 Businesses which pay License fee at zone A
Source: Field survey 2015-2016 Zone A
57 | P a g e
At zone B 75% of businesses pay licenses these are the formal businesses and 25% do not pay
licenses these are informal businesses which operate mostly at night.
Chart 8 Businesses which pay licenses fee at zone B
Source: Field survey 2015-2016 Zone B
4.3.5 Rents paid by traders along the Karatina-Nyeri Highway
A majority of 71% of traders in zone A pay land rents majority of which are the formal and
informal businesses with the addition of mitumba businesses which Mathira sub-county bill
annual plot rents.
19% of the sample size do not pay any types of rents these mostly are informal businesses
owners which is one of the underlying reason why informal activities have set up along road
reserves.
Karatina Sub-County licensing head through an interview declared that the Sub-County does not
licenses the informal activities such as kiosks. However they demand a ten shillings fee from the
informal businesses which act both as a license fee and land rate fee.
58 | P a g e
Chart 9 The types of rents paid at zone A
Source: Field study 2015-2016 Zone A
At zone B 65% of respondents do not pay rents of any kind since most own the land while 20%
of the respondents pay house rents and these are entrepreneurs who have rented space to house
their businesses.
Chart 10 Percentage of types of rents paid at zone B
Source: Field study 2015-2016
59 | P a g e
From the field study one of the informal respondents provided a receipt which shows the ten
shillings that they pay to the local authority to provide them with legitimacy to operate around
the town and along the road reserve.
Picture 3Nyeri county government receipt for informal traders.
4.4. Types of activities along the road reserves
Kiosks are the main informal businesses along zone A making up 28.6% of the total informal
businesses respondents followed closely by mitumba sheds with 14% of the sample size.
Zone A host numerous formal businesses being within the town center, petrol stations make up
14% of the total sample size of formal businesses followed by supermarkets at 9% of the total
sample size.
60 | P a g e
Chart 11 Business composition at zone A
Reta il shop5%Hotel and
Restaurants
5%Supermarket
9%
Boutique5%
Kiosks28%
Petrol Station
14%
Open space5%
Car Wash5%
Mitumba14%
Butchery5%Welding
5%
Percent of composition of businesses at zone A
Retail shop Hotel and Restaurants SupermarketBoutique Kiosks Petrol StationOpen space Car Wash Mitumba
Butchery Welding
Source: Zone A field work 2015-2016
At Zone B retail shops make up the highest number of formal businesses with a total of 40% of
the total sample size because land within zone B is free hold while temporary kiosks make up
15% of the total informal businesses sampled operating on the road reserves operating at night.
Graph 11 Composition of Businesses
Source: Field Survey 2015-2016 zone
61 | P a g e
4.6. Summary of the findings
TYPES OF ACTIVITIES AND DEVELOPMENTS ALONG KARATINA-NYERI
HIGHWAY
Along the stretch there is a large number of informal activities operating along the road
reserves. These activities are usually wooden kiosks selling small items such sweets and
operate at specific times of the day depending on the zone; at zone A informal activities
operate during the day while at Zone B these informal activities operate during the night
between 6.00pm to 8.00pm.
In both zones formal development are evenly distributed along the stretch particularly at
zone A due to the influence of the urban setup. Most notable formal businesses are;
2 Supermarkets
5 Petrol stations
2 Restaurants
2 Banks
Most of the informal businesses are not within the road reserves but their parking parks
plots are on the road reserves this is particularly at zone A.
EFFECTS OF THESE ACTIVITIES ALONG KARATINA-NYERI HIGHWAY
From the field work formal and informal activities have different effects on the highway.
Formal activities are the sole cause of slow moving traffic along the stretch especially at
zone A.
Formal businesses have created multiple conflict points along the stretch this is mostly
when traffic is accessing and exiting these formal businesses.
Multiple bumps have been constructed along the stretch mostly at zone A to slow traffic
down to enable pedestrians access formal businesses, these bumps have directly slowed
traffic along the stretch.
Informal activities have pushed pedestrians on the road carriage since they have setup on
pedestrians designated area.
MAJOR PROBLEMS IDENTIFIED DURING THE STUDY
Narrow carriage way: the carriageway has remained the same despite the apparent
increase in population from 1957 when the highway was constructed. During the peak
hours and holidays the number of vehicles is usually higher and this overstretches the
highway capacity leading to traffic jams.
Rogue informal businesses along the road reserves: Most of the informal of the informal
businesses owner along Karatina-Nyeri highway have consent from the Sub-county
62 | P a g e
authority however some sneak in their shed at the cover of the night and just set up at any
location regardless of the effects their action will have on traffic flow along the highway.
Lack of footbridges: Karatina-Nyeri lacks footbridges which would help reduce human –
vehicular conflicts for pedestrian trying to access either the formal or informal activities
on both sides of the road.
Lack of footpaths: During the construction of the highway footpaths were no constructed
and have yet to be constructed these has forced pedestrians on the road since the space
they would have used has been occupied by formal and informal activities.
Lack of organization of developments: Along the stretch at zone A the formal
developments have set up just meters of each other for example Total and Mogas are less
than 20 meters away from each other and this causes a major problem as it does not
enable the traffic to recover from the conflict created by either of the petrol stations.
63 | P a g e
CHAPTER FIVE: PLANNING IMPLICATIONS
5.1. Increasing Urbanization and Population
Kenya is experiencing rapid population alongside urbanization processes, since the urban set-ups
are the prime locations of deriving job opportunities, accessing better community services, better
and higher educational learning institutions. Karatina is highly transforming into an urban set-up
due to the better access of Karatina-Nyeri highway alongside the increasing educational facilities
coming up in the area i.e. Karatina University.
Karatina University has recently been opened in Karatina central business district and this has
resulted to an increase in population and demand of goods and services. The change of demand
has encouraged land owners in zone B to subdivide their land and redevelop to residential
houses. The increase in population due to these new housing units has in turn increased demand
for groceries and other commodities thus encouraging Kiosks owners to setup along the road and
retail shops to meet the risen demand. Reciprocation of these developments along the highway
towards the town creates a barrier restricting future expansion of the road incase more land is
needed to build special facilities such as foot paths.
5.2 Encroachment by Uncontrolled Development
Encroachment of footpaths designates paths by kiosks traders has pushed pedestrian to the road
causing human conflicts along the stretch. Traffic flow has slowed dramatically more so with the
construction of bumps. The highway hasn‘t been modified with deceleration and acceleration
lanes to give way to formal facilities this has contributed to the slow traffic within zone A. Such
encroachments are experienced for both the formal and informal activities, formal commercial
developments along the highway such as shopping malls whose parking extend to the footpaths
constantly causing conflict zones along the highway hence generating unnecessary traffic jam.
5.3 Inadequate and ineffective market facilities
The available markets in the neighborhood of Karatina and Karatina towns have their spaces
exhausted hence making them inadequate and ineffective in accommodating the large number of
traders both formal and informal; this has prompted the hawkers and some other traders to seek
for customers‘ base along the Karatina- Nyeri road, resulting to occupation of the spaces found
along the footpaths and reserves of the highway which in turn push the pedestrians further in to
the carriage hence causing severe conflicting zones along the highway.
5.4 Inappropriate carriage way standards
The 2010 constitution brought about devolution which shifted the economic, political
arrangements from a central arrangement to a decentralized system. This has basically stimulated
economic growth which is contributing to high number of traffic flow. Despite the high number
of vehicles and pedestrians using the carriage the width of the road has remained the same with
no expansion projects done to meet standards of 60 Meters wide as provided in the physical
64 | P a g e
planning handbook 2007 for an international truck road. This has contributed to the traffic jams
since the road cannot handle the high number of vehicular and pedestrians flow.
5.5. Inadequate sewer and storm water drainage system
The planning implication for these developments is in the future when the jurisdiction of the
town will expand to zone B major sanitation problems will arise since the sewage facilities are
inadequate for the large population. The highways is not properly serviced with storm water
drainages on either side of the road , with the available drains used further for the solid wastes
dumping by the illegal traders along the reserve plus the consuming pedestrians using the road.
5.6 Inappropriate solid waste management mechanism
The management of solid wastes by the County government is not effective and sufficient
enough; the informal traders generate a lot of wastes along the road with a majority of the solid
wastes going uncollected, this act makes the available storm water drains and the surrounding
environment vulnerable to the disposal of the solid wastes by the informal business practitioners.
5.7 Lack of implementation of the controlling and regulating legal policies
The formal commercial traders seek for business permits which are awarded in disregard to their
places of set-up of the businesses, the shopping facilities along the highway encroach the
reserves into the carriage way affecting the flow of traffic immensely but yet they were provided
with operational licenses which before provision should be assessed by checking the building
lines in accordance to zoning ordinance ; these rules of assessment before establishment of
development activities are overruled leading to uncontrolled development activities.
5.8 Proposed Alternative Approaches for improving the efficient and effective traffic flow
along Karatina- Nyeri Road
5.8.1. Alternative 1: Provision of Adequate and Accommodative marketing facilities in Mathira
Sub-County followed by demolition and relocation of informal businesses along the highway.
This approach proposes an improvement of the current existing situation through demolition and
relocation of the current existing formal and informal land uses along the road reserve. The
demolition and relocation activities should be commenced after a proper provision of adequate,
efficient and largely accommodative and integrating marketing facilities for both the informal
and formal businesses.
This would confine the business persons to an accessible location by the customers; the markets
should be made of modern permanent adequate stalls for every trader after obtaining permits.
This thus puts pressure to the hasten completion of Karatina open air market.
Merits
i. A short term operation which will drive away mostly the informal business activities along
the road giving space for expansions and easy flow of traffic.
ii. An easy to implement strategy
65 | P a g e
Demerits
i. Only a short term strategy of a maximum of 5 years of effectiveness
ii. Lacks implementation policies and regulating statutes/ laws hence lacks managerial and
monitoring values.
iii. This approach would affect highly only the informal business persons with the formal
commercial developments left to continue operating, yet the same also causes serious traffic
bottlenecks by encroaching into the road reserve.
iv. Hawkers and informal business operators would not settle into a market place and wait for
the customers but would rather move to access the same, hence this approach is much
theoretical than practical development activity.
v. The approach will cause problems in other sectors such as security since most informal
businesses people will be left without employment.
5.8.2 Alternative 2: Improving the standards of the highway and integrating commercial activities
along it.
In improving the standards of the Karatina-Nyeri Highway, spaces occupied by the informal and
formal business would have to be relocated to create space for the improvement which requires
at least 60m width facilitating a dual carriage way with sufficient road reserve provision.
Alongside the expansion of the road, commercial activities already existing along the road shall
be relocated and immediately integrated along the road in the following criteria:
Adequate land shall be set aside along the road on either side, at a given interval, these parcels of
land shall be accessed by service lanes from the highway and the set- aside lands should be
placed at least 30m from the highway reserves.
These lands shall be subdivided for commercial business activities such shopping supermarkets,
hotels, properly designed removable or permanent structure, co-operative bank services, food
vending courts.
These business facilities shall meet given standard requirements for the set-up including;
drainage services, sewer lines, sanitary facilities, solid waste management facilities, adequate
water and lighting services, permanent structures not prone to fire outbreaks.
These centers shall be equipped with parking facilities of at least 20 vehicles at the same time,
these vehicles should take a maximum of 30mins at the parking lot upon which they will be
forced to leave.
The distance between the shopping centers and the road reserve shall be planted low vegetation
cover to act as buffer zones keeping the naughty traders from accessing the road‘s reserve.
66 | P a g e
Merits
i. It is a long term strategy which can serve the neighborhood and release pressure of the
highway from encroachment for a maximum of 20-30 years depending on population growth
rate.
ii. It transforms the informal business activities into formal activities without charging extra
costs on the informal traders.
iii. All kind of goods and services are accessed in a particular point ,
iv. The traders have the pleasure to wait at their locations since all the traffic passes through the
service lanes and even park for a given period of time providing customer –trader‘s relation
for a maximum period of time.
v. Buffer zones enhances the aesthetic look/nature of the highway hence psychologically
keeping off the hawkers
Demerits
i. Lacks legislation regulation and monitoring since do not involve the policies and statutes/
laws upon its implementation
ii. It is very expensive to implement since the land values could be very high
iii. Possible reluctance from the formal business developments from adopting strategy since they
would require a lot of compensation to allow for the demolition of their structures.
iv. Lacks sensitization and mobilizing effects, hence majority of the traders would not
understand the idea.
5.8.3 Alternative 3: Non-Structural Approach
This approach involves the use of social-economic and environmental policies of the County
Government. This is done by the guidance of the set conditions and standards which at the end
will maintain the effective management and integration of commercial activities with the
transportation system.
The legislation is enacted so as to guide improvements on the provision of licenses and
controlling developments, effectiveness in infrastructure service. It will involve standards such
as storm water pollution control, i.e. source is controlled by imposing quality standards of
wastewater and solid waste disposals in urban environments, to adapt devices to control the solid
waste generation, to improve the quality of accessing network, to guide solid waste sorting and
storage at the premises itself by owners before releasing to the public facility such as collector
trucks/wagons/trash containers.
Advantages of this approach are that:
i. It is a long term solution to integration of the business activities
67 | P a g e
ii. Once it is enacted it becomes a regular practice in the community like a ‗norm‘ hence few or
no such occurrences of ineffectiveness, it is easy to manage in that you break the law and it is
punishable offence under the court of law.
The disadvantages of this alternative are that:
i. It needs to be integrated with other county laws hence it can take longer time.
ii. In addition, some standards may become a challenge especially to low income-small scale
business.
iii. It lacks a structural approach to be guide and form since it‘s only a legislation framework.
5.8.4. Alternative 4: Integrating Alternative 2 and Alternative 3 Approaches
This is a combination of two alternative approaches i.e. Alternative 2 and the Alternative 3.
Alternative 2 is very much structural but lacks the legislation implementation factors that will
guide the monitoring, standards setting and regulation measures recommended for any planning
development activity to be operational; Alternative 3 is purely legislative and will guide the
provision of various policies, statutes, standard measures, regulating laws/statutes and finally
provide control the development processes.
Upon integration of these Approaches a preferred alternative is reached with is both structural
and non-structural for the making of an integrated effective commercial and transportation
systems for efficient traffic flow along Karatina-Nyeri highway.
5.8.5 Preferred Alternative: Integration Approach (Alternative 2 & 3)
Considering the weaknesses and strengths of alternatives 2&3, an integrated approach is arrived
at; these approaches shall solve each other‘s weaknesses and combine the strengths. The
integrated approach is structural and non-structural, structural in the sense that: it will create and
design practically felt structures for business activities and transportation system properly
designed to a given requirements standards, and it is non-structural since : it will involve creation
and adoption of the already existing legal standards measurements for designing the road,
parking facilities and development control measures including zoning and building lines for the
commercial activities.
68 | P a g e
CHAPTER SIX: RECOMMEDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Overview
The 2010 constitution devolved planning to the county level, however many counties still face a
looming problems with inadequate personnel to plan for all of its sub-counties. Case in point is
the Mathira sub-county does not have a planner stationed there to oversee planning activities in
the sub county. Lack of a dedicated planning department has resulted in failures in some sectors
such as housing, sanitation and traffic jams along Karatina-Nyeri highway and within the town.
For instance due to the Karatina University setting up within Karatina town the demand for
housing has increased and no plan has been formulated to identify some of the areas which can
accommodate the students now and in the future.
The boda boda sector has been on the rise and despite this being the case no central stage has
been proposed to house the boda boda cyclists, the prevailing station on the ground is the
construction of numerous shed by Members of Council Authority (MCA) and Member of
Parliament (M.P) without any planning consideration on the benefits and challenges.
The following are some of the recommendations that this research paper proposes to inform
6.0. RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. Overview
The Mathira Sub-County officials have an important role to play in controlling the informal
activities along the road reserves in zone A and B.
The recommendations will be grouped in short term and long term projects.
6.2. SHORT TERM RECOMMENDATIONS
6.2.1. Registration of all the informal business along the highway
First and foremost is the registration of all the informal businesses along the highway to provide
a control measure for those who set up at the cover of the night. The registration will have
requirement for provision of a special kind of license which will stipulate the protocols such as
maintain cleanliness, paying charges as agreed either monthly on daily.
6.2.2. Designating strategy locations along the highway as trading centers connected by
service lanes and parking lots
The second is the authority should designate a location along the stretch where kiosks owners
can setup. The area selected shall have a steady flow of pedestrian and low levels of traffic flow
so as to avoid conflicts. This can be archived with the provision of proper service lanes alongside
parking lots just besides the designed kiosks and trading facilities at least 20m from the carriage
way on either side of the road for the incoming and outgoing traffic components.
69 | P a g e
6.2.3. Only Properly Designed formal trading hubs meeting certain standard requirements
should be allowed along the road
The kiosks owners should be provided with a set of requirements of how the kiosks shall be
designed like either to be moveable or fixed depending on the location allocated. These design
requirements shall ease relocation and protect traders from theft, damage by weather and also to
maintain a high level of cleanliness especially if goods are food stuff. The will create order and
in the future ensure that other developments are not affected by the kiosks.
The designed trading facilities meeting the set-out standards of permanent movable or fixed
structure, solid waste management facilities, connection to proper infrastructural services such
appropriate drainage should be located at a minimum of 20m from the main roads reserve.
Example of a design for a kiosk
Picture: 1.5 Modern Kiosk designs
Source: Google
6.2.4. Operation length of at least 20m from the highway reserves
Kiosks will be required to operate at least 20 meters away from the road‘s reserve to ensure that
they do not encroach to the footpaths. The requirement will stop pedestrians from being pushed
to the highway as is the case now. The incoming traffic will have to use a service lane to access
the kiosks hence easing off traffic from the main carriage way, vehicles will have to use the
available parking spaces in front of the kiosk for a given period of time ( 15mins), upon which
they would be required to move out of the zone.
70 | P a g e
6.2.5. Creation of buffer zone between the modified kiosk and the highway
In this case green vegetation cover shall be planted in between the service lanes and the highway
to act as buffer zones tagged with penalties upon crossing over the buffer. This would drive way
the traders who would cunningly wish to access the customers mainly the pedestrians over to the
highway‘s reserve.
6.3. LONG TERM
6.3.1. Removal of the carriage way bumps near Uchumi Supermarket and Total
supermarket
Within zone A the bumps which have been installed near Uchumi supermarket and near total
supermarket should be removed and the places provided with particular speed of movement i.e.
20kph. These bumps are the biggest contributor of traffic jams and give a false perspective thus
encouraging kiosks owners and hawkers who immediately hijack the traffic due to the bumps to
sell their products over to the passengers and pedestrians.
6.3.2. Demolition and relocation
Uchumi supermarket has its parking at the front of the facility which falls on the road reserve the
parking should be relocated to the back of the facility, i.e. their current present location in front
of the facility attracts traffic accessing and exiting the facility hence causing stoppage which
holds traffic therefore causing traffic jams.
Hence the entire commercial developments whose service facilities encroach into the reserves
and the carriage way should be demolished and relocated to the correct sections according to the
zoning requirements.
6.3.3. Provision of acceleration and deceleration lanes
Major formal facility should be provided for with an acceleration and deceleration lane with
consent of the road authority. This will stop the traffic jams significantly since those accessing
these formal businesses will be separated from the traffic flow hence easing the flow of traffic
along the highway.
6.3.4. Provision of rightful permits according to zoning ordinance for a controlled
development
The zone B area the council should ensure that they demand a permit be sought before
construction of the single dwellings. This will control developments of buildings in the area and
avoid future conflicts especially if the houses are put up inches from the boundary of the road.
The buildings regulations will also ensure that developers comply with the building line, hence
fading off the development encroachments to the road‘s reserve.
6.3.5. Development of standard accommodative markets in Mathira Sub-County
In zone B the Mathira sub county authority should buy land and construct markets which will
serve zone B and also help in decongestion of the main Market. Construction of a standard storey
71 | P a g e
market would be very efficient and motivate the traders to use the facility hence getting them off
from the roads sides and the hawkers getting their permanent stalls accessible by the customers.
6.3.6. Construction of footpaths
There will be construction of footpaths which help prevent human conflicts the footpaths. These
footpaths will main a steady flow of traffic.
6.3.7 Construction of frontage roads
Given the limited land space within the town‘s the best practice used by other countries is
construction of frontage roads which will divert traffic that needs to access the formal businesses
and perhaps traffic that needs to access the town from the highway thus reducing traffic jams.
Picture: showing a frontage road
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, commercial and transportation system are compatible land-uses but the sense of
compatibility will only be realized with an effective and efficient integration approach s adopted
in the County.
Kenyan roads have been since encroached by both the informal and formal business
developments and residential land-uses. Weak implementations of controlled development by the
responsible actors have not effectively from the pressure of encroachment.
72 | P a g e
With increasing population and urbanization, the roads will continue to experience the pressure
from the adjacent other land uses since the population resulting from the urbanization is never
planned for in prior according to the recommendation by the physical planning act.
The escalating unemployment rates has prompted the youths to seek self-employment by
engaging themselves into informal business practices by avoiding tax permits, this has led to the
contrition of highly encroachment to the roads and hawking activities causing serious conflict
zones along the roads.
These conflicts of contestation of space pushes the pedestrian out of the road‘s reserve to the
carriage way causing human and vehicular traffic conflicts hence causing a lot of traffic jams .
Hence, this research project has recommended for establishment an integrated effective
commercial and transportation systems for efficient traffic flow along Karatina-Nyeri highway.
73 | P a g e
REFERENCES
The Physical Planning Act Chapter 286 Revised Edition 2010 (1996)
Physical planning act chapter 286 Revised Edition 2012 [2010]
Land control Act 2012
The Traffic Act Chapter 403 Revised Edition 2009 (1993)
The Urban Areas and Cities Act, 2011
Kenya Web 2006: "Transport: Transporters."
http://www.kenyaweb.com/transport/transporters.html
http://www.dantmoore3.com/uploads/images/cape_to_cairo/cape_to_cairo_approx_route.pg
http://visibleearth.nasa.gov
Info please 2006: "Kenya." http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/AO107678.html last access April 9th,
2006.
International Labour Organization 2006: "Kenya: The Roads 2000 Strategy."
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/recon/eiip/countries/africa/kenya.htm last access
April 9th, 2006.
The Underground Economy: Tax Evasion and Information Distortion, Cambridge University
Press, Allingham, M.G., and Sandmo, A., 1972. ‗‘Income Tax Evasion: A Theoretical
Anderson, J.H., 1998. ―The Size, Origins, and Character of Mongolia‘s Informal Sector
World Bank WP 1916.
www.agc.org/galleries/news/National%20Congestion%20Survey.pdf
http://cms.ce.ufl.edu/news_events/Dincer.pdf
Cernea, M. 1988. Involuntary Resettlement in Development Projects: Policy Guidelines in World
Bank-jinanced Projects.
World Bank Technical Paper No. 80. Washington DC: World Bank.
74 | P a g e
Cernea, M.M. and S.E. Guggenheim, eds. 1993. Anthropological Approaches to Resettlement:
Policy, Practice and Theoy.
Cernea, M.M. 1993. ‗The Urban Environment and Population Relocation. World Bank
Discussion Paper 152. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 1990. ―Involuntary Resettlement.‖ Operational Directive No. 4.30, The World
Bank Operational Manual.
Central Bureau of Statistics (2011) Kenya Population Census 2009, Government Printer Nairobi
Cervero Robert and Ewing R. (2001): Travel and the Built Environment: A Synthesis,
Transportation Research Record 1780.
Republic of Kenya (2008): Kenyan Vision 2030, Government Printer, Nairobi
Republic of Kenya (2009): Sessional paper No. 3 on the National Land Policy, Government
Printer, Nairobi
Republic of Kenya (2010): Constitution of Kenya 2010, Government Printer, Nairobi
Republic of Kenya (1968): Land Acquisition Act Cap 295, Government Printer, Nairobi