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Marja Kallasmaa (Tallinn, Estonia)Name Studies in Estonia

Although there are already two surveys beginning with the early days of Es-tonian onomastic studies (J. SIMM 1975, M. KALLASMAA 1995b), it seems proper not to miss the period here either.

1. First studies1.1. The Learned Estonian Society

The Baltic countries witnessed a considerable interest in place names in the first half of the 19th century. Before that a few lists of Estonian place names had been compiled and published by AUGUST WILHELM HUPEL in “Topo-graphische Nachrichten I–III”, Riga 1774–1782. In 1841 the Learned Esto-nian Society invited pastors to put down place names and send them to the Society. The appeal was repeated in 1868, 1876 and 1879. The pastors re-mained passive, but in 1888 a list of Estonian estate and parsonage names was submitted by K. KÜGELGEN. At their meetings the Baltic-German his-torians belonging to the Society discussed the possible etymologies of some Estonian place names, also touching upon their origin.

In 1907 W. SCHLÜTER suggested that a full inventory be compiled of the place names used in the territory inhabited by Estonians. Although the col-lections of the Learned Estonian Society are not significant, the Society served as a hotbed for two predecessors of the Estonian toponymy. Those were MIHKEL WESKE and JAKOB HURT. M. WESKE discussed the names on -vere (1877), J. HURT dealt with those on -st (1876) and their possible gen-esis. Their conclusions sound quite acceptable. According to HURT, the ori-gin of the Estonian names on -ste lies in tribal names on -ne, which in place names appear in the genitive plural form.

Toponymic studies proper did not, however, start in Estonia until the early 20th century.

1.2. Danish Taxation list

For Northern Estonia we have lists of village names compiled by the monks who baptised Estonians during the 13th century Danish conquests. The Esto-nian place names reported in the so-called Liber Census Daniae (LCD) have constantly served material for research and discussion for both toponymists and historians ever since the Baltic Germans (G. M. KNÜPPFER, C. PAUCKER, J. A. SCHIRREN. W. SCHLÜTER, Fr. G. V. BUNGE). The place names of LCD are also addressed in the first longer study of Estonian place names, pro-

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duced by JAAN JÕGEVER in 1913: “Mis kõnelevad Liber Census Daniae (Daani hindamise raamatu) kohanimed Eesti rahva minevikust” (What can the place names in Liber Census Daniae [Danish Taxation List] tell us about the history of the Estonian people). The pastor and folklorist MATTIAS JOHANN EISEN discussed the same subject (the eloquence of LCD place names of the Estonian people’s history) in his book “Daani hindamise raamat. Liber Census Daniae” (Danish Taxation List. Liber Census Daniae) published in 1920, and the historian A. WESTRÉN-DOLL touched upon it in the issue 1921: “Die nordestnishe Siedlung” (North-Estonian settlement), as well as did some other authors. In 1933 a fundamental study called “Die Es-tlandliste der Liber Census Daniae” (The Estonian lists of Liber Census Daniae) was published. Its author PAUL JOHANSEN was the Head of Tallinn City Archives. For him place names served as basis for a whole historical hypothesis. But he also presents a phonetic analysis of the names, their al-ternative spellings as well as modern forms, and if possible, also their ety-mologies. As a result his book is rich enough in linguistic information to serve as a welcome handbook for every Estonian toponymist.

In addition, toponymy was one of the interests of the above-mentioned his-torian A. WESTRÉN-DOLL. His articles “Beiträge zur estnischen Ortsnamen- und Sprachforschung” (Contributions to Estonian toponymy and linguistics; 1921), WESTRÉN-DOLL 1922 on the place names on -vere, and “Grund-wörter in estnishen Siedlungsnamen” (Base words in Estonian place names; 1927) on the base words of the Estonian place names lay the foundation to the studying of the non-initial components of those names.

1.3. The contribution of M. J. Eisen

During the first period of Estonian independence (1918–1940) attention was paid mainly to some individual names. At the same time foundation was laid to place-name collection. The Academic Mother Tongue Society provided grants for students to collect place names all over the country. Their “har-vest” makes up the kernel of the present-day collection of place names kept at the Dialect Archives of the Institute of the Estonian Language. M. J. EISEN collected a considerable number of place names, which, however, he could not thoroughly analyse himself. His collection is kept at the Estonian Literary Museum in Tartu. M. J. EISEN has offered some etymologies: Lalli (1917), Laiuse (1919), Põldsamaa (1921b), Pedja (1923), Pilkuse (1924a), Türi (1927), Uderna (1929), Norra (1931) etc., and reviewed a few types of names, like the Lapi-names (lapi ‘Lappish’): “Lapi Eestis” (Lapi in Estonia; 1913), Soome-names (soome ‘Finnish’): “Soome Eestis” (Soome in Estonia; 1914), Läti-names (läti ‘Latvian, Lettish’): “Läti jäljed Eestis” (Traces of Läti in Estonia; 1921a) in Estonia. The work was carried on by Paul Ariste (1969).

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Name Studies in Estonia

M. J. EISEN has also studied some German names transferred to Estonia: “Saksamaalised kohanimed Eestis” (Place names transferred from Germany to Estonia; 1926, added to by PRANTS 1927), and even some such place names of Estonian origin that have survived in the German form, yet are not to be found in Estonian any more: “Eesti keeles kadunud, saksa keeles püsi-nud eestikeelsed kohanimed” (The Estonian place names disappeared from Estonian, but surviving in German; EISEN 1924b). Notably, from the 13th up to the early 20th century most of the upper class in Estonia was German-speaking. The German names they used for the local estates and townships were not in use among the Estonians. Those names could of course, be of a German origin, but it could also happen that they had absorbed an old Esto-nian name of the place (the name of a village replaced by the estate, or some other Estonian word). There was, for example, an estate at the parish of Püha on the Isle of Saaremaa, the German name of which, Sall, originates in the Estonian word salu ‘grove’. At the same time there is an estate called Kaali in Estonian after its owner’s German family name Gahlen.

1.4. The Swedes in Estonia

M. J. EISEN introduced the subject of Swedish settlement and Swedish place names into Estonian onomastics (EISEN 1922) by presenting names on Root-si (rootsi ‘Swedish’). Thereby he started a line of research, which was de-veloped later by Professors PAUL ARISTE and PER WIESELGREN from Tartu University, and PAUL JOHANSEN. In his etymological article on the place names of the Reigi and Pühalepa parishes on the Isle of Hiiumaa PAUL ARISTE also deals with some Swedish place names pointing out the Estonian substratum in them (1938). A few names are of Estonian-Swedish origin, though, like Ankergrund. Although some of the etymologies suggested by PAUL ARISTE have been called into question, the principal points of the art-icle have not lost their value. Being a well-rounded linguist with an expert knowledge of many languages, both cognate and others, PAUL ARISTE has found likely etymologies for a few opaque Estonian place names, such as Pandivere, Pandja, Pandju, cf. the Ersan pando or the Mokshan panda ‘hill’ (1957a), Mahtra (1957b) Cozzo (1960), yet for him place names remained a side-line.

The two monographs by PER WIESELGREN, however, are exclusively dedic-ated to the Swedish settlement and Swedish place names in Estonia. One of them discusses eastern Harjumaa together with Naissaar (later, HEINO GUS-TAVSON [1978a] has added to the toponymy of the Isle of Naissaar in North-ern Estonia), while the other addresses Vormsi, the fourth biggest West-Es-tonian island, which was inhabited by Swedes until World War II. Abroad, PAUL JOHANSEN has published a study on the Swedish settlement in Estonia with place names discussed as well: “Nordische Mission, Revals Gründung

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und die Schwedensiedlung in Estland” (The Nordic mission, the foundation of Reval, and the Swedish settlement in Estonia; 1951).

1.5. Julius Mägiste

Place names have also inspired the great Estonian linguist JULIUS MÄGISTE to produce such articles as “Eesti kubjas, sm kupjas, Lätimaa Henriku Gub-besele” (The Estonian kubjas, Fin kupjas, the Gubbesele of Henry of Livo-nia; 1966b), “Eesti väin ‘Sund, Meerenge’, soome väylä ja Väinämöinen” (The Estonian väin ‘strait, sound’, Finnish väylä and Väinämöinen; 1966a), “Über die ältesten Aufzeichnungen des Estnischen und Livischen” (On the earliest written records of Estonian and Livonian; 1967), and “Viron paikan-nimistä Põlva ja 1200-luvun Walgatabalwe” (The Estonian place name Põlva and the 1200-years-old Walgatabalwe; 1970). In the last mentioned article J. MÄGISTE argues against LAURI KETTUNEN’s opinion that the Wal-gatabalve occurring in the Heinrici Chronicon Lyvoniae could be associated with the parish and township name Põlva. MÄGISTE supports the guess that Walgatabalve could rather have been situated in the parish of Vastseliina, where a village and mill called Valge(n)palo still existed in the 16th–17th cen-turies. The name has still remained a tricky one to localise. Beside Põlva it has been suggested to have once belonged to the town of Valga, or even to the whole parish. ENN ERNITS (1978) brings some arguments for Valga.

***For onomastic theory most Estonian linguists have hitherto been looking up to Finland and Sweden, less to Germany and Russia. Most studies deal with individual names. Until most recently the population of Estonian place names has been addressed as a homogeneous set, as the collections available deny any other approach. As for general theory, the principles have been taken over from abroad rather than devised at home. One of the reasons is the fact that the Estonian name collections have not been sufficiently studied yet.

2. Monographs and articles addressing the whole Estonian territoryThe book “Etymologishe Untersuchung über estnishe Ortsnamen” (An ety-mological study of Estonian place names) by LAURI KETTUNEN (1955) has become a desktop manual for any student of Estonian toponymy. Despite the fact that not all his etymologies are reliable, the book is a bulky source of relevant information. The book is based on the place-name collection of M. J. EISEN.

2.1. Estate names

Good source material can be found in “Eesti ala mõisate nimestik” (List of estates situated on the Estonian territory; 1981). This publication contains

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Estonian estate names as used in different languages. The list was compiled by The Estonian Historical Archives to provide a handy source of reference to anybody interested either in the archive materials or in earlier German and Russian publications. The old directories previously used either missed the Estonian names of the estates, or gave them with numerous orthographic mistakes. The name lists of the directories were also incomplete (particu-larly as for dairy farms), as only those estates were included that existed at the moment. “Eesti ala mõisate nimestik” (List of estates on the Estonian territory) contains a basic list with the German names of the estates presen-ted in alphabetical order and provided with some additional data on the es-tates, as well as an Estonian-German name list. The basic list represents a table including the German name, Estonian name, country, parish, and notes. The notes usually concern the year of estate foundation and name changes, if any. Two revised editions of the book have hitherto been pub-lished: “Eesti ala mõisate nimestik” (List of estates on the Estonian territory; 1984), “Eesti mõisad” (Estonian estates; 1994).

2.2. Farm names

The Estonian farm names have been discussed in the monograph “Taluni-med läbi aegade” (Farm names throughout ages; 1995) by the ethnographer GEA TROSKA. Unlike village names that attracted the historians’ attention in the 19th century, farm names have remained more in shadow. Both the Baltic-German and Estonian scholars have disputed, whether the surnames preceding the first names in historical documents should be treated as place (farm) names or personal names. The concrete decision has depended on the researcher’s opinion as well as on the results of analysis. J. SIMM, for ex-ample, has found the earliest information on farm names in the 17 th-century materials. V. PALL has treated the names occurring in the 17 th–18th-century sources as personal names, whereas M. KALLASMAA prefers to regard them as farm names ever since the 17th century, following the example of Evald Blumfeldt’s approach to the historical names of Saaremaa. After all, even some regional differences in the time of farm-name emergence should not be excluded, as a possibility at least.

GEA TROSKA dedicates separate chapters to the names of isolated house-holds, the relation of the -pere and -rahva components in the farm names, the development of family names into farm names, name types and name sets in villages, the relations of family names with lands and farmyards. Her conclusion reads that the development of family names into farm names was a lengthy process with regional differences, while the oldest layer of farm names still accessible are names of isolated households. GEA TROSKA sup-ports her work by abundant maps. Nevertheless, the monograph has an eth-nographic rather than linguistic bias. The farm names have not been subjec-

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ted to any linguistic analysis. As for the -pere and -vere components, GEA TROSKA argues that -pere belonged to the name of an older unit that could later develop into the -vere component now known in village names. This view is in harmony with an earlier theory released by PAUL ALVRE. An ono-mastic student with a linguistic background will certainly welcome the book for its abundant background information as well as many an early mention of farm names found in archive records. The book is also valuable for its ability to inspire the reader to think more about the possible extralinguistic circumstances of name giving.

2.3. Historical names

PAUL ALVRE in his article “Eesti ja liivi aines Henriku Liivimaa kroonikas. III. Kohanimed” (Estonian and Livonian material in the Heinrici Chronicon Livoniae. Place names; 1985) discusses the place names occurring in a well-known 13th-century chronicle, trying to identify and partly etymologise them. The place names of the Estonian territory, which occur in the Heinrici Chronicon Lyvoniae belong to the earliest written records of Estonian top-onyms. P. ALVRE addresses them county by county, summarising the earlier results and adding his own opinions.

A few articles have been written by MADIS NORVIK, concerning mainly the place names of Järvamaa, the name typology and the methods of name col-lection (1962, 1963, 1967).

3. Regional studies3.1. Valdek Pall

A real pathfinder in Estonian toponymy is VALDEK PALL who took up the regional trend once started by PAUL ARISTE (1938). Considering the con-temporary state of Estonian toponymy, V. PALL decided to start from re-gional studies the results of which could serve as source material for all-Es-tonian generalisations. He says, “Not until we have concrete studies on place names of various regions can we delve into the general rules of the emer-gence and development of the Estonian place names, the common features characterising the whole Estonian-speaking territory as well as the mutual relations between the toponyms of different areas, their differences and the relative age of the toponymic differences of dialects and dialect groups” (PALL 1969a, p. 5). In addition, V. PALL has set a great value on the study-ing of place-name types and their areal distribution. This, in turn, requires a detailed analysis of individual names to enable the researcher to determine the type of the name (e.g., Holstre, Valistre, Oara, Põhara, Võiera belong to the names on -vere), to find out whether the name is a simple or compound one, and to tell derivative suffixes from contracted words. Kurese and Vääna (<*väγen + oja), for example, should be classified among compound

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names, while Mäense and Peanse go together with such names as Sootaguse or Jõetaguse. Langerma, Nedrema, Paadrema should be regarded as com-pound names the second component of which is -nurme (PALL 1969a). The material V. PALL chose to analyse comes from his native region of Northern Tartumaa. This is an area traversed by the present-day boundary between the Eastern and North-Estonian Central dialects. After a couple of articles on the state of the art, V. PALL published an article “Liitsõnalistest kohanimedest põhisõnaga saar” (On compound place names with saar ‘isle’ as the base word; 1960). This was dedicated to a special kind of place names with the determinant saar ‘isle’, in dialects also ‘a higher spot in the swamp or a marshy grassland’, or ‘a grove in a swamp or a meadow’. His approach in the article “Veekogude nimedest endisel Põhja-Tartumaal” (On the names of waterbodies in the former territory of Northern Tartumaa; 1961), was ob-ject-based, attempting to clarify the origin of the names of water-bodies in the area, by using archive records.

In numerous articles V. PALL has discussed the structure of place names (incl. compound, simple, as well as suffixed ones). Doing that, he hardly ever confines himself exclusively to the material of Northern Tartumaa, finding examples to support his arguments from Western Estonia as well as from Virumaa and elsewhere. In his article “Eesti kohanimede struktuurist” (On the structure of Estonian place names; 1968a) V. PALL addresses some aspects of formal place-name structure, the proportion of simple and com-pound names, nominal and genitive compounding, the basic inflection of place names etc. Although the author does not consider his treatise exhaust-ive, the article — being based on extensive data — has played a funda-mental innovative role in the Estonian toponymy, which had previously ap-proached place-name structure with traditional methods.

V. PALL has also produced a two-volume monograph on the place names of Northern Tartumaa: I (1969a), II (1977), altogether over 600 pp. The first part gives thousands of etymologies, representing a place-name lexicon with the entries ordered alphabetically. Each name has been given an entry like in a dictionary, containing a) the literary form of the name; b) simplified pro-nunciation, if necessary; c) location and short character of the object (if ne-cessary); d) earlier mention in historical documents; e) comparative top-onymic material from the same area as well as adjoining ones; f) earlier ety-mologies suggested; g) author’s etymology, anthroponymic and appellative equivalents. The name list has been compiled mainly from the place-name files of the Institute of Language and Literature (now Institute of the Esto-nian Language) and the Mother Tongue Society (cca 27,000 file cards). Most of the names presented are farm names and village names, while names of natural objects are in the minority. The work is part of a complex study including also “Peipsimaa etnilisest ajaloost” (On the ethnic history of

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the Peipsi region) by A. MOORA, and the texts of the Eastern dialect pub-lished in the series “Eesti murded” (Estonian dialects). As is typical of V. PALL, the monograph is based on extensive material, including archive re-cords, which add historical background and more weight to the conclusions. Material of comparison has been drawn from various regions outside North-ern Tartumaa, including Southern Tartumaa, Viljandimaa, Järvamaa, and Virumaa. The etymologies suggested by V. PALL reflect a brilliant know-ledge of language history and careful consideration of every aspect. He has served toponymic research with abundant names linguistically elaborated. He has also repeatedly emphasised how important it is to analyse place names linguistically before using them to support any argument. Part one of the monograph is supplied with a German summary.

The second, analytic part provides a survey of the phonetic aspect of the place names: Chapter I deals with the toponymic developments caused by phonetic laws as well as irregular changes, especially by irregular contrac-tions, e. g. -ma(a) > -võhma: Kassema, Kõssimaa; -mäe > -ma(a): Anna-maa, Kuremaa; ?-oja > -a: Ruupa, Tiirika; ?-kõnnu > -ku: Adraku; -aseme > -(a)sme: Kodasme; -Jüri > -ri: Ennuri, Jaaneri, Matseri; -Reinu > -ri: Pi-kari; -Jaani > -ni: Mõisani, Venneni; -Juhani > -ni: Vahini; -Mardi > -di: Arudi; -Jaagu > -ku: Peebuku, -la > locative suffix -la: Karula, Rapla; -val-la: Jägala; -küla: Uugla, -jala: Sadala, -vilja: Vetla etc. The conclusions are based on the abundant archive material presented in Part One. V. PALL has released a few models of the development of toponymic formants and cer-tain name parts that are homogeneous with suffixes.

Chapter Two is dedicated to place-name structure. In connection with formal structural aspects he discusses the relations of simple and compound names. The latter subject includes a larger treatment of the names on -vere. Their first components enable the author to classify at least part of them. He identifies the first components ending in -st (~ -s > -st) with place names ending in -ste, in which -ste can be associated with the genitive plural form of the so-called ne- and s-words. Another group of names ending in -vere have their first component ending in -k, which should be a personal-name suffix. The vere-names with two-syllable first components ending in a vowel are classified phonetically into groups with a long or short first syl-lable. A separate discussion is given to the vere-names with the attributive component on *i, discussed earlier by PAUL ARISTE and PAUL ALVRE. V. PALL addresses the nominal and genitive compounding of name constitu-ents, the basic inflection of place names, the occurrence of toponymic form-ants and suffixes in the names (a considerable part of the paragraph, again, deals with vere-names).

Chapter Three on Principles of Name-Giving is divided into two parts, one of them dealing with determinants and the other with attributes. Determin-

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ants are very important to study, as these are the constituents indicating what places have been considered worth giving a name to. The determinants are grouped semantically either according to similar notions or objects. The de-terminants and their areal distribution are compared to the dialect word un-derlying the name component and its areal distribution. Attribute-wise, V. PALL divides place names into two genetic groups: a) names motivated by the characteristic features of the object, and b) names motivated by the set-tler, his name, activity, result of the activity, or the way the object is used. The motivating attributes are discussed in semantic groups based on the un-derlying appellatives. Attention is also paid to the attribute-determinant rela-tions and the fact that some determinants require certain attributes. Another interest of V. PALL lies in different layers and groups of names, and in the alternation and areal distribution of the names. In general, the study follows the diachronic principle, but the chapter devoted to areal distribution com-prises some place names that are considered in their modern form only. Al-though the study is regionally bound, it sums up the whole toponymic re-search done in Estonia hitherto and its conclusions apply to a much wider area than the title may suggest. Part Two of the monograph carries a com-prehensive summary in Russian and German.

V. PALL has also published numerous articles on special problems, particu-larly on the toponyms of Northern Tartumaa, but also on the whole Estonian territory. Separate articles have been dedicated to the names on -vere: “Märkmeid vere-lõpuliste kohanimede käsitlemise kohta” (Some notes on the treatment of place names ending -vere; 1965), “Kohanimede struktuurist ja uurimisest” (On the structure and research of place names; 1966), “Eesti kohanimede struktuurist” (On the structure of Estonian place names; 1968a); some Russian loans in the toponyms of Northern Tartumaa: “Vene elemente Põhja-Tartumaa toponüümikas” (Some Russian elements occurring in the toponyms of Northern Tartumaa; 1970a); areal distribution of place names: “Muutamien virolaisten paikannimityyppien levinnäisyydestä” (On the areal distribution of some Estonian place name types; 1968b), “Toponüümide le-viku vaatlusi” (An areal view of the distribution of certain toponyms; 1972). The relations of place-name components and appellatives have been dis-cussed in the articles “Looduslike objektide nimedest” (On names of natural objects; 1970b), “Die geographischen Termini in der estnishen Mikrotop-onymie” (Geographical terms in Estonian microtoponymy; 1991), “Maasti-kuesemete nimed ja nimetused” (Names and appellatives of lanscape ob-jects; 1992). Most of the Estonian place name studies are concentrated on settlement names, particularly those that seem somewhat special or mysteri-ous for whatever reason. V. PALL, however, emphasises the necessity to study the names of most common natural objects, touching — in passing — upon linguistic name models and providing some statistics. As for the com-

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parative approach to appellatives and name constituents, V. PALL points out that their areal distributions differ depending on the position of the constitu-ent in the name.

The relations of settlement history and toponymy are also discussed in V. PALL’s articles “Maahanmuuton jälkiä Pohjois-Tartumaan paikannimissä” (Traces of immigration in the place names of Northern Tartumaa; 1970c), in which place names are searched for traces of the onetime Finnish immigra-tion, and “Asustusajaloo ja toponüümika seostest” (On the relations between settlement history and toponymy; 1976b), as well as in the above-mentioned treatise on the Russian element in the place names of Northern Tartumaa. Part Two of the monograph also contains a chapter on settlement history, which besides recapitulating the material of the articles presents some new ideas. V. PALL points out that considering the present-day level of Estonian toponymy the material for studying settlement history is relatively scarce. In his opinion, the older layers of linguistic loans from the Baltic, Germanic, and Slavic languages could well have included some name loans. He also observes place names deriving from such ethnonyms as are connected with migration (vadja ‘Votic’, soome ‘Finnish’, läti, lätlane ‘Latvian’, rootsi ‘Swedish’, poola ‘Polish’), and place names of Russian origin. (The singular East-Estonian location of Northern Tartumaa has placed it in a unique posi-tion as far as name loans are concerned.) V. PALL also considers it possible that some place names have travelled from one place to another with internal migration. The names in question are toponyms inferring to another place of origin, containing such constituents as Viru, Harju, and *Ugala, and the farm names Kabala, Kunda, Narva, Saaremaa, and Tartu. He also points out the necessity to interpret the areal distribution of some stems used in place names in the light of settlement history. This may be the case if a household word occurs only in the toponyms of a certain region, yet its semantic char-acter does not explain its specific use in the place names (e.g., the -rahva component at the end of farm names).

V. PALL’s third monograph on place names “L’em’tn’e” (Names; 1997) is based on his own articles of the recent years. The study deals with plural forms occurring in place names, the relation of -ste and -si in place names, and the so-called plurale tantum used in Southern Estonia; represents the au-thor’s linguistic model of place names K1 + K2 (+K3), where K is a de-clinable word; raises the problem of an extralinguistic name model, and de-fends the author’s earlier statements on the names ending in -vere. As for a possible extralinguistic name-model, V. PALL considers the preparatory work done still insufficient.

The names on -vere has constituted a problem ever since the beginning of Estonian toponymy. Place names ending in this component frequently occur

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in northern Viljandimaa and northern Tartumaa. V. PALL’s interest in them began early: his article “Imukvere, Raigastvere, Vaidavere” (Place names Imukvere, Raigastvere, Vaidavere) was published in 1963. PAUL ALVRE in his survey has reached the conclusion that the element may have derived either from veer ‘brink, verge’ or pere ‘family, household’ (1963). This started a discussion where P. ALVRE’s sympathy towards the pere-etymology (1963, 1965, 1966) was confronted by V. PALL’s Weske–Johansen-based veere-etymology (1965, 1966b). PAUL ARISTE suggested a third op-tion of -vere < *vēri ‘deciduous forest’ (1963).The historian A. VASSAR (1966) has criticised the Johansen-based hypo-thesis advanced by V. PALL, according to which the villages with vere-names were smaller than the rest. Recently, P. ALVRE has given up his former conviction, offering a new etymology on the Finnish vierre ‘burnt-over clearing for cultivation’ that might correspond to the Estonian veere > -vere (1986, 1992). That one meets effective criticism in the “L’em’tn’e” book, in which V. PALL proves that the Estonian genitive particle -vere could by no means originate in the Finnish nominal vierre. The reason for the difference of opinion lies in that P. ALVRE — on the basis of some 13th-century records — considers it possible that in those times the vere-names could have occurred in the nom-inative form (1985, 1986, 1992) — a belief that VALDEK PALL refuses to subscribe to.

3.2. Jaak Simm

The regional approach was also pursued by JAAK SIMM. His etymologically inclined study of the settlement toponymy of the Võnnu parish has been published only partly (1975a). The studies of J. SIMM have yielded numer-ous articles. In “Märkmeid endise Satseri valla külanimedest” (Notes on the village names of the former volost of Satseri; 1970) and “Piirissaare nimed” (Names usage in Piirissaar; 1971a) he points out that the note Russ(e) or Re-usz following a peasant’s name need not always indicate his ethnic origin, referring, instead, to his previous place of living. (A similar conclusion was reached by V. PALL [1970a], while studying the place names of Northern Tartumaa). Even the Russian name of the peasant need not serve as an abso-lute criterion of his ethnic origin. Intensive immigration from Russia to the Isle of Piirissaar did not begin until the 18th century after all. J. SIMM dis-cusses such names as Želutško, Borka, Porka, Piirissaar, Meža, Selsar, Solsar, and Klitsaar. In his article “Slaavi geograafilised terminid Setumaa kohanimedena” (Slavic geographical terms as place names in Setumaa; 1971b) J. SIMM addresses the following place names of Setumaa: Korski, Lobotka, Lädina, Peresnika, Ostrova, Selise, Selisja, Selisje, and Tebrova.

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More than one of his articles deal with microtoponyms: “Mõningaid märk-meid Setumaa mikrotoponüümidest” (Some notes on the microtoponys of Setumaa; SIMM 1972c, 1973). Several articles address the earlier village names of the former Satseri volost (1970), the alternation and decay of the settlement names of the Võnnu parish (1971c), the Slavic and Russian ele-ment in the toponyms of Setumaa (1971b, 1972b, 1974), and the Russian element in the settlement names of the Võnnu parish (1971). Also, J. SIMM has published on the farm names of the Võnnu parish and the microtop-onyms of Setumaa.

Inspired by LEO TIIK’s article “Ühest kohanimest loodusteaduslikus as-pektis” (On a place name in the natural-historical level; 1963) on the vari-ants of the name component pääks(es) and the Estonian meanings of the ap-pellative, J. SIMM wrote a more generalising treatise “Veel pääks-, peeks- nimedest” (More on pääks-, peeks-names; 1972a). Another source of inspir-ation to J. SIMM has been an article published by ADA AMBUS in 1960. In the article “Lõuna-eesti kohanimesid Pihkva kroonikais” (South-Estonian place names in the Pskov Chronicles; 1960) A. AMBUS calls the reader’s at-tention to some Old-Russian historical records, in which she has discovered four different approaches to Estonian place names. Accordingly, the Esto-nian place names could have been treated in any of the following ways: a) full citation, b) partial translation, c) dropping of the final component, d) full translation. A separate discussion is given to the translation of Otepää and Vastseliina. Altogether A. AMBUS has addressed 27 place names. J. SIMM (1973) provides a few additions to the article.

Some articles by J. SIMM deal with more general problems: “Zur Geschichte der estnischen Ortsnamenforschung” (On the history of Estonian place name studies; 1975c) presents a brief history of toponymic studies in Estonia. “Ni-meteaduse põhimõisteid” (Some basic terms of name studies; 1976) intro-duces onomastic terminology. In addition, J. SIMM has produced numerous surveys and popular writings, particularly on South-Estonian place names. In several appeals he has encouraged the Estonian people to collect top-onymy and personal names.

3.3. Heino Gustavson

HEINO GUSTAVSON has written two articles on the estate names based on personal names: “Die von Personennamen abgeleiteten Gutsnamen im ehe-maligen Kreise Harjumaa” (Personal-name based estate names from the former district of Harjumaa; 1978b) and “Die von Personennamen abgeleiteten Gutsnamen im ehemaligen Kreise Järvamaa” (Person-based es-tate names from the former district Järvamaa; 1980). Both articles follow a similar pattern consisting of name entries that provide the estate name in Modern Estonian and in German, location of the estate (village and parish),

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the earliest record available to the author, and the period when the estate be-longed to the person whose name it now bears. The entries have been classi-fied according to whether the name is still in use or not, whether the estate name has been derived from a Christian name, surname, or nickname, and what is its German equivalent. Conclusions are presented in a separate para-graph at the end of each entry.

3.4. Koidu Uustalu and Southern Estonia

After the Knights of the Sword had conquered Estonia in the 13th century, many places were given German names that were used in parallel with the Estonian ones right into the 20th century. The German-based place names of southern Estonia have been discussed in the partly published dissertation by KOIDU UUSTALU “Lõuna-Eesti saksakeelne toponüümia” (German-language toponyms in Southern Estonia; defended in 1972), which was dedicated mainly to estate names. In the late 1960s and early 1970s she published sev-eral articles on that subject. “Mõisate ja mõisnike nimedest lähtunud ko-hanimesid Lõuna-Eestis” (Place names based on the names of estates and landlords, as used in Southern Estonia; 1968a), discusses a great number of estate names, most of which were possessor’s names. Such names, indicat-ing to whom the estate belonged, began to spread in Germany in the 12 th–13th centuries, when family names were introduced there. The German trans-lation loans of Estonian estate names are addressed in her articles “Überset-zte Güternamen in der deutschsprachigen Toponymie Südestlands” (Trans-lated estate names among the German-based toponyms used in Southern Es-tonia; 1968b), “Eesti laene endisaegsete saksakeelsete kohanimede seas” (Estonian loans among the former German-based place names; 1970), and “Niederdeutsche Ortsnamen und Gewässernamen in Johann Renners Livländischen Historien” (Low German place names and hydronyms, occur-ring in the Livonian History by Johann Renner; 1975). The last mentioned article deals with place names occurring in a Low-German chronicle of the 16th century.

In a short article “Namenkundliche Miszellen aus dem 17. Jh.” (Some ono-mastic miscellanies from the 17th century; 1978) K. UUSTALU takes another look at the Estonian place names taken over into German. Stating that many Estonian place names have travelled into High German via Middle Low German that was used in the Baltic area up to the 16 th–17th centuries (e.g., Est. Ümera [river], Low Germ. Ümer ah, Est. Karksi, High Germ. Karkus, Est. Maasi, High Germ. Sonneburg). The other route lies over Russian: either Est. > Russ. > High Germ., or Est. > Russ. > Low Germ. > High. Germ. (e.g., Est. Jaama, High Germ. Jama). K. UUSTALU observes that the Estonian place names that arrived in High German via Low German have

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often changed phonetically, less so semantically. Those Estonian names, however, that have reached High German via Russian have retained some-thing of their Russianised form. It should be pointed out, though, that the au-thor’s conclusions are based on rather little material.

In the article “Transpositionsphänomene und intersprachliche Interferenz in der deutschsprachigen Toponymie Estlands” (Transpositional phenomena and linguistic interference as manifested in the German-based toponymy of Estonia; 1979) K. UUSTALU addresses problems connected with the fact that the names occurring in the 12th–16th-century Low-German records, place names included, have been transposed into High German later, which cer-tainly has not spared the names from distortion. The article discusses the lexico-semantic transposition of Estonian place names from Estonian into Low German as well as High German, dwelling on name translation and folk etymology.

3.5. Leo Tiik, Enn Koit, Marja Kallasmaa and Western Estonia

The unpublished thesis by MARJA KALLASMAA (defended 1981, abstract Структура Эстонской микротопонимии [на материале западного диа-лекта]. Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени канди-дата наук. Тарту 1981) deals with the structure of the microtoponyms used in the Western dialect of the Estonian language. Part of it has been published in the form of articles in which the determinants and final constituents of the microtoponyms are compared with appellatives (1978a, 1978c). The author has also surveyed the use of the term mikrotoponüüm in the contemporary Soviet and Estonian onomasiological literature (1978b).

LEO TIIK has confined his name studies to the western Estonian islands. His series of articles on the personal and place names of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa has served an important landmark for later name studies (1963), “Meheni-mesid Hiiumaalt” (Some male names of Hiiumaa; 1969), “Hiiumaa Leiger” (Leiger of Hiiumaa; 1982), Tiik (1970), “Nimesid Saaremaalt XVI ja XVII sajandist” (Some names from the 16th–17th sentury Saaremaa; 1976b), “Saa-remaa kontakte mehenimede alal” (Some contacts of Saaremaa as revealwd in the field of male names; 1976a), “Isikunimede mugandid Saaremaal XVI ja XVII sajandil” (Adaptations of male names from 16 th–17 century; 1977). As L. TIIK was one of the best specialists on archives, his articles carry a lot of historical and archive material, helping to etymologise the place names of the islands and Western Estonia. L. TIIK’s favourite subject was the settle-ment history of the Estonian second largest island Hiiumaa (see TIIK 1966), “Perekonnanimesid Hiiumaalt” (Some family names from Hiiumaa; 1969), in which family names entail some toponymic information; and “Kohanime-sid Hiiumaalt. Emmaste” (Some place names from Hiiumaa. Emmaste;

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1970) in which the author addresses 47 village names of the Emmaste parish (coinciding with the Agabe or Sõru administrative district mentioned in re-cords since the 16th century). The same region remained in the centre of his interest even later in many articles that most of the earlier Estonian farm names derive from personal names. Later on the author was specifically in-terested in the Emmaste parish, notably in his work entitled “Emmaste talust kuni Emmaste kihelkonnani” (From Emmaste farm to Emmaste parish; 1995). Relying on archival data, L. TIIK has shown convincingly that Esto-nian village and farm names may well contain traces of old Germanic per-sonal names. His conclusions are based on his extensive self-made files on the villages, farms, households, estates, landlords etc.

ENN KOIT started a systematic study of the place names occurring the Isle of Saaremaa, yet was able to publish but a few articles: “Valjala kohanimesid” (Some place names of Valjala; 1962), “Mõningaid Saaremaa kohanimesid” (Some place names of Saaremaa; 1966), “Salu ja selg Saaremaa liitsõnal-istes kohanimedes” (Salu and selg in the copound place names of Saaremaa; 1968), “Saaremaa jala-liitelistest kohanimedest” (On Saaremaa place names with -jala as suffix; 1970; jalg : jala ‘foot’).

A short contribution to the subject “Saaremaa, Ösel ja Ojamaa” (Place names Saaremaa, Ösel and Ojamaa; 1999) has been written by V. PALL who demonstrates that Ojamaa, which is the name used by the Saaremaa people to refer to Gotland, derives from the appellative åj (Pl. åjar) that means ‘is-land’ in the Gotland dialect.

A longer study “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I (Place names of the Isle of Saaremaa; 1996), Vol. II (2000a) has been produced by MARJA KALLASMAA. The book “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I is an in-terim result of the ongoing regional studies of Estonian place names. The work is modeled after “Põhja-Tartumaa ko-hanimed” (Place names of Northen Tartumaa), Vol. I by V. PALL that, in its turn, brings a list of references to earlier studies of Estonian toponymy. Every place name making a headword of “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I is followed by its pronunciation in a simplified transcription (if necessary), the villages (in a few cases just parishes) where the name oc-curs, archive dates (if available), comparative material from other regions, as well as the most likely equivalent(s) among common or personal names, or a phonetically close-sound-ing appellative or personal name that the toponym may be related with, except if the latter is well known. “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I (528 pp) includes 11,129 full and refer-ence entries. Unlike the above-mentioned volume by V. PALL,

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the study contains more microtoponyms, as most of them are primary names in the present-day Saaremaa. Secondary names have been carefully selected to present only those names that have a component of linguistic interest.“Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. II (222 pp.) gives the phonetic changes that might have affected the place names intro-duced in the first chapter. This chapter is divided into two parts, one of which deals with phonology and other with the rest of the changes, including, first and foremost, the irregu-lar shortening of the non-initial components, and the substi-tution of parts of the toponyms.The second chapter is about place-name systems and struc-ture. Two place-name associations are hypothesised to exist in Estonian. A place-name association can be defined as the whole set of names used within a village, which is the longest list of names completely familiar to an ideal inhabit-ant of that village. The first and older of the two kinds of as-sociations is made up of names for the village, farms and a great number of natural objects, esp. agricultural ones. The other and more recent kind consists mainly of a village name and farm names, plus perhaps a couple of names for natural objects. The first association found in Saaremaa still reflects the strip-farming system used until the mid-19th century, when the landholdings were consolidated. The other associ-ation, particularly flourishing today, is characterised by most small objects being named after village or farm. Con-sequently, the difference between the place names of Saaremaa and those of the mainland lies not in the structure of an individual name (attribute + determinative), but in the type of name association. The second part of the chapter concentrates on the plural forms in Saaremaa toponymy, es-pecially those differing from the literary Estonian standard. The occurrence of the de-, e-, a-, and i-plurals in place names are analysed.

Chapter Three deals with place-name constituents under two headings: “De-terminandid ja järelkomponendid” (Determinative and non-initial constitu-ents) and “Atribuudid” (Attributes). The latter part is structured analogously to the respective chapter in V. PALL’s monograph. In connection with attrib-utes the so-called problem of German personal names in Estonian toponyms has been raised once again, as in Saaremaa folk-etymological modifications often depart from personal names of Low-German/Friesian origin. In this study, names collected from Saaremaa are compared to Finnish toponyms of

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Germanic origin as well as to Germanic personal names. For this study M. KALLASMAA has analysed 40,000 name cards. Part One reflects the material of abundant records from the Estonian Historical Archives.

M. KALLASMAA has also published numerous articles on the place names of Western Estonia and Saaremaa (1978a, 1978b, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988a, 1988b, 1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1992, 1995a, 1995c, 1996). Their gist has been recapitulated in the above-mentioned monograph. Later, M. KALLAS-MAA has discussed the role of folk etymology in the history of Estonian place names (1998a, 1998b), the names of other peoples in Estonian place names (1997, 1999a), the Piur(u)-names in Saaremaa and Finland (1999b), and the reflections of farmer identity in Estonian place names (2000b).

Now that we have two extensive studies, with a more or less similar method-ological basis, covering different (eastern and western) parts of Estonia, we can see that the toponymic populations of different Estonian regions differ more than has hitherto been believed. Hence the dire necessity for more re-gional studies. There is still no comparable study, for example, on Southern Estonia (the thesis by J. SIMM is confined to just one parish of Southern Tar-tumaa).

3.6. Evar Saar and Southern Estonia

After JAAK SIMM’s untimely departure the South-Estonian place names have attracted the interest of EVAR SAAR. Hitherto he has written on corpus plan-ning and published toponymic material: her articles “(S)orava(lõ) paiganim-mist” (On the place names (S)orava(lõ); 1998) and “Eksitavaid kohanimesid uuel Setomaa kaardil” (Some misleading place names occuring in the new map of Setomaa; 1999) suggest corrections into some official place names; the article “Laiast ilmast lainatuq võrdlõvaq kotussõnimeq Võrumaal” (Bor-rowed from the wide world: comparative place names occuring in Võrumaa; 2000) points out comparative place names (microtoponyms) borrowed to Võrumaa from some other parts of the world. EVAR SAAR is compiler of the data base of the place names from the parishes Räpina and Vastseliina in Southern Estonia.

A short contribution called “Võrumaa kohanimekujudest” (On the shapes of Võrumaa place names; 1998) has been published by REELIKA KIKKAS. Based on the author’s diploma thesis “Rõuge kihelkona Krabi valla ko-hanimed” (Place names of Krabi volost in Rõugr parish), the publication dis-cusses the literary and the dialectal elements in the place names of Võrumaa.

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4. Publications on individual names or name typesWritings discussing just one or a few names are extremely numerous, even if we leave out newspaper articles, which are often based on fantasy or opin-ions without any scientific ground.

4.1. -vere and Paul Alvre

As a sideline, toponymy has long been pursued by PAUL ALVRE. He has ad-dressed both individual names as well as place name types. The same year as VALDEK PALL he began studying the vere-names. P. ALVRE’s article “Kuidas on tekkinud vere-lõpulised kohanimed” (What is the origin of place names ending -vere; 1963) provides a survey of the research history of those names and their earlier etymologies. P. ALVRE suggests that the name com-ponent -vere derives from the word pere. The years 1965–1966 bring along a dispute with V. PALL, reported earlier in this paper. In the articles “Veelgi vere-lõpuliste kohanimede käsitlemisest” (Even more on the treatment of place names ending -vere; 1965) and “Tehkem vahet olulise ja ebaolulise vahel” (Let us make a difference between the relevant and the irrelevant; 1986) P. ALVRE argues for his own pere-etymology. In “Kohanimede -vere loodusobjekti tähistajana” (The -vere component of place names as the sig-nifier of a natural object; 1986), however, he launches a new etymology of -vere: < vierre. The vierre etymology has been exposed to international dis-cussion since the Finnish publication of ALVRE (1992).

In his article “Kas põranda ja põrmu kaudu Permi?” (To Perm via põrand ‘floor’ and põrm ‘dust’?; 1981) P. ALVRE gives a thorough analysis of the semantics of the words põrand ‘floor’ and põrm ‘dust’ in the Finnic lan-guages, hypothesising that Perm < põrm ‘earth’. The article “Veel koha-nimest Ocrielae” (More on the place name Ocrielae; P. ALVRE 1984) ad-dresses a toponym that occurs only once in historical records, yet has in-spired several earlier speculations: P. JOHANSEN: personal name < Oteri (1933); A. VASSAR: Otsrävälä (1939); L. MERI considers Ocrielae a transla-tion equivalent of Rävälä, as the latter is based on rebu ‘yolk’ referring to yellow colour that, in turn, would translate into medieval Latin as ‘ochre’ (1976); J. PÕLDMÄE: < ochros ‘ochre, bog ore’ (1983). PAUL ALVRE pro-poses two Estonian-based etymologies, yet those seem less probable than the version supported by MERI and PÕLDMÄE. P. ALVRE (2000a) regards Goldenbeck, which is the German name for the parish of Kullamaa, as an Estonian-based toponym bearing traces of the times when the Estonian -lδ- had not yet been assimilated into -le- and the genitive ending -n was still in use. Briefly, P. ALVRE has touched upon that issue earlier, too (2000b).

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4.2. More on individual names

The name Lyndanise that occurs in the Livonian Chronicles and is usually considered an old name of Tallinn has inspired numerous articles. The period in question has yielded SIMM (1975b), TIIK (1976b), and KAPLINSKI (1976). J. SIMM just recapitulates earlier treatments. L. TIIK, relying on his extensive experience, responds by correcting more than one erroneous inter-pretation. He recognises both the Estonian-based explanation Lindanise < Lindanase < *Litnanasen ‘place of town’ suggested by Enn Roos and cer-tain Germanic etymologies as likely. The latter find support by KÜLLIKE KAPLINSKI (1976) who argues that Lyndanise is a compound name the final component of which is nise ~ nase Sw/LGerm ‘cape’, while the first com-ponent could be either linde Sw/Dan ‘shelter’, or Sw ‘lime-tree’; ‘marshy ground’.

A few etymologies bounding on the fantastic have been launched by the his-torians LENNART MERI and VELLO LÕUGAS. V. LÕUGAS has, among else, addressed the names Viru and Alutaguse, which are names of larger regions (1978a, 1978b, 1997). ENN TARVEL and HERBERT LIGI have kept to more realistic grounds. The article “Eesti toponüüme Skandinaavia ruunikirjades” (Some Estonian toponyms occurring in Scandinavian runic writings; TARVEL 1978) is dedicated to four names supposed to be of Estonian origin: i. estlatum (Eesti), uirlanti (Virumaa), i silu (?Saaremaa, more likely Salo in Finland), runo (?Ruhnu). The article is descriptive, containing numerous quotations of earlier records of place names. In his article “Järvamaa algu-loost” (On the origin of Järvamaa; 1979) E. TARVEL treads on the linguistic ground, suggesting that the järv-component of Järvamaa is a Baltic loan-word *jarva that used to mean ‘sea’ (cf. Lit. jura ‘sea’; Lat. jūra ‘sea’; Prus-sian iuriay ‘sea’; and also Lit. jaura ‘wet, heavy, dead soil; marshy soil with an admixture of mud and clay’. E. TARVEL believes that the word was loaned into Estonian in the 3rd millennium BC during the advance of the boat-axe culture. In a short note “Lihulinn ja Lihula” (Lihulinn and Lihula) E. TARVEL (1999) derives both names Lihula and Lihulinn from the appel-lative liga: lea ‘dirt, filth’. In her response “Veel Lihulast ja Lihulinnast” (More on Lihula and Lihulinn) M. KALLASMAA (1999c) has indicated that the liga: lea etymology is not likely, considering the type and structure of the la-final settlement name Lihula.

The article “Ühest toponüümist ja veidi ka toponüümikast” (On a toponym and a little on toponymy as well; 1980) by the historian HERBERT LIGI deals with the name of Lake Mõrtsuka, discussed earlier by several local research-ers. The onomatologist JAAK SIMM surmises in his article of 1979 that Mõrtsuk(as) ‘murderer’ could have been a surname given to a farmer for a concrete murder committed in the 8th century. J. SIMM believes that the

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name became a village name in the early 19th century. H. LIGI, however, proves that Mõrtsuka was used as a village name as early as in the late 17 th

century, and associates its emergence with the war between Poland and Sweden in the first quarter of the 16th century. In his article “Kaali katastroof ja Püha kihelkonna kohanimed” (The Kaali catastrophe and the place names of Püha; 1984), which is based on extensive historical material, H. LIGI criti-cises L. MERI’s attempt to base the historical formation of the name of Lake Kaali (a well-known meteor crater) as well as the family name Gahlen on the Estonian language. H. LIGI’s articles and historical monographs are, in-deed, of interest for an onomasiologist as all his arguments are based on irre-futable logic, but sometimes there are orthographic mistakes in the place names, which greatly reduces the value of the study from a linguist’s point of view. The same applies to the toponymic attempts of other historians.

The historian and journalist RAIVO PALMARU has written an article “Eesti vanimais kirjalikes allikais” (Eesti in the earliest written records; 1980) con-centrating on whether the ethnonym aestii used by Tacitus stood for Balts or Finno-Ugrians. Before him the subject had been dealt with by several au-thors, while the most recent writings belonging to KARL INNO (1981, 1983). R. PALMARU also supports the opinion that both eesti and aesti derive from the Germanic stem ost- (öst-, est-, ‘east’). In addition, the author touches upon some other Estonian place names found in Scandinavian sources. Yet, being written for enlightening purposes, the article mainly refers to the res-ults of other authors, without adding anything new.

UNO LIIVAKU, whose main activities are translation and language planning, has written an article “Eesti ja Eestimaa” (Eesti and Eestimaa; 1996) dis-cussing the use of the names Eesti and Eestimaa from the historical, political and language planning aspects. He concludes that Eesti is indeed one of the names that may take -maa as the final constituent for stylistic reasons, but this should happen as seldom as possible.

FELIX OINAS has published a couple of writings on individual names. His discussion of Kastre (OINAS 1979, 1980) is a response to the article “Kastre pole vene nimi” (Kastre is not a Russian name) by EDGAR SAKS (1978). In his treatment of Kalev (Kolõvan) (OINAS 1993) he deals with Kolõvan as a hero of Russian legends, and his name in the Finnic languages and Russian place names. ENDEL JAANUS has discussed the toponyms Suislepa and Lapetukme (1976, 1984). URMAS SUTROP (1996) has addressed colour terms in Estonian place names found in Census Liber Daniae. A few place names he has also touched upon in his article “Eesti keele vanimatest perioodidest” (On the earliest periods of the Estonian language; 1999), effectively criti-cised by AGO KÜNNAP (1999). Some popular publications have also been

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produced by ENN LUMET, AARE MÄEMETS, TIIT PETERSOO, HARALD RE-BANE, and TARMO TIMM.

5. Urban place namesIt is only natural that people should get interested in collecting street and other urban names, as those provide some hold-on concerning the original landscape, bodies of water, buildings, institutions, artisans and the sites of their workshops, historic and political figures.

5.1. Tallinn

The monograph “Tallinna tänavad” (The streets of Tallinn; 1972) by ALEK-SANDER KIVI is a reference book of 204 pages. Its introduction surveys the emergence and growth of Tallinn and the development of its street system. The names of all streets and squares in Tallinn at that time are presented in alphabetical order and provided with commentaries on the location of the street or square, the time of the emergence or assignment of the name, the origin and derivation of the name, and the earlier names, if any. There is also an index of earlier — Estonian as well as foreign — names of renamed streets and squares.

One of the sources used by A. KIVI is the unpublished dissertation “Vana Tallinn. Ajaloolis-geograafiline käsitelu linna tekkimisest ja kujunemisest” (Old Tallinn. A historico-geographical treatise on the emergence and devel-opment of the city; defended in 1958), of which L. TIIK had published only a few issues: “Keskaegsest mereliiklusest Balti merel ja Soome lahel” (On the medieval sea transport on the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland; 1957) and “Vanast Tallinnast ja tema liiklusteedest” (Old Tallinn and its transport routes; 1959). Those are, indeed, of interest for a student of Tallinn street names.

“Isikunimelised tänavad Tallinnas” (Tallinn streets named after persons; 1977) by A. KIVI is a popular reference book of 128 pp., explaining who were the persons whose names were given to the streets of Tallinn, and what were their relations to the city. Streets named after persons are introduced in alphabetical order and provided, beside the information on the person, with a short historical survey of the street, its earlier names and the reasons be-hind renaming(s). The book is wound up by streets bearing the names of mythological and literary figures. This makes 71 streets altogether. The book also includes an introductory article on street names and their studying.

5.2. Tartu

AILI RAENDI in her “Isikunimelised tänavad Tartus” (Tartu streets named after persons; 1987) deals with the streets of the second largest Estonian town Tartu. She points out that the toponymic history of Tartu has been in a

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relatively neglected state, as the medieval city plans have not survived. The oldest plan of Tartu revealing the network and names of the streets dates from the year 1636 and the oldest street list has survived since 1582. The bulk of the book is structured analogously to A. KIVI’s book just mentioned, listing streets named after prominent figures in alphabetical order. Literary, mythological and first names are left out, though. This leaves us with 42 streets on 84 pp. The author has concentrated on the life and deeds of the persons, their relations with Tartu, and their services to the town. The previ-ous name of the street may be mentioned, too, but not the whole history and development.

The historian NIINA RAID has published a monograph “Tartu tänavad aastani 1940” (The streets of Tartu to 1940; 1999) on Tartu street names up to 1940. There are 10 names found in the town council records 1547–1555, as well as those mentioned in the Audit Book by B. Wybers in 1582–1658, and the names occurring on the earliest survived city plans (17 th cent.). The Chapter on the streets of the old part of the town deals with the streets within the town wall, attempting to determine their location in modern terms as well as their earlier names. It remains, however, unclear whether the Estonian names are just the author’s translations of foreign originals, or whether those forms have been in use as well. A short survey has been given of the condi-tion of the town in the 18th century and the development of new quarters, particularly the so-called 1st quarter (an extension of the old town), 2nd quarter (Riia suburb along the Riga Road) and 3rd quarter (St. Petersburg suburb across the bank of the river Emajõgi). The index of Tartu street names, supplemented by M. Eimre contains more names than the text part of the book. In general, N. RAID is more interested in the evolution of the street network and the location of the historical streets than in street names as such. She has also published articles on the street names of Tartu, incl. one on the streets of the historical centre from the 16th century right into this day (1985).

5.3. Small attitudes

The restitution of Estonian independence brought along a lively discussion on street names as the carriers and perpetuators of the Soviet ideology. This triggered a restoration of street names. Papers carry notes on the names of streets and other urban objects, written by such authors as Helve Anton (Otepää), Richard Blomerius (Tartu), Lembit Eelmäe (Tartu), Silvia Ehren-busch (Tallinn), Jaan Ersto (Valga), Uno Hermann (Elva), Kalev Jaago (Haapsalu), Olev Jõgi (Kuressaare), Marja Kallasmaa (Kärdla), Arnold Kask (Tartu), Odette Kirs (Rakvere), Aleksander Kivi (Tallinn), Boris Kivi (Kur-essaare), Viktor Korravits (Tartu), Ivar Kostabi (Tartu), Päivu Laipaik (Tõrva), Pelle Lall & Ott Sandrak (Tallinn), Marko Mihkelson (Valga), Aili

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Miks (Otepää), Aster Muinaste (Pärnu), Heino Mägi (Otepää), Ene Paaver (Tartu), Tõnis Padu (Haapsalu), Hillar Palamets (Tartu), Tiia Pauska (Kärdla), Olev Prints (Tartu), Juhani Püttsepp (Mustvee), Henn Saari (Tallinn), Heino Sikk (Võru), Jaak Simm (Tallinn), Enriko Talvistu (Tartu), Juhan Teder (Viljandi), Leo Tiik (Tallinn), Hilja Treuberg (Pärnu), Ain Tähiste (Kärdla), Helju Vals (Tartu). Most of those publications just argue for the restoration or changing of the street names of this or that town, but some concrete information, esp. on the history of names used in small towns was thus saved from the verge of oblivion.

5.4. Peeter Päll

The names of the streets of Tallinn and even some other towns have been stu-died by PEETER PÄLL, who has, by the way, made the current street names of Tallinn available by the Internet (http://www.eki.ee/knab/tallinn1.htm). P. PÄLL has also published the principles of urban naming: “Nimevaliku põhimõtteid” (Principles of name selection; 1988): 1) old names should be preserved, 2) a name should reflect the characteristics of the place, 3) the history of the region should be considered, 4) in bigger set-tlements thematic series of names have proved justified.

Previously, Estonian toponymic studies were dominated by a diachronic re-gional approach. Now, in connection with the re-emergence of an independ-ent Estonian state, the focus has shifted to name legislation and planning, es-pecially stimulated by the possibility of publishing Estonian-made maps in the vernacular. Under the Soviet rule, the Estonians were prevented from mapping their own territory and, for the sake of secrecy, from even using such maps. The number of Estonian place names on Soviet maps was lim-ited by special prescriptions. The few names that were allowed to appear on maps were written in the Cyrillic alphabet, which prevented the names from being represented in their correct form. Now, attention is concentrated on the drawing of precise maps and on providing them with correctly spelt names. Engaged in consultation on practical naming (of streets etc.), in the standardisation and orthography of place names, and developing the Name Law was HENN SAARI and now is PEETER PÄLL. They did not have to start from scratch, however. In 1923, an all-Estonian list of settlements “Üleriik-line asumite nimestik” (All-Estonian settlement list) was published.

The year 1977 saw the publication of a list of the townships and villages of the Estonian SSR “Eesti NSV alevike ja külade nimekiri” (List of the town-ships and villages of the Estonian SSR), which was followed in 1978 by “Administrative division of the territory of the Estonian SSR and the rural settlements / Eesti NSV territooriumi administratiivne jaotus ja maa-asulad”, now outdated. The next (unpublished) list of settlement names was compiled

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by J. SIMM and edited by M. KALLASMAA. Now, revised and rendered com-puter-readable by PEETER PÄLL, the list is available at the computers of the Institute of the Estonian Language.

6. Name planningName orthography has been an issue of controversy for long. The spelling rules for Estonian place names were fixed in 1932. A. KASK (1974) has sur-veyed the early period of place-name planning. Most of the earlier sources deal with individual names and their orthography. Standardisation is an is-sue first raised by REIN KULL in 1958, who argues that place names should be standardised typewise. Later, the problem has been addressed by V. PALL (1971, 1976a) and J. SIMM (1976), in connection with the regulating of set-tlement names in Soviet Estonia. V. PALL emphasises that the use of place names should be unified so as to become free of variants. Standardisation should rely on the local dialect form of the place names, as well as the liter-ary tradition and, to some extent, their etymology and class, plus the spelling of Estonian compounds. In his article of 1971, V. PALL formulates the tasks facing the systematic standardisation of the Estonian place names at that moment: a) additional collection of material, b) fixation of general prin-ciples of standardisation, c) elaboration of concrete cases on the basis of b). The final result was envisaged as a maximally comprehensive list of settle-ment names and, by all means, the other place names fixed in a shape at least as normative as the words in the Orthographic Dictionary.

In his article on place-name spelling (1976a) V. PALL sets forth the general principles to standardise the Estonian place names. According to those, one should take into consideration 1) the local dialect form of the name, 2) unity of the literary language, 3) tradition of the name usage, 4) name structure, and 5) name etymology. At that, V. PALL considers inevitable that a dia-lectal name should be adapted to the literary standard. He has also attempted to find phonological as well as morphological equivalents to enable such transposition.

JAAK SIMM (1976) also discusses name problems in the framework of vil-lage merging in the 1970s (4000 villages were to be made out of 7000, while the selection and linguistic surveillance of the names were given in charge of the Toponymy Group at the Institute of Language and Literature). The principle was to prefer names with a historical tradition while out of prac-tical extralinguistic reasons it was attempted to avoid similar names. The at-tempt, however, caused massive local discontent leading to the restoration of village names upon the restoration of Estonian independence.

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The so-called pure theory of names has been one of the many interests of HENN SAARI, who concentrated on the name planning aspect. At the name planning seminar held in 1988 he gave a preliminary formulation of his prin-ciples of name planning, using his own terms, that have since been adopted into Estonian onomastic texts.

The spelling of foreign names has been a traditional point of controversy in Estonia. The discussion has concerned names of Latin (ABEN 1954), Greek (NURM 1958), and Russian (NURM 1959, 1965). T. ERELT (1976) has con-sidered the Estonian spelling of Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, and Ar-menian names, as well as the Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian (ERELT 1977), the Turko-tataric and Tadjik ones (ERELT 1978, 1983).

In 1993 Nimekirjutusraamat (Name Spelling Book) was published, edited by TIIU ERELT and HENN SAARI. The introduction “Kirjutaja eelmärkus 1992” (An author’s preliminary 1992) is by H. SAARI (1993). The book was meant to introduce the reader to various national stock of names directly, i.e., without any Russian mediation. The basic principle of the book was the unity of national and international spelling of names, first introduced by V. PALL (1969b). The central problem was how should names of non-Latin ori-gin be handled with the least deformation caused. The introduction is in-formative of those parts of theoretical onomastics that should form the basis for name spelling. There is a short mention of writing and speech as the two aspects of language, the primacy of writing in names, the linguistic identity of names, the natural or deliberate adaptation of foreign names to the Esto-nian language, their norm and correctibility (the ideal of correctness should be sought nowhere else but in the original form of the name), exonyms and names of objects associated with several languages. In addition, the intro-duction contains recommendations for the spelling of international names and loan names, a discussion of parallel names, the shortcomings of holding on to the original spelling, on the one hand, and adaptive spelling on the other hand; translation of names is also dealt with. A special section is ded-icated to the rewriting of names, containing a short survey of different al-phabets, transliteration and transscription. It is pointed out that in Estonian re-written names are not subject to standardisation, only the re-writing tables are. Suggested are some validity terms of orthographic recommendations. A longer part of the text deals with the name (mostly proper name) situation in the Soviet Union in general and the triple or even quadruple (Estonian, Rus-sian, German) place name variants used on the territories of the Estonian and Livonian Guberniyas (e.g., Tallinn, Revel, Reval; Tartu, Jurjev, Dorpat), the former rules of Russian-Estonian transcription are criticised. A short survey of other transcriptions is provided.

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That introductory text by HENN SAARI is an essential manifesto of name spelling principles. The bulk of the book consists of the Estonian spelling rules of Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Tadjik, and Uzbek names, as well as lists of those Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, and Georgian first, family, and place names that are relatively more frequently used in Estonian. The pub-lication of the book was preceded by a years long discussion on name spelling in the press, participated by many linguists, cultural representatives, and other people interested.

PEETER PÄLL has a long experience of name planning, concerning urban names in the particular. In 1988 he organised a seminar on the treatment of urban names. His bulkiest works hitherto published deal with the spelling of foreign names. The book “Maailma maade nimed / Names of the Countries of the World” (1994) is a standard presentation of the spelling of the names of all countries and their capitals, as well as the equivalents of the names used in English, French, Russian, and the official languages of each country concerned, plus the ISO symbols and the names of major administrative units. Every country’s name is presented in its short form (popular name) as well as in its full form (official name). The list includes all independent states and their separate parts, colonies etc. The structure of the book and the notes to the names serve the sole purpose of providing linguistic informa-tion.

The other voluminous book by PEETER PÄLL is called “Maailma ko-hanimed / Place Names of the World” (1999). It lists over 4200 entries on non-Estonian places, with their equivalent names in Estonian, English, French, German, Finnish, Russian, and the local language. Together with historical names the book includes about 16,000 name variants. The basic names are provided with notes on pronunciation, original forms and geo-graphic references. There is also an index of foreign place names and a sum-mary of the principles of name spelling. P. PÄLL’s most recent specialty is name planning and the digitalisation of name collections. His articles on name planning are numerous (PÄLL 1987, 1993a, 1993b, 1998). He has also addressed exonyms in his article “Eestikeelsed naabrusnimed / Exonyms on Neighbouring Territories” (1986). At the present moment, P. PÄLL is in-volved in the preparation of the “Eesti kohanimeandmebaas” (Esto-nian Place Name Database; KNAB). The database is designed to comprise the whole stock of Estonian place names. Some of its lists have been made available in the Internet (http://www.eki.ee/knab/). Those include, for example, the administrative units of Estonia and their abbreviations, as well as the street names of Tallinn. The database has been introduced in the art-icle “Principles of Computer-Aided Namebank in Estonia” (PÄLL 1990).

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The List of Names of Estonian Lakes and Rivers has also been finished. As a UN expert on place names P. PÄLL has published articles on name plan-ning encompassing the Baltic States as well as discussing the global aspect. The Baltic Division that was founded at the UN Conference on Name Plan-ning held in New York, 1992 now meets regularly thanks to P. PÄLL’s initi-ative.

For PEETER PÄLL, the nearest future includes the development of the ono-mastic database, storing the data on various name categories and consulta-tion on the use and orthography of various names, checking place names on maps and preparatory work for national standardization of these names, par-ticipation in legislative initiatives concerning names, etc.

7. Place name collectionsWith the help of correspondents, MATTHIAS JOHANN EISEN, as well as FRIEDRICH KUHLBARS, managed to collect a considerable number of place names. Those collections (from the 19th century) are kept at the Estonian Lit-erary Museum in Tartu. In 1922, place names started to be collected system-atically by the Academic Estonian Mother Tongue Society. In 1940, the work was continued by the successor of the organization, the Mother Tongue Society at the Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR. At present the collection contains about half a million file cards and is kept at the De-partment of Dialectology, Institute of the Estonian Language.

There are no special periodicals in Estonia dealing with onomastic studies. Articles on the subject are received by the journals “Keel ja Kirjandus”, “Linguistica Uralica” and “Akadeemia”, as well as by the Annals of the Mother Tongue Society (Emakeele Seltsi Aastaraamat).

A group for toponymic studies is active at the Institute of the Estonian Lan-guage (Tallinn 10119 Roosikrantsi 6).

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