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Kingdom Plantae

&

Kingdom Fungi

Chapter 18

�Multicellular

�Eukaryotic

�Photosynthetic autotrophs

�Most terrestrial

�Cells walls made of cellulose

�Contain a & b chlorophyll

Plantae Characteristics

�Plants evolved from a green algae, (Chlorophyta) ~ 500 million yr ago

�Commonalities include

� Chlorophyll a & b

� Store excess carbs as starch

� Cell walls of cellulose

�Differences include

� Algae lack true roots, leaves, stems, cuticles & support tissues

� Some algae are unicellular

� Algae lack vascular tissues

� Most algae aquatic; most plants terrestrial

Evolutionary History

2

Problems of Land Plants�Transporting water

� Developed vascular tissues (veins)

�Support

� Parenchyma cells – thin walls & usually remain

alive after they become mature. Parenchyma

forms the "filler" tissue in the soft parts of

plants.

� Collenchyma cells - thin primary walls with some

thickening of secondary wall. Provides extra

structural support.

� Sclerenchyma cells - thick lignified secondary

walls, often die when mature. Sclerenchyma

provides the main structural support to a plant

�Dehydration

� Cuticle helps prevent loss of water

� Stomata control loss of water

�Sexual reproduction

� Wind pollinated and insect pollinated

flowers increased chances of

reproduction

�Protection of embryo

� Ovary

� Seeds

Problems of Land Plants

4 Major Plant Groups

�4 main groups of land plants:

� Bryophytes – mosses

� Tracheophytes – have veins

� Lycophytes – club mosses

� Pteridophytes – ferns

� Gymnosperms – pines & conifers

� Angiosperms – flowering plants

3

Bryophyta Tracheophyte

↓ ↓Non-vascular Vascular

Lycophytes Pteriphytes Gymnosperms Angiosperm

Spores Spores Naked seeds Enclosed seeds

↓Monocot Dicot

↓ ↓

Non-flowering Flowering

� Embryo protection - all plants protect their embryos� Algae do not

� Mosses - lack vascular tissue but do protect their embryos

� Vascular tissue - Lycophytes� For water transport, have true roots, stems, and

leaves

� Megaphylls - Ferns� Increases amount of photosynthesis and

carbohydrates produced

� Seeds - Gymnosperms� Contains embryo and stored organic nutrients

inside a protective coat

� Flowers - Angiosperms� Reproductive structure to attract pollinators and

give rise to fruits

5 Evolutionary Events

�All land plants show alternation of

generations where 2 plants each produce

the other.� does not occur in the algae

�Gametophyte� Haploid cells

� Produces gametes - (egg & sperm)

� Zygote undergoes mitosis to form

sporophyte

�Sporophyte� Diploid cells

� Produces haploid spores• Spore - reproductive cell that develops into new

organism w/out the need to fuse with another

reproductive cell

Alternation of generations

4

Alternation of generations life cycle

FERTILIZATION

sporangium (2n)zygote (2n)

Mitosis

sporophyte

(2n)

gametophyte

(n)

Mitosis

spore (n)

diploid (2n)

haploid (n)

gametes (n)

Mitosis

MEIOSIS

� The dominant generation

� Generation that is larger, lasts longer, and is most visible

� Nonvascular plants - gametophyte dominant

� Vascular plants - sporophyte dominant

•Gametophyte becomes smaller and dependent

� In the history of plants, only the sporophyte generation evolves vascular tissue.

Alternation of Generations

5

�Bryophytes - nonvascular

�Lack true roots, stems, & leaves

�Gametophyte generation is dominant

�Sporophytes are smaller & present only

part of the time

�Flagellated sperm must swim in water

�Only a few cm tall

�Represented by 3 phyla:� liverworts

� hornworts

� Mosses

� Not every plant named “moss” is a bryophyte

• Irish moss is an alga, Spanish moss is an angiosperm

Bryophytes

�Mosses grow in damp, shaded

locations

�Become dormant in dry seasons

�Bryophytes are anchored by rhizoids

- small root like structures. They do

not play a role in absorption

Bryophytes - mosses

�Sporophyte consist

of the following:

� Stalk or seta

� Capsule or

Sporangium – stores

spores

� Operculum – lid of

capsule

� Haploid spores are

released that then

form a gametophyte

Bryophytes - Mosses

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�Bryophytes have evolved several adaptations for life on land , but are not very successful.

�The other major groups of land plants evolved vascular tissue & are called Vascular plants.

� Vascular tissues transport H2O & nutrients thru the plant.

� Bryophytes lack water-conducting tubes & are referred to as “nonvascular plants.” Materials transported through diffusion

Diversity of Plants

Tracheophytes

�All plants with vascular tissues; EXCEPT Bryophytes

�Sporophyte is dominate generation

�Xylem – carries water &minerals upward

�Phloem – transports nutrients & stored food to roots & stems

�Have true roots to absorb water

�Have stems to transport materials

�Have leaves - photosynthesis

� All Tracheophytes are divided into 2 groups

� Seedless plants; spore produces

�Lycophytes and ferns

� Seed plants

�Gymnosperms and angiosperms

Tracheophytes

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�Pteridophytes, seedless vascular

plants, (2 phyla)

� phylum Lycophyta - lycophytes

� phylum Pterophyta - ferns, whisk

ferns, & horsetails

Pteridophytes

�Most have true roots.

Pteridophytes

�Lycophytes have small leaves

with a single unbranched vein.

� These leaves, called microphylls,

probably evolved from tissue flaps on

the surface of stems.

�Leaves of other vascular plants,

megaphylls, are larger & have

veins

sporangia

sporophyll

Strobilus

stoma

strobili

leaves

(microphylls)

branches

arial stem

rhizome

root

Root

phloem

vascular tissue

Leaf

xylem

�Lycophytes -

club mosses� Among first

land plants to

have

vascular

tissue

� Small leaves

called

microphylls

with single

vein

Lycophytes

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� Ferns

� Have megaphylls or fronds

•Large leaves with branched veins

•Immature leaves called fiddlehead

� Larger surface area for photosynthesis

� Better able to make food, grow, and

reproduce

� Sporangia located in sori on the

underside of fronds

� Small independent gametophyte

� Flagellated sperm; must have moist

environment

Pteridophytes

Pteridophytes

�Horsetails –

� Often found in marshy habitats

� Roots develop from horizontal rhizomes that extend along the ground.

� Reproductive stems produce cones at their tips.

� Cones consist of clusters of sporophyllsthat produce sporangia w/haploid spores.

Pteridophytes

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�The phyla Lycophyta & Pterophyta

formed forest that later became

fossil fuels in the form of coal.

� Known as “Coal Age Plants”

Pteridophytes

�2 branches of seed plants-

Gymnosperms & Angiosperms

� Gymnosperm – naked seeds

� Angiosperm – enclosed seeds

�NO WATER NEEDED FOR FERTILIZATION

2 groups of seed plants

�Gymnosperms appears in the fossil record before angiosperms

�The ovules & seeds of gymnosperms (naked seeds) develop on the surfaces of specialized leaves called sporophylls.

� ovules & seeds of angiosperms develop in ovaries

Gymnosperms

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�Phylum Coniferophyta - the largest

gymnosperm group, include pines,

firs, spruces, larches, junipers,

cedars, cypresses, & redwoods, yews

�Amongst the largest & oldest

organisms of Earth.

� Redwoods from northern California can

grow to heights of over 100 m

� 1 bristlecone pine from California is

more than 4,600 years old.

Gymnosperms

�Most are evergreen, retain their

leaves & photosynthesize

throughout the year.

� Some conifers, (redwood & cypress)

are deciduous

�Resin protects leaf from fungi &

insect attack

�Needle-shaped leaves are adapted

for dry conditions.

� A thick cuticle & the placement of

stomata in pits helps reduce water loss

Gymnosperms

�Angiosperms, flowering plants, are

vascular seed plants that produce

flowers & fruits.

�The most diverse, geographically

widespread & most successful of all

plants.

�All angiosperms are placed in the

phylum Anthophyta.

Angiosperms

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�Angiosperms are ÷ into 2 classes,

monocots & dicots.

� Monocots have leaves with parallel

veins, dicots have netlike venation.

� Monocots have fibrous root systems,

dicots have tap roots

� Monocots have 1 cotyledon, dicots 2

� Monocots include lilies, orchids, corn,

yuccas, grasses, and grains.

� Dicots include fruit trees, vegetables

Angiosperms

� Monocots usually herbaceous

� Dicots usually woody

� Monocot flower petals in sets of 3

� Dicot flower petals in sets of 4 or 5

Angiosperms

12

�The flower is specialized for

reproduction

�The flower contributed to the

success of angiosperms.

The Flower

�Receptacle –base of flower w/stem

�Sepal (calyx) -modified leaves at

the base of the flower; enclose

flower before it opens

�Petals (corolla) -lie inside the ring

of sepals.

� Bright colors attract pollinators.

� Wind-pollinated plant typically lack

bright colors.

�Neither the sepals or petals are

involved in reproduction

The Flower

� Stamen - male reproductive organs

� A stamen consists of a filament (stalk) & the

anther where pollen is produced.

�Carpels (pistils) are female reproductive

organs.

� At the tip of the carpel is a sticky stigma that

receives pollen.

� A style leads to the ovary at the base of the

carpal.

� The swollen base is the ovary that will develop

into the fruit

� Ovules (seeds) are protected within the ovary.

The Flower

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�Fruit is the mature ovary� As seeds develop from ovules after

fertilization, the wall of the ovary thickens

to form the fruit.

� Fruits protect dormant seeds

� In some plants the fruit functions like a kite or propeller, enhancing wind dispersal (maple)

� Many angiosperms use animals to carry seeds

• Burrs cling to animal fur.

• Edible fruits are eaten by animals & are deposited unharmed, along w/fertilizer.

Fruits

�The seed consists of the embryo, endosperm, & a seed coat

�As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary develops into a fruit.

�After dispersal by wind or animals, a seed germinates if environmental conditions are favorable.

� During germination, the seed coat ruptures & the embryo emerges as a seedling.

� It uses the food stored in the cotyledons to support development.

Seeds

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Seed Structures

� Seed coat – protection

� Cotyledon – stored food

� Hilum – scar where bean

was attached to pod (belly

button)

� Micropyle – small pore

where water enters

� Embryo – baby plant

� Radicle – root

� Hypocotyl – stem

� Epicotyl – 1st leaves

�Agriculture, the cultivation &

harvest of plants, began about

10,000 yrs. ago

�Agriculture made possible the

transition from hunter-gather

societies to permanent

settlements.

�The seeds of gymnosperms &

angiosperms enhanced the ability

of plants to survive & reproduce.

Success of Plants

�We depend on plants for food

production & oxygen.

�Flowering plants provide nearly all our food.

� Fruit, vegetables, corn, rice, & wheat are angiosperms.

�We also grow angiosperms for fiber,

medications, perfumes,

Human dependence

15

The Fungi

� Mycology – study of fungi

� Not plants—no chloroplasts; can’t

photosynthesize

� Not animals—heterotrophs

� Animals ingest their food, fungi absorb it

(chemoheterotrophs)

� Animals are motile, most fungi are not

� Fungi have windblown spores

during both sexual & asexual life

cycles

� Hyphae - thin filaments of cells

making up a fungus

� Mycelium - is mass of hyphae

making up main body of fungus

� The mushroom or puffball one

sees are not the main body of the

fungi, only temporary

reproductive structures

� The main body of a fungi is

Michigan is 38 acres beneath the

soil. (Humongous Fungus)

General Biology of a Fungus

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� Fungi have thick cell walls.

� Do not contain cellulose like plants

� Contain chitin, like exoskeleton of

crabs and lobsters

� Septa or a wall divides the cells of

a hyphae in many fungi

� Hyphae give mycelium large

surface area for absorption of

nutrients

General Biology of a Fungus

� Black Bread Mold

� Stolen - horizontal hyphae on surface of bread

� Rhizoids – root like structures grow into the bread to anchor and carry out digestion

� Sporangiophore - stalk that bear sporangia

� Sporangium – spore case holding sporangia

� Sporangia - spores produced in asexual reproduction

� Sexual reproduction – 2 different mating typesmeet, tips of + and – hyphae join(conjugation), nuclei fuse, and a ZYGOSPORE results

� Zygospore germinates to produce sporangia

� Sporangia undergo meiosis to produce spores

� Spores give rise to new hyphae

Zygomycota

Life cycle of black bread mold

×50

NUCLEAR FUSION

zygote

thick-walledzygospore

haploid (n) wind-blownspores (n)

mating type

mating type

Asexualreproduction

mycellum

MEIOSIS

diploid (2n)

Sexualreproduction

Asexualreproduction

sporangium

–

+

17

� Mushrooms that one eats are fruiting body whose function is to produce spores

� The + and – hyphae join to form the mushroom fruiting body

� Mushroom has stalk and cap

� Basidia – club-like structures on the gills on

underside of cap

� Basidiaspores – sexual spores

Basidiomycota - Club Fungi

Ascomycota – Sac Fungi�Ascus – cup shaped fruiting body

�Ascospores – sexual spores produced in

ascus

�Conidiaspores – asexual spores produced

from hyphae

�Similar life cycle to Club Fungi

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� Most fungi are saprotrophs

� Decompose remains of plants, animals, and microbes returning inorganic nutrients to soil

� Many are used to produce medicine

� Penicillium is used to produce the antibiotic penicillin

� Yeast is used in producing bread, beer, & other alcoholic drinks

� Soy sauce, cheeses and food itself

Ecological Benefits of fungi

� 2 different species live

together and help each

other out

� Lichens

•Fungus & cyanobacteria

or green algae

•Fungus acquires

nutrients & moisture

•Photosynthetic partner

makes food

Mutualistic relationships

Crustose lichen

Fruticose lichen

Foliose lichen

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� Mycorrhizal fungi

� Mutualistic relationships with roots of plants

� Help plants grow more successfully in dry or poor soils

� Hyphae increase surface area for absorption of food and nutrients

� Fungus and plant exchange nutrients

Mutualistic relationships

� Mycoses – diseases caused by fungi

� Serious crop losses� 1/3 of world rice crop destroyed by rice

blast disease

� Potato blight in 1845 led to Irish

immigration to US

� Corn smut

� Animal diseases� Thrush or yeast infections – white patches on

tongue

� Ringworm – red irritated rings on skin

� Athlete’s foot - red irritated skin on feet

� Histoplasmosis – from bird or bat droppings;

causes flu like symptoms

Fungi and Diseases