Encyclopedia of

Islamand the

Muslim World

Islam htp 10/15/03 3:04 PM Page 1

Editorial Board

i i

Editor in Chief

Richard C. MartinProfessor of Islamic Studies and History of Religions

Emory University, Atlanta

Associate Editors

Sad Amir ArjomandProfessor of Sociology

State University of New York, Stony Brook

Marcia HermansenProfessor of Theology

Loyola University, Chicago

Abdulkader TayobUniversity of Cape Town, South Africa

International Institute for the Study of Islam in the Modern World, Netherlands

Assistant Editor

Rochelle DavisTeaching Fellow, Introduction to the Humanities Program

Stanford University

Editorial Consultant

John O. VollCenter for Muslim-Christian Understanding

Georgetown University

Encyclopedia of

Islamand the

Muslim World

Editor in ChiefRichard C. Martin

Volume 1A-L

Islam_tpv1 10/15/03 4:07 PM Page 1

Encyclopedia of

Islamand the

Muslim World

Editor in ChiefRichard C. Martin

Volume 2M-Z, Index

Islam_tpv2 10/16/03 10:12 AM Page 1

Encyclopedia of IslamRichard C. Martin, Editor in Chief

2004 by Macmillan Reference USA.Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of TheGale Group, Inc., a division of ThomsonLearning, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world / edited by Richard C.Martin.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-02-865603-2 (set) ISBN 0-02-865604-0 (v. 1) ISBN0-02-865605-9 (v. 2)

1. IslamEncyclopedias. I. Martin, Richard C.BP40.E525 2003909.097671dc21

2003009964

This title is also available as an e-book.ISBN 0-02-865912-0

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Contents

v

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixList of entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiList of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiiiSynoptic outline of entries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxiList of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxv

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ISLAM AND THE MUSLIM WORLD

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749Appendix: Genealogies and Timelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785

Editorial and Production Staff

v i

Kate Millson and Corrina MossProject Editors

Joann Cerrito, Melissa Hill, and Mark MikulaEditorial Support

Jonathan AretakisCopy Chief

Nancy GrattonCopy Editor

Ann McGlothlin WellerProofreader

Barbara CohenIndexer

Barbara YarrowManager, Imaging and Multimedia Content

Dean DauphinaisSenior Editor, Imaging and Multimedia Content

Lezlie LightImaging Coordinator

Deanna RasoPhoto Researcher

Shalice Shah-CaldwellResearch Associate

Cynthia Baldwin and Jennifer WahiArt Directors

AutobookcompTypesetter

Ed i to r i a l and P roduc t ion S t a f f

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld v i i

Mary Beth TrimperManager, Composition

Evi SeoudAssistant Manager, Composition

Rhonda WilliamsPrint Buyer

MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA

Frank MenchacaVice President

Hlne PotterDirector, New Product Development

Introduction

i x

A growing number of scholars and pundits have declared that the twenty-first century will be theera of Islam. Such predictions, whether intended in a positive or negative light, err in failing toappreciate the spread and influence of Islam during the past millennium and a half, especially onthe continents of Asia and Africa. Nonetheless, events during the first decade of the newmillennium have underscored the importance of knowing about Islamic history and understand-ing the great diversity and richness of Muslim social, cultural, and religious practices. Suicidebomber attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington,D.C., on September 11, 2001, killed over three thousand persons. These tragic events and themedia coverage of the aftermath as well as of the two wars subsequently fought in the Muslimcountries of Afghanistan and Iraq have dramatically shown how little is known in the West aboutIslam and the Muslim world. Islam is, and has been for nearly fifteen centuries, a global religiousand political phenomenon. Muslim networks of communication, from the annual pilgrimage toMecca to the vast new power of the World Wide Web, have enabled Muslims to establishpostmodern identities in a rapidly changing world, while at the same time preserving andreinvigorating a variety of time-honored traditions and practices. The Encyclopedia of Islam and theMuslim World is a sourcebook of information about Islam, its past and present, addressed tostudents and general readers as the twenty-first century begins its first decade.

The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World presents in two volumes some 504 articles,alphabetically arranged, in incremental lengths generally of 200, 500, 1,000, 3,000, and 5,000words. The work of some 500 scholars appears in these pages, carefully reviewed and edited in acommon style for easy access by readers who may presently have limited or no knowledge ofIslam. It has also been prepared as a teaching and learning resource for teachers and students,from the high school grades through university. The alphabetical ordering of articles that follow,in the List of Articles, will enable readers to locate topics of interest quickly. A synoptic outline ofthe contents of the Encyclopedia, found within the frontmatter on pages xxxixxxiv, providesreaders with an overview by topic and subtopic of the range and kinds of information presented inthe main body of the Encyclopedia. Approximately 170 photographs, drawings, maps, and chartsappear throughout the two volumes. A glossary in the back matter of volume two, which listscommonly used Arabic and other Islamic terms, such as sharia, or Islamic law, will enablegeneral readers to determine quickly the meaning of essential but perhaps less familiar terms inIslamic studies.

The Encyclopedia is truly an international work that reflects the diversity of ideas and practicesthat have characterize the Islamic world throughout its history. This diversity is reflected amongthe editors who organized and compiled this work and the scores of scholars who wrote thearticles contained in it. The associate editors national origins are Canada, Iran, and South Africa;their religious affiliations or backgrounds include Sunni and Shiite Islam; and their scholarlytraining has been in sociology, the history of religions, and Islamic studies. An even greater

I n t roduc t ion

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldx

diversity exists among the contributing scholars who live and teach in North America, Europe,Africa, and Asia, including the Middle East. They represent the fields of history, philosophy,religious studies, anthropology, sociology, political science, and the fine arts, among others. In itstotality, then, this work represents a broad expanse of scholarly knowledge about Islam, accessiblein two volumes.

Islam increasingly is recognized as a vital force in the contemporary world, a source ofcollective social identity, and religious expression for over one billion people around the world,who comprise a fifth of the global population. Public interest in learning about Islam is a veryrecent phenomenon, however. Events of the past few decades have generated a demand forinformation about Islam on an unprecedented scale in the history of Islamic studies in the West.In negative terms, these events include violence: the colonial and postcolonial encountersbetween Europeans and Muslims in Asia and Africa, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Hindu-Muslim clashes in South Asia, Serbian ethnic cleansing of Muslim populations in the Balkans, andthe heavily televised American-led wars in the Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq. In positive terms, therecent years have seen productive Muslim diaspora communities emerge in Europe and theAmericas, Islamic patterns of democracy and civil society develop in some countries in Africa andAsia, and venues of dialogue arise among Muslims, Jews, and Christians about their commonmoral and social concerns as well as their differences. That non-Muslims are learning more aboutIslam and their Muslim neighbors through tools like this encyclopedia must also be counted as apositive turn, and a much-needed one.

Scholars, journalists, and writers of all sorts have responded robustly to this newly recognizedimportance of Islam and the Muslim world, thus creating a wealth of information about Islamnow available in bookstores, libraries, and newsstands around the world. More significant forreaders of this work, the Internet hosts an expanding plethora of Web sites on Islamic teachings,practices, sectarian groups, and organizations. Many Web sites are sponsored by Muslimscholars, organizations, and institutions and provide authentic, and sometimes competing,information about Islamic beliefs and practices. Unfortunately, others offer hostile interpreta-tions of Islam. The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World is designed to help students andgeneral readers cope with this growing demand and almost overwhelming supply of information.

The decision to call this work the Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World was made afterconsidering other, less felicitous alternatives. The editors wanted to produce a work that wasabout Islamic cultures, religion, history, politics, and the like as well as the people who haveidentified with Islam over the past fourteen centuries. For the scope of the social and culturalaspects of the subject matter of the Encyclopedia, the editors chose the phrase Muslim World.The label Muslim World is not meant to suggest that diversity and variety are lacking in whatMuslims think, believe, and do as Muslims. Nor is the Muslim World as represented in this workto be thought of as separate from the rest of the world. Indeed, it will be clear to readers of articleson virtually all topics included below that Islamic history and Muslim people have been deeplyand richly engaged in and interacting with world history and are perhaps even more so in themodern world, as the late Marshall G. S. Hodgson so persuasively argued in his monumentalthree-volume work, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (1974).

The growing demand for accessible knowledge about Islam in recent decades has produced anumber of histories, encyclopedias, and dictionaries that serve different purposes. In addition toHodgsons comprehensive historical essay on Islamic civilization, The Cambridge History of Islam(1970) brought together substantial treatments of historical periods and geographical regions ofIslamic societies. Another important and even older work that is widely used by scholars is theongoing project known as the Encyclopaedia of Islam. The first edition was published in fourvolumes in Leiden (19081938); the second and much larger edition recently reached itscompletion in twice as many volumes with a significantly expanded list of contributing scholars;and the third edition is now being planned. The Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World bringsto general readers in accessible form the rich tradition of serious scholarship on Islam and Muslimpeoples found in the Cambridge History and the Encyclopaedia of Islam, and it addresses informationabout Islam in the twenty-first century that is not discussed in the older sources. More recently,

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I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld x i

the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World (1995) appeared in four volumes. The focus ofthis latter work is, as the title suggests, on Islam in the modern world, generally dated from thebeginning the eighteenth century through the last decade of the twentieth. The Encyclopedia ofIslam and the Muslim World by contrast seeks to contextualize contemporary Islam within thelonger history of Islam, and it includes discussion of significant world events involving the Islamicworld over the past decade.

In preparing this new resource on Islam, the editors sought to frame some of the traditional aswell as the more recent aspects of Islam in newer categories. Thus, for example, readers will findarticles covering Material Culture, Vernacular Islam, Identity, Muslim, Secularism,Disputation, and Expansion of Islam. A major feature of the Encyclopedia is the large numberof brief biographical sketches (nearly two hundred) of major figures in Islamic history, men andwomen, past and present. The editors also included articles on several important and sometimescontested ethical and social issues, including Ethnicity, Gender, Homosexuality, HumanRights, and Masculinities, along with the more traditional entries on gender (usuallyconcentrating on the feminine roles) and marriage. The events of September 11, 2001, occurredafter the Table of Contents was prepared and authors were commissioned to write the articles.Nonetheless, new articles on Terrorism, Usama bin Ladin, and al-Qaida, among others,were added.

History, of course, will continue to unfold for humankind worldwide, including Muslims. TheEncyclopedia includes a number of interpretive articles, such as Ethics and Social Issues, whichprovide frameworks for understanding ongoing events in Islamic history.

Editorial style is a matter of great importance in a work such as the Encyclopedia. Readers caneasily get lost in technical terms and diacritical marks on words borrowed from Arabic andPersian. Integrating work from a great number of scholars from around the world, each withdiffering practices in academic expression and in transliterating Islamic languages into Latinletters, presented some challenges to the academic editors and the editorial staff at Macmillan.To make things easier on readers, especially for those not initiated into the argots of Islamictechnical terms, the editors decided to minimize the diacritical marks on loanwords from Arabic,Persian, Urdu, Turkish, and other Islamic languages. We encouraged authors and copy editors toromanize those Islamic terms that have made it into the English language, such as jihad, hajj, andRamadan, as evidenced by their inclusion in modern dictionaries such as Websters Third NewInternational Dictionary. Where it seemed helpful, editors supplied brief parenthetical definitionsand identifications, both in the text and in the Glossary.

The people who made this project possible brought great ideas to it, are extremely talentedand competent, and were wonderful to work with. Hlne Potter, Macmillans Director of NewProduct Development, designed the project and brought to it a considerable knowledge aboutIslam. More than an industry leader, Hlne became first and foremost a friend and colleague.She is an accomplished professional with an uncanny understanding of the knowledge industryshe serves. Corrina Moss, an Assistant Editor with Macmillan, worked on the project throughoutand kept in touch daily on editorial matters large and small. To Corrina went the unpleasant task,pleasantly administered, of keeping the associate editors and especially me on task. EllyDickason, who was the publisher in 2000 when this project was approved, and Jonathan Aretakis,chief copy editor, also deserve expressions of praise and gratitudeElly for supporting theproject from the moment she reviewed it, and Jonathan for making sure the articles are factuallyand stylistically appropriate.

My colleagues Sad Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, and Abdulkader Tayob served as Associ-ate Editors. The associate editors brought broad vision and detailed knowledge to their tasks ofhelping to organize the contents of the Encyclopedia, and I am indebted to them for making myown knowledge limitations less problematic in producing it. Rochelle Davis, a specialist in Arabicand Islamic studies, served as Assistant Editor, responsible for reading page proofs and preparingthe Glossary. However, she contributed much more to the Encyclopedia, with an eye forgrammatical and content errors that greatly improved the penultimate draft. My friend and

I n t roduc t ion

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldx i i

colleague of many years, John Voll, Editorial Consultant, kindly advised Hlne Potter and me ofmatters we should consider in the formative stages of planning the Encyclopedia, and hecontributed several important articles to it.

On behalf of Sad, Marcia, Abdulkader, Rochelle, and John, I would like to dedicate thisproject to our many Muslim and non-Muslim colleagues around the world, with whom we sharethe task of teaching and writing about Islam in a high-tech, troubled world that needs to knowmore about itself. To that end we hope this work will help disseminate useful knowledge aboutone of the worlds great civilizations to those who have a desire and need to know.

Richard C. MartinCreston, North Carolina

August 15, 2003

List of Entries

x i i i

Abbas I, ShahRudi Matthee

Abd al-BahaWilliam McCants

Abd al-Hamid Ibn BadisClaudia Gazzini

Abd al-Hamid Kishk (Shaykh)Joel Gordon

Abd al-JabbarM. Sait zervarli

Abd al-Karim SorushBehrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

Abd al-Nasser, JamalJoel Gordon

Abd al-Qadir, AmirPeter von Sivers

Abd al-Rahman KawakibiSohail H. Hashmi

Abd al-Razzaq al-SanhuriKhaled Abou El-Fadl

Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad IbnSohail H. Hashmi

Abduh, MuhammadSohail H. Hashmi

Abu BakrRizwi Faizer

Abu Bakr GumiRoman Loimeier

Abu HanifaBrannon M. Wheeler

Abu l-Hasan Bani-SadrMazyar Lotfalian

Abu l-Hudhayl al-AllafM. Sait zervarli

Abu l-Qasem KashaniMohammad H. Faghfoory

AdaTahir Fuzile Sitoto

AdabBarbara D. Metcalf

AdhanMuneer Goolam Fareed

Afghani, Jamal al-DinSohail H. Hashmi

Africa, Islam inDavid Robinson

African Culture and IslamAbdin Chande

Aga KhanAzim Nanji

Ahl al-BaytJuan Eduardo Campo

Ahl-e Hadis / Ahl al-HadithBarbara D. Metcalf

Ahl al-HadithR. Kevin Jaques

Ahl al-KitabStephen Cory

Ahmad Ibn Ibrahim al-GhaziRoman Loimeier

Ahmad Ibn IdrisKnut S. Vikr

AhmadiyyaAvril A. Powell

Ahmad Khan, (Sir) SayyidDavid Lelyveld

Ahmad, Mirza GhulamAvril A. Powell

AishaSadiyya Shaikh

AkbarGregory C. Kozlowski

AkhbariyyaRobert Gleave

AkhlaqAzim Nanji

AliDiana Steigerwald

AligarhDavid Lelyveld

AllahDaniel C. Peterson

American Culture and IslamIhsan Bagby

Americas, Islam in theSylviane Anna Diouf

Andalus, al-Aaron Hughes

AngelsPeter Lamborn Wilson

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldx i v

Arabia, Pre-IslamGordon D. Newby

Arabic LanguageKees Versteegh

Arabic LiteratureGert Borg

Arab LeagueJuan Eduardo Campo

ArchitectureSanthi Kavuri-Bauer

ArtSheila S. BlairJonathan M. Bloom

AsabiyyaAaron Hughes

Asharites, AshairaM. Sait zervarli

Askiya MuhammadOusmane Kane

AsnamUri Rubin

AssassinsFarhad Daftary

AstrologyAhmad S. Dallal

AstronomyAhmad S. Dallal

AtabatNeguin Yavari

Ataturk, Mustafa KemalA. Uner Turgay

Awami LeagueSufia Uddin

Ayatollah (Ar. Ayatullah)Robert Gleave

Azhar, al-Diana Steigerwald

BabiyyaWilliam McCants

Bab, Sayyed Ali MuhammadWilliam McCants

BaghdadMona Hassan

BahaallahJohn Walbridge

Bahai FaithJohn Walbridge

Balkans, Islam in theFrances Trix

Bamba, AhmadLucy Creevey

Banna, Hasan al-Sohail H. Hashmi

Baqillani, al-M. Sait zervarli

Basri, Hasan al-Rkia E. Cornell

Bath PartyF. Gregory Gause III

Bazargan, MehdiMazyar Lotfalian

BedouinRochelle Davis

BidaNico J. G. Kaptein

Bin Ladin, UsamaRichard C. Martin

Biography and HagiographyMarcia Hermansen

Biruni, al-Marcia Hermansen

Body, Significance ofBrannon M. Wheeler

Bourghiba, HabibJohn Ruedy

Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofFlorian Schwarz

Bukhari, al-Asma Afsaruddin

BuraqCarel Bertram

CairoAslam Farouk-Alli

CaliphateMuhammad Qasim Zaman

CalligraphySheila S. BlairJonathan M. Bloom

CapitalismTimur Kuran

Cartography and GeographyKaren C. Pinto

Central Asia, Islam inDevin DeWeese

Central Asian Culture and IslamDevin DeWeese

ChildhoodElizabeth Warnock Fernea

Christianity and IslamPatrice C. Brodeur

CircumcisionKathryn Kueny

ClothingCharlotte Jirousek

CoinageAbdullah Saeed

ColonialismJamal Malik

CommunismRichard C. Campany, Jr.

Conflict and ViolenceA. Rashied Omar

ConversionPeter B. Clarke

CrusadesWarren C. Schultz

Dar al-HarbJohn Kelsay

Dar al-IslamJohn Kelsay

DawaDavid WesterlundChrister HedinTorsten Janson

DawlaSohail H. Hashmi

DeathJuan Eduardo Campo

DeobandBarbara D. Metcalf

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xv

Devotional LifeGerard Wiegers

DhikrEarle Waugh

Dietary LawsMuneer Goolam Fareed

DisputationRichard C. Martin

DivorceZiba Mir-Hosseini

Dome of the RockSheila S. BlairJonathan M. Bloom

DreamsJohn C. Lamoreaux

DuaMuneer Goolam Fareed

East Asia, Islam inJacqueline M. Armijo

East Asian Culture and IslamJacqueline M. Armijo

Economy and Economic InstitutionsNora Ann Colton

EducationJonathan Berkey

Empires: AbbasidMatthew Gordon

Empires: ByzantineNadia Maria El Cheikh

Empires: MogulIqtidar Alam Khan

Empires: Mongol and Il-KhanidCharles Melville

Empires: OttomanDonald Quataert

Empires: Safavid and QajarRudi Matthee

Empires: SassanianHenning L. Bauer

Empires: TimuridPaul D. Buell

Empires: UmayyadAlfons H. Teipen

Erbakan, NecmeddinLinda T. Darling

Ethics and Social IssuesEbrahim Moosa

EthiopiaHaggai Erlich

EthnicityAmal Rassam

EunuchsJane Hathaway

European Culture and IslamJorgen S. Nielsen

Europe, Islam inJorgen S. Nielsen

ExpansionFred M. Donner

Fadlallah, Muhammad HusaynMazyar Lotfalian

FalsafaParviz Morewedge

Farrakhan, LouisAminah Beverly McCloud

Fasi, Muhammad Allal al-David L. Johnston

FatimaUrsula Gnther

FatwaDaniel C. Peterson

Fedaiyan-e IslamFakhreddin Azimi

FeminismGhazala Anwar

FezClaudia Gazzini

FitnaSandra S. Campbell

FundamentalismSohail H. Hashmi

FutuwwaReeva Spector Simon

Gasprinskii, Ismail BayA. Uner Turgay

GenderZayn R. Kassam

GenealogyMarcia Hermansen

Ghannoushi, Rashid al-Gudrun Krmer

Ghayba(t)Robert Gleave

Ghazali, al-Ebrahim Moosa

Ghazali, Muhammad al-Qamar-ul Huda

Ghazali, Zaynab al-Ursula Gnther

GlobalizationSad Amir Arjomand

Grammar and LexicographyKees Versteegh

Greek CivilizationOliver Leaman

HadithHarald Motzki

Hajj Salim Suwari, al-Abdulkader Tayob

Haj Umar al-Tal, al-Abdin Chande

Hallaj, al-Herbert W. Mason

HAMASTamara Sonn

HaremEtin Anwar

Haron, AbdullahShamil Jeppie

HasanMichael M. J. Fischer

Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Ali-AkbarMajid Mohammadi

HealingAbdullahi Osman El-Tom

HeresiographyAaron Hughes

HijraRizwi Faizer

Hijri CalendarAhmad S. Dallal

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxv i

Hilli, Allama al-Robert Gleave

Hilli, Muhaqqiq al-Robert Gleave

Hinduism and IslamJuan Eduardo CampoAnna Bigelow

HisbaRobert Gleave

Historical WritingKonrad Hirschler

Hizb AllahTamara Sonn

Hojjat al-IslamRobert Gleave

Hojjatiyya SocietyMajid Mohammadi

Holy CitiesAslam Farouk-Alli

HomosexualityEverett K. Rowson

HosayniyyaRasool Jafariyan

Hospitality and IslamKhalid Yahya Blankinship

Hukuma al-Islamiyya, al- (IslamicGovernment)

Gudrun Krmer

Human RightsUrsula Gnther

HumorIrfan A. Omar

HusaynMichael M. J. Fischer

Husayni, Hajj Amin al-Philip Mattar

Husayn, TahaSohail H. Hashmi

IbadatGerard Wiegers

Ibn ArabiWilliam C. Chittick

Ibn BattutaThyge C. Bro

Ibn HanbalSusan A. Spectorsky

Ibn KhaldunR. Kevin Jaques

Ibn MajaAsma Afsaruddin

Ibn RushdOliver Leaman

Ibn SinaShams C. Inati

Ibn TaymiyyaJames Pavlin

Identity, MuslimDaniel C. Peterson

IjtihadMuneer Goolam Fareed

Ikhwan al-MusliminDavid L. Johnston

Ikhwan al-SafaAzim Nanji

ImamMuhammad Qasim Zaman

ImamateRobert Gleave

ImamzadahAnne H. Betteridge

InternetBruce B. LawrenceMiriam Cooke

IntifadaPhilip Mattar

Iqbal, MuhammadDavid Lelyveld

Iran, Islamic Republic ofNancy L. Stockdale

Ishraqi SchoolSeyyed Hossein Nasr

Islam and IslamicJohn O. Voll

Islam and Other ReligionsPatrice C. Brodeur

Islamicate SocietyR. Kevin Jaques

Islamic JihadNajib Ghadbian

Islamic Salvation FrontDavid L. Johnston

Islamic Society of North AmericaR. Kevin Jaques

Ismail I, ShahSholeh A. Quinn

Jafar al-SadiqLiyakatali Takim

JahannamJuan Eduardo Campo

JahiliyyaRizwi Faizer

Jamaat-e IslamiJamal Malik

JamiMuneer Goolam Fareed

Jamil al-Amin, ImamEdward E. Curtis IV

Jamiyat-e Ulama-e HindJamal Malik

Jamiyat-e Ulama-e IslamJamal Malik

Jamiyat-e Ulama-e PakistanJamal Malik

JannaJuan Eduardo Campo

Jevdet PashaLinda T. Darling

JihadSohail H. Hashmi

Jinnah, Muhammad AliRasul Bakhsh Rais

Judaism and IslamGordon D. Newby

KalamParviz Morewedge

KanoThyge C. Bro

Karaki, Shaykh AliRula Jurdi Abisaab

KarbalaDiana Steigerwald

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xv i i

Kemal, NamekLinda T. Darling

Khalid, Khalid MuhammadWilliam Shepard

Khamanei, Sayyed AliMajid Mohammadi

KhanGene Garthwaite

Khanqa (Khanaqa, Khanga)Leonor Fernandes

Khan, Reza of BareillyBarbara D. Metcalf

Kharijites, KhawarijAnnie C. Higgins

Khidr, al-Hugh Talat Halman

Khilafat MovementGail Minault

KhirqaMargaret Malamud

Khiva, Khanate ofTouraj Atabaki

Khoi, Abo l QasemMajid Mohammadi

KhojasAzim Nanji

Khomeini, RuhollahNancy L. Stockdale

KhutbaPatrick D. Gaffney

Kindi, al-Jon McGinnis

KnowledgeParviz Morewedge

KomitehMajid Mohammadi

Kunti, Mukhtar al-Khalil Athamina

LawOsman Tastan

LebanonFarid el Khazen

LiberalismCharles Kurzman

Liberation Movement of IranClaudia Stodte

LibrariesJohn Walbridge

Madani, AbbasiClaudia Gazzini

MadhhabBrannon M. Wheeler

MadrasaJohn Walbridge

MahdiMarcia Hermansen

Mahdi, Sadiq al-John O. Voll

Mahdist State, MahdiyyaShamil Jeppie

MahrZiba Mir-Hosseini

MajlisSad Amir Arjomand

Majlisi, Muhammad BaqirRula Jurdi Abisaab

Makassar, Shaykh YusufR. Michael Feener

Malcolm XEdward E. Curtis IV

Malik, Ibn AnasJonathan E. Brockopp

Mamun, al-Muhammad Qasim Zaman

Manar, ManaraSheila S. BlairJonathan M. Bloom

ManicheanismElton L. Daniel

Mansa MusaOusmane Kane

Marja al-TaqlidRobert Gleave

MarriageZiba Mir-Hosseini

MartyrdomDaniel W. Brown

Marwa, MuhammadPaula Stiles

MarwanRizwi Faizer

MasculinitiesMarcia Hermansen

MashhadRasool Jafariyan

MasjidPatrick D. Gaffney

MaslahaRichard C. Martin

Material CultureHassan Mwakimako

Maturidi, al-M. Sait zervarli

Maududi, Abu l-AlaJamal Malik

MazalimOsman Tastan

MazruiRandall L. Pouwels

MedicineGail G. HarrisonOsman M. Galal

MihnaMuhammad Qasim Zaman

MihrabSheila S. BlairJonathan M. Bloom

Military RaidRizwi Faizer

Minbar (Mimbar)Richard T. Antoun

Minorities: DhimmisPatrick Franke

Minorities: Offshoots of IslamRobert Gleave

MiraclesMarcia Hermansen

MirajFrederick ColbyMichael Sells

ModernismCharles Kurzman

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxv i i i

ModernityJaved Majeed

Modernization, Political: Administra-tive, Military, and Judicial Reform

Aslam Farouk-Alli

Modernization, Political: Authoritari-anism and Democratization

Claudia StodteAnne-Sophie Froehlich

Modernization, Political:Constitutionalism

Sohail H. Hashmi

Modernization, Political:Participation, Political Movements,and Parties

Quintan Wiktorowicz

Modern ThoughtCharles Kurzman

Mojahedin-e KhalqJuan Eduardo Campo

Mojtahed-Shabestari, MohammadBehrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

MollaKamran Aghaie

MollabashiMansur Sefatgol

MonarchySad Amir Arjomand

MoravidsPeter B. Clarke

Mosaddeq, MohammadFakhreddin Azimi

Motahhari, MortazaBehrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

MuawiyaSuleman Dangor

MuftiMuneer Goolam Fareed

MuhammadRizwi Faizer

Muhammad Ahmad Ibn AbdullahMohamed Mahmoud

Muhammad Ali, Dynasty ofJoel Gordon

Muhammad al-Nafs al-ZakiyyaLiyakatali Takim

Muhammad, ElijahEdward E. Curtis IV

Muhammadiyya (Muhammadiyah)Robert W. Hefner

Muhammad Reza Shah PahleviStephanie Cronin

Muhammad, Warith DeenEdward E. Curtis IV

MuharramDavid Pinault

Muhasibi, al-Rkia E. Cornell

MuhtasibRobert Gleave

MujahidinAmin Tarzi

Mulla SadraSeyyed Hossein Nasr

Murjiites, MurjiaShalahudin Kafrawi

MusicMunir Beken

Muslim ibn al-HajjajAsma Afsaruddin

Muslim Student Association ofNorth America

Aminah Beverly McCloud

Mutazilites, MutazilaShalahudin Kafrawi

Nader Shah AfsharJohn R. Perry

Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)Nelly van Doorn-Harder

Naini, Mohammad HosaynMohammad H. Faghfoory

NajafMazyar Lotfalian

NarJuan Eduardo Campo

Nasai, al-Asma Afsaruddin

Nationalism: ArabNancy L. Stockdale

Nationalism: IranianFakhreddin Azimi

Nationalism: TurkishA. Uner Turgay

Nation of IslamAminah Beverly McCloud

NawruzAnne H. Betteridge

Nazzam, al-M. Sait zervarli

Networks, MuslimBruce B. LawrenceMiriam Cooke

NikahZiba Mir-Hosseini

Niyabat-e ammaRobert Gleave

Nizam al-MulkWarren C. Schultz

NizariAzim Nanji

Nur MovementBerna Turam

Nuri, FazlallahMohammad H. Faghfoory

Nursi, SaidA. Uner Turgay

Organization of the IslamicConference

Qamar-ul Huda

OrientalismQamar-ul Huda

Pakistan, Islamic Republic ofRasul Bakhsh Rais

Pan-ArabismSohail H. Hashmi

Pan-IslamSohail H. Hashmi

Pan-TuranismTouraj Atabaki

PasdaranMajid Mohammadi

Persian Language and LiteratureFranklin D. Lewis

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld x i x

Pilgrimage: HajjKathryn Kueny

Pilgrimage: ZiyaraRichard C. Martin

Pluralism: Legal and Ethno-ReligiousIrene Schneider

Pluralism: PoliticalGudrun Krmer

Political IslamGudrun Krmer

Political OrganizationLinda T. Darling

Political ThoughtLouise Marlow

PolygamyZiba Mir-Hosseini

PropertyTimur Kuran

ProphetsBrannon M. Wheeler

PurdahGail Minault

Qadhdhafi, Muammar al-Ali Abdullatif Ahmida

Qadi (Kadi, Kazi)Ebrahim Moosa

Qaida, al-Richard C. Martin

QanunKhaled Abou El-Fadl

QiblaGerard Wiegers

QomRasool Jafariyan

QuranFarid Esack

Qutb, SayyidSohail H. Hashmi

Rabia of BasraRkia E. Cornell

Rahman, FazlurMarcia Hermansen

Rashid, Harun al-Sebastian Gnther

RashidunMuhammad Qasim Zaman

Rawza-KhaniKamran Aghaie

Refah PartisiLinda T. Darling

Reform: Arab Middle East andNorth Africa

Sohail H. Hashmi

Reform: IranHossein Kamaly

Reform: Muslim Communities of theRussian Empire

Allen J. Frank

Reform: South AsiaAhrar Ahmad

Reform: Southeast AsiaMark R. Woodward

Religious BeliefsR. Kevin Jaques

Religious InstitutionsAbdulkader Tayob

Republican BrothersJohn O. Voll

Revolution: Classical IslamSad Amir Arjomand

Revolution: IslamicRevolution in Iran

Kristian Alexander

Revolution: ModernSad Amir Arjomand

Reza ShahStephanie Cronin

RibaTimur Kuran

Rida, RashidSohail H. Hashmi

RitualGerard Wiegers

Rumi, JalaluddinFranklin D. Lewis

Rushdie, SalmanAmir Hussain

Sadat, Anwar al-Joel Gordon

SadrAndrew J. Newman

Sadr, Muhammad Baqir al-Majid Mohammadi

Sadr, Musa al-Majid Mohammadi

SaharaF. Ghislaine Lydon

SaintArthur F. Buehler

SaladinWarren C. Schultz

SalafiyyaJohn O. Voll

Saleh bin AllawiAbdin Chande

Saudi DynastyF. Gregory Gause III

SayyidRobert Gleave

Science, Islam andAaron Hughes

Secularism, IslamicCharles Kurzman

SecularizationMahmood Monshipouri

Shafii, al-Christopher Melchert

Shaltut, MahmudSohail H. Hashmi

ShariaJonathan E. Brockopp

Shariati, AliBehrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

SharifRobert Gleave

Sharit Shangalaji, Reza-QoliPaula Stiles

Shaykh al-IslamRobert Gleave

ShaykhiyyaPaula Stiles

Shia: EarlyDevin J. Stewart

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxx

Shia: Imami (Twelver)David Pinault

Shia: IsmailiFarhad Daftary

Shia: Zaydi (Fiver)Robert Gleave

ShirkR. Kevin Jaques

Sibai, Mustafa al-Paula Stiles

SilsilaArthur F. Buehler

Sirhindi, Shaykh AhmadArthur F. Buehler

SocialismF. Gregory Gause III

South Asia, Islam inScott A. Kugle

South Asian Culture and IslamPerween Hasan

Southeast Asia, Islam inNelly van Doorn-Harder

Southeast Asian Culture and IslamNelly van Doorn-Harder

SuccessionMark Wegner

Suhrawardi, al-John Walbridge

SukaynaRizwi Faizer

Sultanates: AyyubidCarole Hillenbrand

Sultanates: DelhiIqtidar Alam Khan

Sultanates: GhaznavidWalid A. Saleh

Sultanates: MamlukWarren C. Schultz

Sultanates: ModernHassan Mwakimako

Sultanates: SeljukSad Amir Arjomand

SunnaDaniel W. Brown

Suyuti, al-E. M. Sartain

Tabari, al-Christopher Melchert

Tablighi JamaatBarbara D. Metcalf

TafsirKathryn Kueny

Tahmasp I, ShahSholeh A. Quinn

TajdidJohn O. Voll

TalibanAmin TarziKimberly McCloud

TanzimatLinda T. Darling

TaqiyyaRobert Gleave

TaqlidRobert Gleave

TariqaCarl W. Ernst

TasawwufCarl W. Ernst

TaziyaKamran Aghaie

TerrorismJuan Eduardo CampoCaleb Elfenbein

Thaqafi, Mukhtar al-Christopher Melchert

TimbuktuOusmane Kane

ToubaLucy Creevey

TraditionalismR. Kevin Jaques

TranslationLamin Sanneh

Travel and TravelersThyge C. Bro

TribeAmal Rassam

Turabi, Hasan al-John O. Voll

Tusi, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan(Shaykh al-Taifa)

Robert Gleave

Tusi, Nasir al-DinZayn R. Kassam

UlemaRobert Gleave

UmarKhalid Yahya Blankinship

UmmaAbdullah Saeed

Umm KulthumVirginia Danielson

United States, Islam in theEdward E. Curtis IV

Urdu Language, Literature,and Poetry

Christopher Shackle

UsuliyyaAhmad Kazemi Moussavi

Uthman Dan FodioRoman Loimeier

Uthman ibn AffanRizwi Faizer

VeilingGhazala AnwarLiz McKay

Velayat-e FaqihRobert Gleave

Vernacular IslamJoyce Burkhalter Flueckiger

Wahdat al-WujudWilliam C. Chittick

WahhabiyyaSohail H. Hashmi

Wajib al-WujudShams C. Inati

Wali Allah, ShahMarcia Hermansen

WaqfGregory C. Kozlowski

WazifaMansur Sefatgol

L i s t o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xx i

WazirRichard C. Martin

West, Concept of in IslamJohn O. Voll

Women, Public Roles ofEtin Anwar

Yahya bin Abdallah RamiyaHassan Mwakimako

Young OttomansMurat C. Meng

Young TurksMurat C. Meng

Youth MovementsAli Akbar Mahdi

Yusuf Ali, AbdullahAbdulkader Tayob

Zand, Karim KhanJohn R. Perry

Zanzibar, Saidi Sultanate ofAbdin Chande

ZarAdeline Masquelier

ZaytunaClaudia Gazzini

List of Contributors

xx i i i

Rula Jurdi AbisaabUniversity at Akron, OHKaraki, Shaykh AliMajlisi, Muhammad Baqir

Khaled Abou El-FadlUniversity of California, Los Ange-

les, Law SchoolAbd al-Razzaq al-SanhuriQanun

Asma AfsaruddinUniversity of Notre Dame, South

Bend, INBukhari, al-Ibn MajaMuslim ibn al-HajjajNasai, al-

Kamran AghaieUniversity of Texas, AustinMollaRawza-KhaniTaziya (Taziye)

Ahrar AhmadBlack Hills State University, SDReform: South Asia

Ali Abdullatif AhmidaUniversity of New EnglandQadhdhafi, Muammar al-

Iqtidar Alam KhanAligarh Historians Society, Aligarh

IndiaEmpires: MogulSultanates: Delhi

Kristian AlexanderUniversity of UtahRevolution: Islamic Revolution in Iran

Richard T. AntounState University of New York,

BinghamtonMinbar (Mimbar)

Ghazala AnwarUniversity of Canterbury, New

ZealandFeminismVeiling

Etin AnwarHamilton College, NYHaremWomen, Public Roles of

Sad Amir ArjomandState University of New York,

Stony BrookGlobalizationMajlisMonarchyRevolution: Classical IslamRevolution: ModernSultanates: Seljuk

Jacqueline M. ArmijoStanford UniversityEast Asia, Islam inEast Asian Culture and Islam

Touraj AtabakiUniversity of Utrecht, The

NetherlandsKhiva, Khanate ofPan-Turanism

Khalil AthaminaBirzeit Univeristy, PalestineKunti, Mukhtar al-

Fakhreddin AzimiUniversity of ConnecticutFedaiyan-e IslamMosaddeq, MohammadNationalism: Iranian

Ihsan BagbyUniversity of KentuckyAmerican Culture and Islam

Henning L. BauerUniversity of California, Los Ange-

les, NELCEmpires: Sassanian

Munir BekenUniversity of WashingtonMusic

Jonathan BerkeyDavidson CollegeEducation

Carel BertramUniversity of Texas, AustinBuraq

Anne H. BetteridgeUniversity of ArizonaImamzadahNawruz

Anna BigelowLoyola Marymount UniversityHinduism and Islam

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxx i v

Sheila S. BlairBoston CollegeArtCalligraphyDome of the RockManar, ManaraMihrab

Khalid Yahya BlankinshipTemple University, PAHospitality and IslamUmar

Jonathan BloomBoston CollegeArtCalligraphyDome of the RockManar, ManaraMihrab

Gert BorgUniversity of Nijmegen, The

NetherlandsArabic Literature

Thyge C. BroStilliitsvejIbn BattutaKanoTravel and Travelers

Jonathan E. BrockoppBard College, Annandale, NYMalik, Ibn AnasSharia

Patrice C. BrodeurConnecticut CollegeChristianity and IslamIslam and Other Religions

Daniel W. BrownMount Holyoke College, MAMartyrdomSunna

Arthur F. BuehlerLouisiana State Univeristy, Baton

RougeSaintSilsilaSirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad

Paul D. BuellWestern Washington UniversityEmpires: Timurid

Richard C. Campany, Jr.Senior Analyst, Harris CorporationCommunism

Sandra S. CampbellSanta Barbara, CA Fitna

Juan Eduardo CampoUniversity of California, Santa

BarbaraAhl al-BaytArab LeagueDeathHinduism and IslamJahannamJannaMojahedin-e KhalqNarTerrorism

Abdin ChandeSidwell Friends School, Washing-

ton, D.C.African Culture and IslamHaj Umar al-Tal, al-Saleh bin Allawi (Jamal al Layl)Zanzibar, Saidi Sultanate of

William C. ChittickState University of New York,

Stony BrookIbn ArabiWahdat al-Wujud

Peter B. ClarkeKings College, University of

LondonConversionMoravids

Frederick ColbyDuke UniversityMiraj

Nora Ann ColtonDrew UniversityEconomy and Economic Institutions

Miriam CookeDuke UniversityInternet

Rkia E. CornellUniversity of ArkansasBasri, Hasan al-Muhasibi, al-Rabia of Basra

Stephen CoryUniversity of California, Santa

BarbaraAhl al-Kitab

Lucy CreeveyUniversity of Connecticut,

TorringtonBamba, AhmadTouba

Stephanie CroninUniversity College, Northampton,

EnglandMuhammad Reza Shah PahleviReza Shah

Edward E. Curtis IVUniversity of North Carolina,

Chapel HillJamil al-Amin, ImamMalcolm XMuhammad, ElijahMuhammad, Warith DeenUnited States, Islam in the

Farhad DaftaryInstitute of Ismaili Studies, LondonAssassinsShia: Ismaili

Ahmad S. DallalStanford UniversityAstrologyAstronomyHijri Calendar

Suleman DangorUniversity of Durban, South AfricaMuawiya

Elton L. DanielUniversity of HawaiiManicheanism

Virginia DanielsonHarvard UniversityUmm Kulthum

Linda T. DarlingUniversity of ArizonaErbakan, NecmeddinJevdet PashaKemal, NamekPolitical OrganizationRefah PartisiTanzimat

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xxv

Rochelle DavisStanford UniversityBedouin

Devin DeWeeseIndiana UniversityCentral Asia, Islam inCentral Asian Culture and Islam

Sylviane Anna DioufNew York UniversityAmericas, Islam in the

Fred M. DonnerUniversity of ChicagoExpansion

Nadia Maria El CheikhAmerican University of Beirut,

LebanonEmpires: Byzantine

Caleb ElfebeinUniversity of California, Santa

BarbaraTerrorism

Farid el KhazenAmerican University of Beirut,

LebanonLebanon

Abdullahi Osman El-TomNational University of IrelandHealing

Haggai ErlichTel Aviv University, IsraelEthiopia

Carl W. ErnstUniversity of North Carolina,

Chapel HillTariqaTasawwuf

Farid EsackUnion Theological Seminary, NYQuran

Mohammad H. FaghfooryMary Washington College,

Fredricksburg, VAAbu l-Qasem KashaniNaini, Mohammad HosaynNuri, Fazlallah

Rizwi FaizerIndependent Scholar, CanadaAbu BakrHijraJahiliyyaMarwanMilitary RaidMuhammadSukaynaUthman ibn Affan

Muneer Goolam FareedWayne State University, MIAdhanDietary LawsDuaIjtihadJamiMufti

Aslam Farouk-AlliUniversity of Cape Town, South

AfricaCairoHoly CitiesModernization, Political: Administra-

tive, Military, and Judicial Reform

R. Michael FeenerUniversity of California, RiversideMakassar, Shaykh Yusuf

Leonor FernandesAmerican University in Cairo,

EgyptKhanqa (Khanaqa, Khanga)

Michael M. J. FischerMassachusetts Institute of

TechnologyHasanHusayn

Joyce Burkhalter FlueckigerEmory UniversityVernacular Islam

Allen J. FrankIndependent ScholarReform: Muslim Communities of the

Russian Empire

Anne-Sophie FroehlichDer Spiegel, GermanyModernization, Political: Authoritari-

anism and Democratization

Osman M. GalalUniversity of California, Los Ange-

les, School of Public HealthMedicine

Patrick FrankeMartin-Luther-Universitt,

GermanyMinorities: Dhimmis

Patrick D. GaffneyUniversity of Notre DameKhutbaMasjid

Gene GarthwaiteDartmouth CollegeKhan

F. Gregory Gause IIIUniversity of Vermont, BurlingtonBath PartySaudi DynastySocialism

Claudia GazziniPrinceton UniversityAbd al-Hamid Ibn BadisFezMadani, AbbasiZaytuna

Najib GhadbianUniversity of ArkansasIslamic Jihad

Behrooz Ghamari-TabriziGeorgia State UniversityAbd al-Karim SorushMojtahed-Shabestari, MohammadMotahhari, MortazaShariati, Ali

Robert GleaveUniversity of Bristol, EnglandAkhbariyyaAyatollah (Ar. Ayatullah)Ghayba(t)Hilli, Allama al-Hilli, Muhaqqiq al-HisbaHojjat al-IslamImamateMarja al-TaqlidMinorities: Offshoots of IslamMuhtasib

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxxv i

Niyabat-e ammaSayyidSharifShaykh al-IslamShia: Zaydi (Fiver)TaqiyyaTaqlidTusi, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan

(Shaykh al-Taifa)UlemaVelayat-e Faqih

Matthew GordonMiami University, OhioEmpires: Abbasid

Joel GordonUniversity of ArkansasAbd al-Hamid Kishk (Shaykh)Abd al-Nasser, JamalMuhammad Ali, Dynasty ofSadat, Anwar al-

Sebastian GntherUniversity of Toronto, CanadaRashid, Harun al-

Ursula GntherUniversity of Hamburg, GermanyFatimaGhazali, Zaynab al-Human Rights

Hugh Talat HalmanUniversity of ArkansasKhidr, al-

Gail G. HarrisonUniversity of California, Los Ange-

les, School of Public HealthMedicine

Perween HasanDhaka University, BangladeshSouth Asian Culture and Islam

Sohail H. HashmiMount Holyoke College, MAAbd al-Rahman KawakibiAbd al-Wahhab, Muhammad IbnAbduh, MuhammadAfghani, Jamal al-DinBanna, Hasan al-DawlaFundamentalismHusayn, TahaJihad

Modernization, Political:Constitutionalism

Pan-ArabismPan-IslamReform: Arab Middle East and North

AfricaRida, RashidShaltut, MahmudQutb, SayyidWahhabiyya

Mona HassanPrinceton UniversityBaghdad

Jane HathawayOhio State UniversityEunuchs

Christer HedinStockholm University, SwedenDawa

Robert W. HefnerBoston UniversityMuhammadiyya (Muhammadiyah)

Marcia HermansenLoyola University, ChicagoBiography and HagiographyBiruni, al-GenealogyMahdiMasculinitiesMiraclesRahman, FazlurWali Allah, Shah

Annie C. HigginsUniversity of ChicagoKharijites, Khawarij

Carole HillenbrandUniversity of Edinburgh, ScotlandSultanates: Ayyubid

Konrad HirschlerUniversity of London, EnglandHistorical Writing

Qamar-ul HudaBoston CollegeGhazali, Muhammad al-Organization of the Islamic

ConferenceOrientalism

Aaron HughesUniversity of Calgary, CanadaAndalus, al-AsabiyyaHeresiographyScience, Islam and

Amir HussainCalifornia State University,

NorthridgeRushdie, Salman

Shams C. InatiVillanova University, PennsylvaniaIbn SinaWajib al-Wujud

Torsten JansonLund University, SwedenDawa

Rasool JafariyanIndependent ScholarHosayniyyaMashhadQom

R. Kevin JaquesIndiana University, BloomingtonAhl al-HadithIbn KhaldunIslamicate SocietyIslamic Society of North AmericaReligious BeliefsShirkTraditionalism

Shamil JeppieUniversity of Cape Town, South

AfricaHaron, AbdullahMahdist State, Mahdiyya

Charlotte JirousekCornell University, Ithaca, NYClothing

David L. JohnstonYale UniversityFasi, Muhammad Allal al-Ikhwan al-MusliminIslamic Salvation Front

Shalahudin KafrawiBinghamton University, NYMurjiites, MurjiaMutazilites, Mutazila

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xxv i i

Hossein KamalyColumbia UniversityReform: Iran

Ousmane KaneColumbia UniversityAskiya MuhammadMansa MusaTimbuktu

Nico J. G. KapteinLeiden University, The

NetherlandsBida

Zayn R. KassamPomona College, CAGenderTusi, Nasir al-Din

Santhi Kavuri-BauerSan Francisco State UniversityArchitecture

Ahmad Kazemi MoussaviInternational Institute of Islamic

Thought and Civilization,Malaysia

Usuliyya

John KelsayFlorida State University,

TallahasseeDar al-HarbDar al-Islam

Gregory C. KozlowskiDePaul University, ChicagoAkbarWaqf

Gudrun KrmerFree University of Berlin, GermanyGhannoushi, Rashid al-Hukuma al-Islamiyya, al- (Islamic

Government)Pluralism: PoliticalPolitical Islam

Kathryn KuenyLawrence University, KYCircumcisionTafsirPilgrimage: Hajj

Scott A. KugleSwarthmore College, PASouth Asia, Islam in

Timur KuranUniversity of Southern California,

Los AngelesCapitalismPropertyRiba

Charles KurzmanUniversity of North Carolina,

Chapel HillLiberalismModernismModern ThoughtSecularism, Islamic

John C. LamoreauxSouthern Methodist University,

DallasDreams

Bruce B. LawrenceDuke UniversityInternetNetworks, Muslim

Oliver LeamanUniversity of KentuckyGreek CivilizationIbn Rushd

David LelyveldWilliam Paterson University,

Wayne, NJAhmad Khan, (Sir) SayyidAligarhIqbal, Muhammad

Franklin D. LewisEmory UniversityPersian Language and LiteratureRumi, Jalaluddin

Roman LoimeierUniversity of Bayreuth, GermanyAbu Bakr GumiAhmad Ibn Ibrahim al-GhaziUthman Dan Fodio

Mazyar LotfalianBerkeleyAbu l-Hasan Bani-SadrBazargan, MehdiFadlallah, Muhammad HusaynNajaf

F. Ghislaine LydonUniversity of California, Los

AngelesSahara

Akbar MahdiOhio Wesleyan UniversityYouth Movements

Mohamed MahmoudTufts University, MAMuhammad Ahmad Ibn Abdullah

Javed MajeedEnglish ScholarModernity

Margaret MalamudNew Mexico State University, Las

CrucesKhirqa

Jamal MalikUniversity of Erfurt, GermanyColonialismJamaat-e IslamiJamiyat-e Ulama-e HindJamiyat-e Ulama-e IslamJamiyat-e Ulama-e PakistanMaududi, Abu l-Ala

Louise MarlowWellesley College, MAPolitical Thought

Richard C. MartinEmory Universitybin Ladin, UsamaDisputationMaslahaPilgrimage: ZiyaraQaida, al-Wazir

Herbert W. MasonBoston UniversityHallaj, al-

Adeline MasquelierTulane University, LAZar

Philip MattarU.S. Institute of Peace, Washing-

ton D.C.Husayni, Hajj Amin al-Intifada

Rudi MattheeUniversity of DelawareAbbas I, ShahEmpires: Safavid and Qajar

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxxv i i i

William McCantsPrinceton UniversityAbd al-BahaBabiyyaBab, Sayyed Ali Muhammad

Aminah Beverly McCloudDePaul University, ChicagoFarrakhan, LouisMuslim Student Association of North

AmericaNation of Islam

Kimberly McCloudMonterey Institute for Interna-

tional Studies, CATaliban

Jon McGinnisUniversity of Missouri, St. LouisKindi, al-

Liz McKayUniversity of Canterbury, New

ZealandVeiling

Christopher MelchertUniversity of Oxford, EnglandShafii, al-Tabari, al-Thaqafi, Mukhtar al-

Charles MelvillePembroke College, Cambridge

University, EnglandEmpires: Mongol and Il-Khanid

Murat C. MengMcGill University, CanadaYoung OttomansYoung Turks

Barbara D. MetcalfUniversity of California, DavisAdabAhl-e Hadis / Ahl al-HadithDeobandKhan, Reza of BareillyTablighi Jamaat

Gail MinaultUniversity of Texas, AustinKhilafat MovementPurdah

Ziba Mir-HosseiniSchool of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London,England

DivorceMahrMarriageNikahPolygamy

Majid MohammadiState University of New York,

Stony BrookHashemi-Rafsanjani, Ali-AkbarHojjatiyya SocietyKhamanei, Sayyed AliKhoi, Abo l QasemKomitehPasdaranSadr, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Musa al-

Mahmood MonshipouriQuinnipiac University, CNSecularization

Ebrahim MoosaDuke UniversityEthics and Social IssuesGhazali, al-Qadi (Kadi, Kazi)

Parviz MorewedgeRutgers University, New

Brunswick, NJFalsafaKalamKnowledge

Harald MotzkiUniversity of Nijmegen, The

NetherlandsHadith

Hassan MwakimakoUniversity of Nairobi, KenyaMaterial CultureSultanates: ModernYahya bin Abdallah Ramiya (Shaykh)

Azim NanjiInstitute of Ismaili Studies, Lon-

don, U.K.Aga KhanAkhlaqIkhwan al-SafaKhojasNizari

Seyyed Hossein NasrGeorge Washington UniversityIshraqi SchoolMulla Sadra

Gordon D. NewbyEmory UniversityArabia, Pre-IslamJudaism and Islam

Andrew J. NewmanUniversity of Edinburgh, ScotlandSadr

Jorgen S. NielsenUniversity of Birmingham,

EnglandEurope, Islam inEuropean Culture and Islam

A. Rashied OmarNotre Dame, INConflict and Violence

Irfan A. OmarMarquette University,

Milwaukee, WIHumor

M. Sait zervarliCenter for Islamic Studies, Istan-

bul, TurkeyAbd al-JabbarAbu l-Hudhayl al-AllafAsharites, AshairaBaqillani, al-Maturidi, al-Nazzam, al-

James PavlinRutgers University, New

Brunswick, NJIbn Taymiyya

John R. PerryUniversity of ChicagoNader Shah AfsharZand, Karim Khan

Daniel C. PetersonBrigham Young University, UTAllahFatwaIdentity, Muslim

David PinaultSanta Clara University, CAMuharramShia: Imami (Twelver)

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xx i x

Karen C. PintoUniversity of Alberta, CanadaCartography and Geography

Randall L. PouwelsUniversity of ArkansasMazrui

Avril A. PowellSchool of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London,England

AhmadiyyaAhmad, Mirza Ghulam

Donald QuataertBinghamton University, NYEmpires: Ottoman

Sholeh A. QuinnOhio UniversityIsmail I, ShahTahmasp I, Shah

Rasul Bakhsh RaisQuaid-i Azam University, PakistanJinnah, Muhammad AliPakistan, Islamic Republic of

Amal RassamQueens College, City University of

New YorkEthnicityTribe

David RobinsonMichigan State UniversityAfrica, Islam in

Everett K. RowsonNew York UniversityHomosexuality

Uri RubinTel Aviv University, IsraelAsnam

John RuedyGeorgetown UniversityBourghiba, Habib

Abdullah SaeedUniversity of Melbourne, AustraliaCoinageUmma

Walid A. SalehUniversity of Toronto, CanadaSultanates: Ghaznavid

Lamin SannehYale University Divinity SchoolTranslation

E. M. SartainAmerican University in Cairo,

EgyptSuyuti, al-

Irene SchneiderUniversity of Halle, GermanyPluralism: Legal and Ethno-Religious

Warren C. SchultzDePaul University, ChicagoCrusadesNizam al-MulkSaladinSultanates: Mamluk

Florian SchwarzRuhr University Bochum, GermanyBukhara, Khanate and Emirate of

Michael SellsHaverford College, PAMiraj

Mansur SefatgolUniversity of Tehran, IranMollabashiWazifa

Christopher ShackleSchool of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London,England

Urdu Language, Literature, andPoetry

Sadiyya ShaikhTemple University, PAAisha

William ShepardUniversity of Canterbury,

Christchurch, New ZealandKhalid, Khalid Muhammad

Reeva Spector SimonColumbia UniversityFutuwwa

Tahir Fuzile SitotoUniversity of Natal, South AfricaAda

Tamara SonnThe College of William and Mary,

Williamsburg, VAHAMASHizb Allah

Susan A. SpectorskyCity University of New YorkIbn Hanbal

Diana SteigerwaldCalifornia State University, Long

BeachAliAzhar, al-Karbala

Devin J. StewartEmory UniversityShia: Early

Paula StilesUniversity of St. Andrews, ScotlandMarwa, MuhammadSharit Shangalaji, Reza-QoliShaykhiyyaSibai, Mustafa al-

Nancy L. StockdaleUniversity of Central FloridaIran, Islamic Republic ofKhomeini, RuhollahNationalism: Arab

Claudia StodteDer Spiegel, GermanyLiberation Movement of IranModernization, Political: Authoritari-

anism and Democratization

Liyakatali TakimIndependent ScholarJafar al-SadiqMuhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya

Amin TarziMonterey Institute of International

Studies, CAMujahidinTaliban

Osman TastanAnkara University, TurkeyLawMazalim

L i s t o f Con t r i bu to r s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxxx

Abdulkader TayobUniversity of Nijmenen, The

NetherlandsHajj Salim Suwari, al-Religious InstitutionsYusuf Ali, Abdullah

Alfons H. TeipenFurman University, SCEmpires: Umayyad

Frances TrixUniversity of Michigan, Ann ArborBalkans, Islam in the

Berna TuramMcGill University, CanadaNur Movement

A. Uner TurgayMcGill University, CanadaAtaturk, Mustafa KemalGasprinskii, Ismail BayNationalism: TurkishNursi, Said

Sufia UddinUniversity of Vermont, BurlingtonAwami League

Nelly van Doorn-HarderValparaiso University, INNahdlatul Ulama (NU)Southeast Asia, Islam inSoutheast Asian Culture and Islam

Kees VersteeghUniversity of Nijmegen, The

NetherlandsArabic LanguageGrammar and Lexicography

Knut S. VikrUniversity at Bergen, NorwayAhmad Ibn Idris

John O. VollGeorgetown UniversityIslam and IslamicMahdi, Sadiq al-Republican BrothersSalafiyyaTajdidTurabi, Hasan al-West, Concept of in Islam

Peter von SiversUniversity of UtahAbd al-Qadir, Amir

John WalbridgeIndiana University, BloomingtonBahaallahBahai FaithLibrariesMadrasaSuhrawardi, al-

Elizabeth Warnock FerneaUniversity of Texas, AustinChildhood

Earle WaughUniversity of Alberta, CanadaDhikr

Mark WegnerTulane University, LASuccession

David WesterlundUppsala University, SwedenDawa

Brannon M. WheelerUniversity of WashingtonAbu HanifaBody, Significance ofMadhhabProphets

Gerard WiegersLeiden University, The

NetherlandsDevotional LifeIbadatQiblaRitual

Quintan WiktorowiczRhodes College, TNModernization, Political:

Participation, Political Movements,and Parties

Peter Lamborn WilsonIndependent ScholarAngels

Mark R. WoodwardUniversity of ArizonaReform: Southeast Asia

Neguin YavariColumbia UniversityAtabat

Muhammad Qasim ZamanBrown UniversityCaliphateImamMamun, al-MihnaRashidun

Synoptic Outline of Entries

xxx i

This outline provides a general overview of the conceptual structure of the Encyclopedia of Islamand the Muslim World. The outline is organized under nine major categories, which are further

split into twenty-five subcategories. The entries are listed alphabetically within each category orsubcategory. For ease of reference, the same entry may be listed under several categories.

Biographies: Political and otherPublic FiguresAbbas I, Shah Abd al-Qadir, Amir Abd al-Rahman KawakibiAbd al-Hamid Kishk (Shaykh)Abd al-Karim SorushAbd al-Nasser, JamalAbd al-Razzaq al-SanhuriAbu l-Qasem KashaniAhmad Ibn Ibrahim al-GhaziAhmad Khan, (Sir) SayyidAkbar Askiya Muhammad Ataturk, Mustafa KemalBourghiba, Habib Erbakan, Necmeddin Fasi, Muhammad Allal al-Gasprinskii, Ismail Bay Ismail I, Shah Jevdet PashaKemal, NamikKhalid, Khalid MuhammadMahdi, Sadiq al- Mansa MusaMarwanMosaddeq, MohammadMuhammad Reza Shah PahleviMuslim ibn al-HajjajNader Shah AfsharNizam al-MulkNuri, FazlallahNursi, SaidQadhdhafi, Muammar al-Reza ShahRushdie, SalmanSadat, Anwar al-

SaladinSaleh bin AllawiSharit Shangalaji, Reza-QoliSirhindi, Shaykh AhmadTahmasp I, ShahUthman dan FodioWali Allah, ShahYahya bin Abdallah RamiyaZand, Karim Khan

Biographies: Religious and CulturalFigures Abd al-Baha Abd al-Hamid Ibn BadisAbd al-Jabbar Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad IbnAbduh, Muhammad Abu Bakr Abu Bakr GumiAbu HanifaAbu l-Hasan Bani-SadrAbu l-Hudhayl al-AllafAfghani, Jamal al-DinAga Khan Ahmad, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Gran Ahmad ibn Idris Aisha AliBab, Sayyed Ali MuhammadBahaallah Bamba, AhmadBanna, Hasan al- Baqillani, al- Basri, Hasan al-Bazargan, Mehdi

Biruni, al- Bukhari, al- Fadlallah, Muhammad Husayn Farrakhan, LouisFatima Ghannoushi, Rashid al-Ghazali, al- Ghazali, Muhammad al-Ghazali, Zaynab al-Hajj Salim Suwari, al- Haj Umar al-Tal, al-Hallaj, al- Haron, Abdullah HasanHashemi-Rafsanjani, Ali-AkbarHusayn Husayn, Taha Husayni, Hajj Amin al-Khidr, al- Karaki, Shaykh AliHilli, Allama al- Hilli, Muhaqqiq al-Ibn Arabi Ibn Battuta Ibn Hanbal Ibn Khaldun Ibn Maja Ibn Rushd Ibn Sina Ibn Taymiyya Iqbal, Muhammad Jafar al-Sadiq Jamil al-Amin, ImamJinnah, Muhammad AliKhamanei, Sayyed AliKhan, Reza of BareillyKhoi, Abol Qasem

Synop t i c Out l i ne o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxxx i i

Khomeini, RuhollahKindi, al-Kunti, Mukhtar al-Madani, AbbasiMalik, Ibn AnasMajlisi, Muhammad BaqirMalcolm XNasai, al-Makassar, Shaykh YusufMaturidi, al-Maududi, Abu l-AlaMojtahed-Shabestari, MohammadMotahhari, MortazaMuawiyaMuhammadMuhammad, ElijahMuhammad, Warith DeenMuhammad Ahmad Ibn AbdullahMuhammad al-Nafs al-ZakiyyaMuhasibi, al-Mulla SadraNaini, Mohammad HosaynNasai, al-Nazzam, al- Qutb, SayyidRabia of BasraRahman, FazlurRashid, Harun al-Rida, RashidRumi, Jalaluddin Sadr, Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, Musa al-Shafii, al-Shaltut, MahmudShariati, AliSibai, Mustafa al-Suhrawardi, al-SukaynaSuyuti, al-Tabari, al-Thaqafi, Mukhtar al-Turabi, Hasan al-Tusi, Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan

(Shaykh al-Taifa)Tusi, Nasir al-DinUmarUmm KulthumUthman ibn AffanYusuf Ali, Abdullah

Culture: Arts, Architecture, andCultureArchitecture Art Calligraphy Clothing Dome of the Rock Khanqah (Khanaqah, Khanga) Manar, ManaraMaterial Culture

MihrabTaziyaVernacular Islam

Culture: Disciplines and Fields ofKnowledgeAkhlaq AstrologyAstronomy FalsafaKalamLawMedicineMusicTasawwufScience, Islam and

Culture: Concepts Asabiyya Ada Adab KnowledgeMadhhabSadr

Culture: Language and LiteratureArabic LanguageArabic LiteratureBiography and Hagiography Grammar and LexicographyPersian Language and LiteratureTranslationUrdu Language, Literature, and

PoetryVernacular Islam

Culture: RegionalAfrican Culture and IslamAmerican Culture and Islam Central Asian Culture and Islam East Asian Culture and Islam European Culture and Islam South Asian Culture and IslamSoutheast Asian Culture and Islam

Culture: OtherDreams EducationIdentity, Muslim Humor in IslamLibrariesRawza-Khani

Family, Ethics and SocietyChildhood Conflict and Violence Divorce EducationEthics and Social Issues

Ethnicity Eunuchs Feminism Gender HaremHealing Homosexuality Hospitality and IslamHuman Rights MahrMarriageMasculinitiesMaslahaNikahPolygamyPurdahWomen, Public Roles ofVeiling

Geography: RegionsAmericas, Islam in the Africa, Islam inBalkans, Islam in the Central Asia, Islam in East Asia, Islam in Europe, Islam in South Asia, Islam inSoutheast Asia, Islam inUnited States, Islam in theWest, Concept of

Geography: Countries, Cites andLocalesAndalus, al- Arabia, Pre-Islam Baghdad Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofCairo Ethiopia Fez Holy CitiesIran, Islamic Republic of KanoLebanonMashhadNajafPakistan, Islamic Republic ofQomSaharaTimbuktuToubaZanzibarZaytuna

Groups, Organizations, Schools,and Movements: PoliticalArab League Awami League Bath Party Communism

Synop t i c Out l i ne o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld xxx i i i

IntifadaKhojasKomitehNahdatul Ulama (NU)Organization of the Islamic

ConferenceRefah PartisiTalibanYoung OttomansYoung Turks

Groups, Organizations, Schools,and Movements: ReligiousAligarh Asharites, Ashaira AssassinsAhmadiyya Deoband Fedaiyan-e Islam HAMAS Hizb Allah Ikhwan al-MusliminIkhwan al-Safa Islamic JihadIslamic Society of North America MajlisMuslim Student Association of

North AmericaSalafiyyaShaykhiyyaTablighi JamaatUlemaUmmaUsuliyyaWahhabiyyaYouth Movements

History: ConceptsAsabiyyaDawla Genealogy Historical WritingHukuma al-Islamiyya, al- (Islamic

Government)ModernityOrientalismSecularismSocialismTraditionalism

History: Events Religious and PoliticalIntifadaMihnaModernizationMuharram

History: InstitutionsCaliphate Capitalism

Coinage and Exchange Economy and Economic Institu-

tions Education LibrariesReligious InstitutionsWaqf

History: Periods, Dynasties,GovernmentsArabia, Pre-IslamAyyubids Bukhara, Khanate and Emirate ofColonialism Empires: Abbasid Empires: ByzantineEmpires: Mongol and Il-Khanid Empires: Mogul Empires: Ottoman Empires: Safavid and Qajar Empires: SassanianEmpires: Timurid Empires: UmayyadExpansion Hijra Hijri Calendar Khiva, Khanate ofMahdist State, MahdiyyaModernityMonarchyMoravidsMuhammad Ali, Dynasty ofRashidun Sultanates: DelhiSultanates: GhaznavidSultanates: MamlukSultanates: ModernSultanates: SeljukTribe

History: Catalysts of ChangeGlobalization Greek Civilization Internet Liberation Movement of IranTerrorism MihnaNetworks, MuslimSuccessionTajdidTravel and Travelers

LawAdaLawMazalimMuftiMuhtasibPropertyQanun

RibaShariaTaqlid

Politics and SocietyMilitary RaidMinorities: DhimmisMinorities: Offshoots of IslamModernizationMonarchyNationalismPan-ArabismPan-IslamPan-TuranismPasdaran Pluralism: Legal and Ethno-

ReligiousPluralism: PoliticalPolitical IslamPolitical OrganizationPolitical ThoughtPolygamyReform: Arab Middle East and

North AfricaReform: IranReform: Muslim Communities of

the Russian EmpireReform: South AsiaReform: Southeast AsiaRepublican BrothersRevolution: Classical IslamRevolution: Islamic Revolution in

IranRevolution: ModernSaudi DynastySecularizationSuccessionTanzimatVelayat-e Faqih

Religion: Groups, Movements, andSectsAhl al-Bayt Ahl al-Hadith Ahl al-Kitab Ahl-e Hadis / Ahl al-HadithAkhbariyya Babiyya Bahai FaithBedouin Fundamentalism Futuwwa Hojjatiyya SocietyIshraqi SchoolIslamic Salvation Front Jamiyat-e Ulama-e Hind Jamiyat-e Ulama-e Islam Jamiyat-e Ulama-e Pakistan Jamaat-e Islami Kharijites, Khawarij

Synop t i c Out l i ne o f En t r i e s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ldxxx i v

Khilafat MovementLiberalismMadhhabModernismMojahedin-e KhalqMujahidinMuhammadiyya (Muhammadiyah)Murjiites, MurjiaMutazilites, MutazilaNation of IslamNizariNur MovementQaida, al-Religious BeliefsReligious InstitutionsShia: EarlyShia: Imami (Twelver)Shia: IsmailiShia: Zaydi (Fiver)TariqaTraditionalismUmma

Religion: Ideas, Beliefs, Concepts,and DoctrinesAllah Angels Asnam Bida Body, Significance of Buraq Dar al-Harb Dar al-Islam Death Ghayba(t) HadithHarem Heresy ImamateJahiliyya JannaJahannam JihadKalamKhirqahMahdiMiracles

MirajModern ThoughtNarNiyabat-eammaProphetsQiblaQuranRibaShirkSilsilaSunnaTafsirTaqiyyaTaqlidTasawwufTaziya (Taziye)Wahdat al-WujudWajib al-WujudWazifaZar

Religion: InstitutionsAzhar, al-CaliphateDeobandHisbaKhanqa (Khanaqa, Khanga)MadrasaMasjid

Religion: Places and SitesAtabat Dome of the Rock Hojjatiyya SocietyHoly CitiesHosayniyyaImamzadah Jami KarbalaMashhadMihrabMinbarNajaf

Religion: Practices and RitualsAdhan Bida

CircumcisionDawa Devotional Life Dhikr Dietary Laws Disputation Dua Fatwa Fitna IbadatIjtihad KhutbaMartyrdomMuharramNawruzPilgrimage: HajjPilgrimage: ZiyaraRitual

Religion: Relations with Non-Muslims Christianity and Islam Conversion Crusades GlobalizationHinduism and Islam Islam and Other Religions Judaism and IslamManicheanism

Religion: Titles and OfficesAyatollah (Ar. Ayatullah) Hojjat al-Islam Imam Islam and Islamic Islamicate Society KhanMahdiMarja al-TaqlidMollaMollabashiQadi (Kadi, Kazi)SaintSayyidSharifShaykh al-IslamWazir

List of Maps

xxxv

Maps accompany the following entries, and are located on the provided pages.

Africa, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15Arabia, Pre Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Balkans, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Balkans, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Crusades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Europe, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243Ibn Battuta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Volume one color insertLaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410Muhammad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509South Asia, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639Southeast Asia, Islam in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646Sultanates: Ayyubids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659

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1

ABBAS I, SHAH (15711629)

Shah Abbas I, the fifth ruler of the Safavid dynasty, ruled Iranfrom 1587 until 1629, the year of his death. Shah Abbas cameto power at a time when tribal unrest and foreign invasion hadgreatly reduced Irans territory. Once on the throne he setout to regain the lands and authority that had been lost by hisimmediate successors. His defeat of the Uzbeks in the north-east and the peace he made with the Ottoman Empire, Iransarchenemy, enabled Shah Abbas to reform Irans militaryand financial system. He diminished the military power of thetribes by creating a standing army composed of slave soldierswho were loyal only to him. These so-called ghulams (militaryslaves) were mostly Armenians and Georgians captured dur-ing raids in the Caucasus. In order to increase the revenueneeded for these reforms the shah centralized state control,which included the appointment of ghulams to high adminis-trative positions.

With the same intent he fostered trade by reestablishingroad security and by building many caravan series throughoutthe country. Under Shah Abbas, Isfahan became Iranscapital and most important city, endowed with a new com-mercial and administrative center grouped around a splendidsquare that survives today. His genius further manifesteditself in his military skills and his astute foreign policy. Hehalted the eastward expansion of the Ottomans, defeatingthem and taking Baghdad in 1623. To encourage trade andthus gain treasure, he welcomed European merchants to thePersian Gulf. He also allowed Christian missionaries to settlein his country, hopeful that this might win him allies amongEuropean powers in his anti-Ottoman struggle. Famouslydown to earth, Shah Abbas was a pragmatic ruler who couldbe cruel as well as generous. Rare among Iranian kings, he istoday remembered as a ruler who was concerned about hisown people.

A detail from a miniature painting of Abbas I (15711629)appears in the volume one color plates.

See also Empires: Safavid and Qajar.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Matthee, Rudolph P. The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silkfor Silver, 16001730. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 1999.

Savory, Roger. Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge, U.K.:Cambridge University Press, 1980.

Rudi Matthee

ABD AL-BAHA (18441921)

Abd al-Baha Abbas, also known as Abbas Effendi, was theson of Bahaallah (Mirza Husayn Ali, 18171892), the founderof the Bahai religion. In his final will and testament, Bahaal-lah designated him as his successor and authoritative expounderof his teachings. Born in Tehran on 23 May 1844, he grew upin the household of a father committed to the teachings of theBabi movement and consequently shared his fathers fate ofexile and intermittent imprisonment until the Young Turkrevolution of 1909.

As a result, Abd al-Baha received little formal educationand had to manage the affairs of his fathers household at avery early age. Despite these setbacks, he demonstrated anatural capacity for leadership and a prodigious knowledge ofhuman history and thought.

Abd al-Baha corresponded with and enjoyed the respectof a number of the luminaries of his day, including theRussian author Leo Tolstoy and the Muslim reformer Mu-hammad Abduh. He left behind a small portion of what is alarge corpus of still-unexplored writings that include socialcommentaries, interpretations, and elaborations of his fa-thers works, mystical treatises, and Quranic and biblicalexegeses.

Abd a l -Hamid Ibn Bad i s

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld2

Upon his release from house imprisonment in 1909, Abdal-Baha traveled to North Africa, Europe, and North Amer-ica advocating a number of reforms for all countries, includ-ing the adoption of a universal auxiliary language, globalcollective security, mandatory education, and full legal andsocial equality for women and minorities. He also warned of acoming war in Europe and called for a just system of globalgovernment and international courts where disputes betweennations could be resolved peacefully.

Abd al-Baha died on 28 November 1921. According tohis will and testament, his eldest grandson, Shoghi EffendiRabbani, became the head of the Bahai community and thesole authorized interpreter of his grandfather and great-grandfathers teachings.

See also Bahaallah; Bahai Faith.

William McCants

ABD AL-HAMID IBN BADIS(18891940)

Abd al-Hamid Ibn Badis was the leader of the Islamicreformist movement in Algeria and founder of the Associationdes Ulma Musulmanes Algriens (AUMA). He was born in1889 in Constantine, where he also died in 1940. Afterreceiving a traditional education in his hometown, Ibn Badis(locally referred to as Ben Badis) studied at the IslamicUniversity of Zaytuna, in Tunis, from 1908 to 1912. In thefollowing years he journeyed through the Middle East, par-ticularly in Egypt and Saudi Arabia, where he came intocontact with modernist and reformist currents of thoughtspreading within orthodox Sunni Islam.

Ibn Badis became the most prominent promoter of theIslamic reformist movement in Algeria, first through hispreaching at the mosque of Sidi Lahdar in his hometown,and, after 1925, through his intensive journalistic activity. Hefounded a newspaper, Al-Muntaqid (The critic), which closedafter a few months. Immediately afterwards, however, hebegan a new and successful newspaper, Al-Shihab (The me-teor), which soon became the platform of the reformistthinking in Algeria, until its closure in 1939. Through thepages of Al-Shihab, Ibn Badis spread the Salafiyya movementin Algeria, presented his Quranic exegesis, and argued theneed for Islamic reform and a rebirth of religion and religiousvalues within a society that, in his view, had been too influ-enced by French colonial rule. He further argued that theAlgerian nation had to be founded on its Muslim culture andits Arab identity, and for this reason he is also considered aprecursor of Algerian nationalism. He promoted the freeteaching of Arabic language, which had been marginalizedduring the years of French rule, and the establishment of free

schools for adults, where traditional Quranic studies couldbe taught.

In May 1931 he founded the AUMA (also Association ofAlgerian Muslim Ulema), which gathered the countrys lead-ing Muslim thinkers, initially both reformist and conserva-tive, and subsequently only reformist, and served as its presidentuntil his death. Whereas the reformist programs promotedthrough Al-Shihab had managed to reach an audience limitedto the elite educated class of the country, the AUMA becamethe tool for a nationwide campaign to revive Islam, Arabic,and religious studies, as well as a center for direct social andpolitical action. Throughout the country he founded a net-work of Islamic cultural centers that provided the means forthe educational initiatives he advocated and the establish-ment of Islamic youth groups. He also spearheaded a cam-paign against Sufi brotherhoods, accusing them of introducingblameworthy innovations to religious practice, and also ofcooperating with the colonial administration. He played animportant political role in the formation of the AlgerianMuslim Congress in 1936, which arose in reaction to thevictory of the Popular Front in France, and was activepolitically in the country until his premature death in 1940.Thanks to his activities as leader of the AUMA and to hiswriting in Al-Shihab, Ibn Badis is considered by some to bethe most important figure of the Arab-Islamic cultural revivalin Algeria during the 1930s.

See also Reform: Arab Middle East and North Africa;Salafiyya.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Merad, Ali. Le Rformisme Musulman en Algrie de 1925 a1940. Paris: Mouton, 1967.

Safi, Hammadi. Abdel Hamid Ben Badis entre les exigen-cies du dogme et la contrainte de la modernit. InPenseurs Maghrbins Contemporains. Casablanca: EditionsEDDIF, 1993.

Claudia Gazzini

ABD AL-HAMID KISHK (SHAYKH)(19331996)

A pioneering cassette preacher of the 1970s, Abd al-Hamid Kishk was born in the Egyptian Delta village ofShubrakhut, the son of a small merchant. Early on he experi-enced vision impairment, and lost his sight entirely as a youngteen. He memorized the Quran by age twelve, attendedreligious schools in Alexandria and Cairo, then enrolled at al-Azhar University. He graduated in 1962, first in his class, butrather than an expected nomination to the teaching faculty,he was appointed imam at a Cairo mosque.

Abd a l -Ka r im So rush

I s l a m and the Mus l im Wor ld 3

Kishk ran afoul of the Nasser regime in 1965. He claimedhe was instructed to denounce Sayyid Qutb, refused, andsubsequently was arrested and tortured in prison. In the early1970s, cassette recordings of his sermons and lessons beganto proliferate throughout Egypt; by the late 1970s he wasarguably the most popular preacher in the Arab world.Attendance at his mosque skyrocketed, reaching 100,000 forFriday sermons by the early 1980s. In September 1981 he wasarrested as part of Anwar al-Sadats crackdown on politicalopponents, and was in prison when Sadat was assassinated.Upon his release he regained his following. He published hisautobiography, The Story of My Days, in 1986. He died adecade later, in 1996.

BIBLIOGRAPHYJansen, Johannes J. G. The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadats

Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East. NewYork and London: Macmillan, 1986.

Kepel, Gilles. Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet andPharaoh. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Califor-nia Press, 1993.

Joel Gordon

ABD AL-JABBAR (9351025)

Abd al-Jabbar was a Mutazilite theologian and Shafiitejurist, known as Qadi Abd al-Jabbar b. Ahmad al-Hamadani.He was born in Asadabad in Iran about 935, studied kalamwith Abu Ishaq al-Ayyash in Basra, and associated with theprominent Mutazilite scholar Abu Abdullah al-Basri inBaghdad. Abd al-Jabbar was appointed as chief judge of Rayywith a great authority over other regions in northern Iran bythe Buyid wazir Sahib b. Abbad in 977. Following hisdismissal from the post after the death of Ibn Abbad, hedevoted his life to teaching. In 999 he made a pilgrimage toMecca through Baghdad, where he spent some time. Hetaught briefly in Kazvin (10181019) and died in 1025 in Ray.

As the teacher of the well-known Mutazilites of theeleventh century, such as Abu Rashid al-Nisaburi, IbnMattawayh, Abu l-Husayn al-Basri, and as the master ofMutazilism in its late period, Abd al-Jabbar elaborated andexpanded the teachings of Bahshamiyya, the subgroup namedafter Abu Hashim al-Jubbai. He synthesized some of theMutazilite views with Sunni doctrine on the relation ofreason and revelation, and came close to the Shiite positionon the question of leadership (imama). He is also a significantsource of information on ancient Iranian and other monothe-istic religions.

Abd al-Jabbar wrote many works on kalam, especially onthe defense of the Quran, and on the Prophet of Islam. Someof his books, including most of his twenty-volume work al-Mughni, have been published. Commentaries on two of his

lost books, Sharh al-usul al-khamsa by Qiwam al-Din Mankdimand al-Muhit bil-taklif by Ibn Mattawayh, are also available.

See also Kalam; Mutazilites, Mutazila.

BIBLIOGRAPHYFrank, Richard M. The Autonomy of the Human Agent

in the Teaching of Abd al-Gabbar. Le Museon 95(1982): 323355.

Heemskerk, M. T. Suffering in the Mutazilite Theology: Abdal-Jabbars Teaching on Pain and Divine Justice. Leiden:Brill, 2000.

Hourani, George F. Islamic Rationalism: The Ethics of Abd al-Jabbar. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press, 1971.

Peters, J. R. T. M. Gods Created Speech: A Study in theSpeculative Theology of the Mutazili Qadi l-Qudat Abul-Hasan Abd al-Jabbar bn Ahmad al-Hamadani. Leiden:Brill, 1976.

M. Sait zervarli

ABD AL-KARIM SORUSH (1945 )

Abd al-Karim Sorush is the pen-name of Hassan Haj-FarajDabbagh. Born in 1945 in Tehran, Sorush attended AlaviHigh School, an alternative school that offered a rigorouscurriculum of Islamic studies in addition to the state-mandated,standardized education in math and sciences. He studiedIslamic law and exegesis with Reza Ruzbeh, one of thefounders of the school. He attended Tehran University, andin 1969 graduated with a degree in pharmacology. He contin-ued his postgraduate education in history and philosophy ofscience at Chelsea College in London. In 1979 he returned toIran after the revolution, and soon thereafter was appointedby Ayatollah Khomeini to the Cultural Revolution Council.He resigned from this controversial post in 1983.

In his most celebrated book, Qabz va Bast-i Teorik-iShariat (The theoretical constriction and expansion of thesharia), Sorush developed a general critique of dogmaticinterpretations of religion. He argued that, when turned intoa dogma, religion becomes ideological and loses its universal-ity. He held that religious knowledge is inevitably historicaland culturally contingent, and that it is distinct from religion,the truth of which is solely possessed by God. He posited thatculture, language, history, and human subjectivity mediatethe comprehension of the revealed text. Therefore, humanunderstandings of the physical world, through science, forinstance, and the changing nature of the shared values ofhuman societies (such as citizenship and social and politicalrights) inform and condition religious knowledge.

There was a contradiction between Sorushs understand-ing of epistemological problems of human knowledge, whichhe saw as logical and methodical, and his emphasis on the

Abd a l -Nas se r , J ama l

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historical contingencies of the hermeneutics of the divinetext. This contradiction was resolved in his later writing infavor of a more hermeneutical approach. In his early work, hewas influenced by analytical philosophy and skepticism of apost-positivist logic, whereas in his later writings he adopteda more hermeneutical approach to the meaning of the sacredtext. In his earlier work he put forward epistemologicalquestions about the limits and truthfulness of claims regard-ing knowledge, but in two important later books, Siratha-yimustaqim (1998, Straight paths) and Bast-e tajrubih-e Nabavi(1999, The expansion of the prophetic experience), he em-phasized the reflexivity and plurality of human understand-ing. In his plural usage of the Quranic phrase straightpaths, Sorush offered a radical break with both modernistand orthodox traditions in Islamic theology.

In the 1990s, Sorush emerged as one the most influentialMuslim thinkers in Iran. His theology contributed to theemergence of a generation of Muslim reformers who chal-lenged the legitimization of the Islamic Republics rule basedon divine sources rather than on democratic principles andpopular consent.

See also Iran, Islamic Republic of; Khomeini, Ruhollah.

BIBLIOGRAPHYSadri, Mahmoud, and Sadri, Ahmad, eds. Reason, Freedom, &

Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush.Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Behrooz Ghamari-Tabrizi

ABD AL-NASSER, JAMAL(19181970)

The Egyptian leader who dominated two decades of Arabhistory, Jamal Abd al-Nasser was born 15 January 1918, theson of a postal official. Raised in Alexandria and Cairo, heentered the military academy and was commissioned in 1938.Thereafter, he joined a secret Muslim Brotherhood cell,where he met fellow dissidents with whom he later foundedthe Free Officers. On 23 July 1952 the Free Officers seizedpower; within a year they outlawed political parties andestablished a republic. In 1954, they dismissed the figureheadpresident Muhammad Najib (Naguib) and repressed all op-position. Elected president in June 1956, Nasser ruled untilhis death. Under his leadership Egypt remained a one-partystate. The ruling party changed names several times; the ArabSocialist Union, formed in 1962, survived until 1978 whenNassers successor, Anwar al-Sadat, abolished it.

A charismatic leader, Nasser drew regional acclaim andinternational notoriety for his championship of pan-Arabismand his leadership role in the Non-Aligned Movement. Hispopularity soared during the 1956 Suez Crisis, sparked by

Egypts nationalization of the Suez Canal Company. Thetripartite British-French-Israeli invasion failed to topple hisregime and solidified his reputation. Frustrated with the paceof social and economic reform, in the early 1960s Nasserpromoted a series of socialist decrees nationalizing key sec-tors of industry, agriculture, finance, and the arts. Egyptsrelations with the Soviet bloc improved, but Nasser neverturned entirely away from the West. In regional affairs theyears after Suez were marked by a series of setbacks. TheUnited Arab Republic (19581961) ended with Syrias cessa-tion, and the Yemeni civil war (19621967) entangled Egyp-tian troops in a quagmire.

Many contend that Nasser never recovered from thedisastrous defeat by Israel in June 1967. Yet he changed theface of Egypt, erasing class privileges, narrowing social gaps,and ushering in an era of optimism. If Egyptians fault hisfailure to democratize and debate the wisdom of Arab social-ism or the states secular orientation, many still recall hispopulist intentions. When he died suddenly of a heart attackon 28 September 1970, millions accompanied his coffin tothe grave.

See also Nationalism: Arab; Pan-Arabism.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gordon, Joel. Nassers Blessed Movement: Egypts Free Officersand the July Revolution. 2d ed. Cairo: American Universityin Cairo Press, 1996.

Jankowski, James. Nassers Egypt, Arab Nationalism, and theUnited Arab Republic. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2002.

Joel Gordon

ABD AL-QADIR, AMIR(18071883)

During the early nineteenth century, Abd al-Qadir governeda state in Algeria. His family, claiming descent from Muham-mad, led a Qadiriyya brotherhood center (zawiya) in westernAlgeria. In 1831 the French conquered the port of Oran fromthe Ottomans. Fighting broke out in the Oranais amongthose tribes formerly subjected to Turkish taxes and thoseprivileged to collect them. The Moroccan sultan, failing topacify the tribes on his border, designated Abd al-Qadirsinfluential but aging father as his deputy. He, in turn, hadtribal leaders proclaim his son commander of the faithful(amir al-muminin) in 1832.

The highly educated and well-traveled new amir negoti-ated two treaties with France (18341837). Happy to cede thejob of tribal pacification to an indigenous leader, the Frenchacknowledged him as the sovereign of western Algeria. Abdal-Qadir received French money and arms