PRINCIPLES

OFTEACHING I

UNIT I CHAPTER I

“Every child is potential genius.”

⫸The learner is an embodied spirit.

⫸He / she is an union of a sentient body and rational soul. His/ her body experiences sensations and feels pleasure and pain. His/ her soul is the principle of acts, the source of intellectual abstraction, self-reflection and free rational volition. Body and soul exist in mutual dependence.(Kelly, 1965)

As teachers then, let us care for embodied spirit-learner. Let us feed his/her body as well as his/her spirit.

THE FUNDAMENTAL EQUIPMENT

OF THE LEARNERCOGNITIVE FACULTIES

The five sense are part of the sentient body. For effective and efficient learning, it is important that they function normally.

“there is nothing in the mind which was notfirst in some manner in the senses.”

Five Senses

Comes from the Latin word instincts which means impulse.

The learner has a natural or inherentcapacity or tendency to respond to environmental stimuli such as danger signs for survival or self-preservation.

Instincts

Is the ability to form a mental image of something that is not perceived through the senses.

Memory

This is the cognitive faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences.

Imagination

By the learner’s intellect, he/she can engage in cognitive processes such as forming ideas or concepts, reasoning out and making judgment.

Reasoning includes analyzing. Judging is evaluating.

Intellect

⫸ ~ Emotions is the on/off switch for learning.POSITIVE FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS make the teaching-learning process an exciting and a joyful, fruitful affair.

⫸ NEGATIVE FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS makes the same process a burden. The lessons that we learn and remember most are those that have struck us in one way or another.

FEELINGS AND EMOTIONSAPPETITIVE FACULTIES

⫸ serves as a guiding force and the main integrating force in his/her character. By his/her will, the learners wills what his/her intellect presents as good and desirable.

⫸ the learners will make his/her free to choose or not to choose to do the good as presented by his/her intellect.

⫸ the free will that will not allow the learner to be totally determined by his/her environment.

RATIONAL WILL

⫸ the degree to which the learner is influenced by his/her environment depends ultimately the strength of his/her will.

the learners whose will is WEAK will easily succumbs to the bad influence of his/her peer group even if his/her intellect tells him/her or not.

⫸ the learner with a STRONG will shall resist the temptation to be influenced by bad peer group.

THEREFORE, THE FOCUS OF VALUES EDUCATION SHOULD BE THE STRENGTHENING OF THE WILL.

•Ability•Aptitude•Interests•Family and Cultural background•Attitudes and Values

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE DIFFERENCES AMONG LEARNERS.

•

Howard Earl Gardner (born July 11, 1943) is an

American developmentalpsychologist and the John H. andElisabeth A. Hobbs Professor ofCognition and Education at theHarvard Graduate School ofEducation at Harvard University.He is the Senior Director ofHarvard Project Zero, and since1995, he has been the co-directorof the Good Project.

The author of over twenty bookstranslated into over thirtylanguages, he is best known forhis theory of multipleintelligences.

•Verbal- Linguistic Intelligence

Sensitive to sounds, meanings, structures and style of language.

Inclination to speaking, writing, listening and reading.

Ability to speak effectively (teacher, religious leader, politician) or write effectively (poet, journalist, novelist, copywriter, editor)

•Logical- Mathematical Intelligence patterns, numbers and numerical

• data, causes and effects, objective

• and quantitative reasoning.

finding patterns, making calculations, forming and testing hypothesis, usingthe scientific method, deductive and inductive reasoning.

work effectively with numbers (accountant, statistician, economist)

• and reason effectively (engineer,

• scientist, computer programmer)

•Spatial Intelligence

colors, shapes, visual puzzles, symmetry, lines, images

representing ideas visually, creating mental images, noticing visual details, drawing and sketching

create visually (artist, photographer, engineer, decorator) and visualize

accurately (tour guide, scout, ranger)

•Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence Touch, movement, physical self,

• athleticism

Activities acquiring strength, speed,

• flexibility, hand-eye coordination

• and balance

Use the hands to fix or create

• (mechanic, surgeon, carpenter,

• sculptor, mason) and use the body

• expressively (dancer, athlete, actor)

•. Musical Intelligence

or) and analyze music (music critiTone, beat, tempo, melody,

• pitch, sound

Listening, singing, playing an

• instrument

Create music (song writer,

• composer, musician, conductc)

•Interpersonal IntelligenceBody language, moods, voice,

• feelings

Noticing and responding to other

• people’s feelings and personalities

Work with people (administrators,

• managers, consultants, teachers)

• and help people identify and

• overcome problems (therapists,

• psychologists)

•Intrapersonal Intelligence

one’s own strengths, weaknesses,

• goals, and desires

setting goals, assessing personal

• abilities and liabilities,

• monitoring one’s own thinking

meditate, reflect, exhibit self-

• discipline, maintain composure,

• and get the most of oneself

•Naturalist Intelligence Natural objects, plants, animals,• naturally occurring patterns, • ecological issues Identifying and classifying living • things and natural objects Analyze ecological and natural • situations and data (ecologists and• rangers),learn from living things • (zoologist, botanist, veterinarian) • and work in natural settings • (hunter, scout)

•Existential Intelligence

“big picture” of existence; why

• are we here

Sensitivity to deep questions

• about human existence, such

• as the meaning of life why do

• we die, and how did we get here

Reflect on the meaning of

• human existence

Learning Styles

Learning style is the way a person processes, internalizes, and studies new and challenging material.

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model

Dunn and Dunn Learning Style ModelA summary of these elements is provided below (Dunn, 2000).

⫸Environmental. The environmental strand refers to these elements: lighting, sound, temperature, and seating arrangement. For example, some people need to study in a cool and quiet room, and others cannot focus unless they have music playing and it is warm (sound and temperature elements).

⫸ Emotional. This strand includes the following elements: motivation, persistence, responsibility, and structure. For example, some people must complete a project before they start a new one, and others work best on multiple tasks at the same time (persistence element).

⫸ Sociological. The sociological strand represents elements related to how individuals learn in association with other people: (a) alone or with peers, (b) an authoritative adult or with a collegial colleague, and (c) learning in a variety of ways or in routine patterns. For example, a number of people need to work alone when tackling a new and difficult subject, while others learn best when working with colleagues (learning alone or with peers element). ⫸ Physiological. The elements in this strand are: perceptual

(auditory, visual, tactile, and kinesthetic), time-of-day energy levels, intake (eating or not while studying) and mobility (sitting still or moving around). For example, many people refer to themselves as night owls or early birds because they function best at night or in the morning (time-of-day element).

⫸ Psychological. The elements in this strand correspond to the following types of psychological processing: hemispheric, impulsive or reflective, and global versus analytic. The hemispheric element refers to left and right brain processing modes; the impulsive versus reflective style describes how some people leap before thinking and others scrutinize the situation before moving an inch. Global and analytic elements are unique in comparison to other elements because these two elements are made up of distinct clusters of elements found in the other four strands. The elements that determine global and analytic processing styles are: sound, light, seating arrangement, persistence, sociological preference, and intake. Global and analytic processing styles will be discussed in detail in the next section.

•THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHER• The professional teacher is the “licensed professional who possesses

dignity and the reputation with high moral values as well as technical and professional competence . . . s/she adheres to observes, and practices a set of ethical and moral principles, standards and values” (Code of Ethics of Professional Teacher, 1997) The professional teacher is one who went through four to five years period of rigorous academic preparation in teaching in one who is given a license to teach by Board for Professional Teachers of Professional Regulation Commission after fulfilling requirements prescribed by law such as passing the Licensure Examination for Teacher (LET). s/he is registered in the roster of professional teacher at the Professional Regulation Commission and undergoes continuing professional education.

•PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES

• A professional teacher perceives himself/herself as someone who can effect change or learning, (sense of efficacy) because s/he is an expert in what s/he teaches (subject matter knowledge), and in how s/he teaches (pedagogical knowledge).

•A professional possesses the following attributes:

• Control of the knowledge base of teaching and learning and use of this knowledge to guide the science and art of his/her teaching practice.

• Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to instruct children in classrooms and to work with adults in the school setting

• Dispositions and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in a reflective, collegial, and problem-solving manner.

• View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and skills for working towards improving his/her own teaching as well as improving schools (Arends, 1994)

• The last attribute cited by Arends highlights continuing professional development (cpd) or continuing professional education (cpe). As the quotation goes,

“Once a teacher,

forever a student. ”

PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES

Personality is the sum of one’s personal characteristics. It is one’s identity. Teachers more than any other professional, are momentarily subjected to scrutiny to the minutest detail and observation by those they associate with.

•Passion

• It is a compelling force that emerges from teachers’ love for children.

•Humor

• Teachers’ humor connects them with their students like a magnet. They help in merging two words-youth and maturity.

•Enthusiasm

• Enthusiasm is synonymous to eagerness and excitement. Enthusiastic teachers are full of energy and dynamism. Their passion and love for children are easily felt. Everyone anticipates an interesting and enjoyable learning activity unfortunately. Not all the teachers are born with an alert and zestful disposition. With enthusiastic teachers Students look forward to any activity they can participate in with them.

•Commitment

• Commitment is a “Solemn Promise” to perform the duties and responsibilities mandated by the laws and code of ethics of the profession. It is unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and learning activities with consistency and selflessness to the best interest of the student under their care. Committed teachers are caring and dedicated. They are ready to carry on no matter the price. Dedication to the teaching job is the true essence of professionalism. Today we lament over the fast disappearing breed of teachers with a missionary spirit.

•Values and Attitude

• Teachers are models of values. Whether conscious of them or not, values are exhibited implicitly and explicitly. Values connote standards, code of ethics and strong beliefs.

•Patience

• It is refers to a teacher’s uncomplaining nature , self control and persistence.

What is an effective teacher ?

•EFFECTIVE TEACHER

– is a leader who can inspire and influence students, knows his /her subject well, and is kind and respectful toward his /her students. She/he also has high standards and expectations coexisting with encouragement, support and flexibility.

Here are some research findings on EFFECTIVE TEACHERS compiled by James H. Stronge (2012). Discuss their implications to teacher pre-service education:

1. Teacher with a major and minor in content area are associated with higher student achievement especially in the area of science and mathematics.

2. Caring teachers who know their students create relationship know their students create relationships that enhance their learning process.

3. Effective teachers practice gender, racial and ethnic fairness.

4. Effective teachers consistently behave in a friendly and personal manner maintaining appropriate teacher-student role structure.

5. High levels motivation in teachers relate to high levels of achievements in students.

6. Effective teachers exude positive attitudes about life and teaching.

7. Teachers whose students have high achievement rates continually mention reflection on their work as an important part of improving their teaching.

•- The National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) that you discussed in one of your courses, The Teaching Profession, sums up the professional and personal traits of a professional teacher. You may want to refer to them again.

• The NCBTS is an integrated theoretical framework that defines the different dimensions of effective teaching, where effective teaching means being able to help all types of students learn the different learning goals in the curriculum.

What is the NCBTS?

•

Why Do We Need the NCBTS?

• Filipino teachers often get mixed signals about what it means to be an effective teacher. For example, they may have been taught definitions of good teaching by teacher educators in their pre-service education that seem to be different from what their principals and super visors expect in their schools. Alternatively, teachers are taught new teaching approaches that seem inconsistent with the Performance Appraisal System. What is worse is when teachers who have the reputation of being ineffective teachers are promoted to higher ranks.

“ Teaching involves the reflective acquisition and application of complex and problematic technical knowledge to facilitating student learning in actual contexts.”

• Unit IChapter 3THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

• “To heredity, the child owes his possibilities. However, to environment, he owes the realization of these possibilities.”

•INTRODUCTION:

• The learning environment consists of the physical environment as well as the psychological atmosphere or the socio-emotional climate which is mainly a product of the interaction and relationship between teacher and students and among the students.

•PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

• The physical environment includes the physical condition of the classroom, the arrangement of furniture, seating arrangement, the classroom temperature and lightning.

• We enjoy learning in a neat, tidy, orderly, spacious, well lighted, well ventilated and quiet classroom. We can’t learn in dirty, topsy-turvy, warm, poorly ventilated and noisy classrooms.

• How should the environment be structured for effective teaching and learning?

•Classroom

•School Library

•School Laboratory

•Comfort Room

•School Clinic

•School Canteen

•PSYCHOLOGICAL CLIMATE• Let us not forget that equally important, if not more important, is

the psychological atmosphere or climate that reigns in the classroom. Researchers agree that in addition to conducive physical environment, the favorable school climate includes:

1. safety (e.g. rules and norms; physical safety; social –emotional safety)

2. relationship (e.g. respect for diversity; school connectedness/engagement; social support-adults; social support –students; leadership)

3. teaching and learning (e.g. social, emotional, ethical and civic learning; support for learning; professional relationship)

•Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning environment for learning. It is one:1) Which encourage people to be active- A psychological classroom environment which is supportive of learning engages the learners in the learning process.

2 ) Which promotes and facilitates the individual’s discovery of the personal meaning of idea –Meaning is not imposed by teacher .This is personally arrived at by the learners considering the uniqueness of their experiences.

3) Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning – Every learner is unique.

4) In which difference is good and desirable – There is respect for diversity. To be different does not mean to be deficient.

•Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning environment for learning. It is one:5) Which consistently recognizes people’s right to make mistakes –Learners feel at ease and learn best when mistakes are welcome because they are recognized as part and parcel of the learning process.

6) Which tolerates ambiguity – This leads to openness to ideas and prevents teacher an learners alike to be judgmental.

7) In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation – This makes evaluation less threatening. The learner is not alone when he evaluates learning, he is with a group. His/her progress is seen against his/her targets not against the performance of his/her classmate.

•Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning environment for learning. It is one:

8) Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self – People feel at ease and so aren’t afraid to be transparent.

9) In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external sources – There is a strong social support and it is not difficult to trust others.

10) In which people feel they are respected – Everyone is convinced of the inner worth/dignity of each individual and so it is easy to respect everyone

•Pine and Horne (1990) described a facilitative learning environment for learning. It is one:

11) In which people feel they are respected – There is a sense of belongingness.

12) Which permits confrontation – Since learners feel at ease and feel they are accepted, they are not afraid to confront themselves.

13) A conducive learning environment is necessary in the full development of the cognitive and appetitive faculties of the learner – His senses, instincts, imagination, memory, feelings, emotions and will.

•Generalization:

• The learning environment is a product of physical, psychological as well as social atmosphere created by the interaction between teacher and the learners and among the learners themselves. The physical features of the classroom which include space, location, lighting, ventilation, order, tidiness and noise level exert influence in the teaching learning process.

PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

•LEARNING

• acquisition of knowledge-base used with fluency to make sense of the world, solve problems and to make decisions.

Learning

Acquisition of knowledge-

baseFluency

Make sense of the world

Solve problems

Make decisions

•Inert ideas

• These are the ideas that are merely received by the mind without being utilized, or tested, or thrown into fresh combination.

• Is memorizing without understanding considered learning?

LEARNING PRINCIPLESHorne and Pine (1990)

• Learning is an experience which occurs inside the learner and is activated by the learner.

• Learning is the discovery of the personal meaning and relevance of ideas.

• Leaning (behavioral change) is a consequence of experience.

• Learning is a cooperative and collaborative process.

• Learning is an evolutionary process.

• Learning is sometimes a painful process.

•One of the richest resources for learning is the learner himself.

•The process of learning is emotional as well as intellectual.

•The process of problem solving and learning are highly uniqu and individual

No one teaches anyone anything of significance…

People learn what they want to learn, they see what they want to see, and hear what they want to hear

LAW OF LEARNING

Edward Thorndike in the early suggested several “Law of Learning” that seemed generally applicable to the learning process. This “Laws” provides the instructor with insight into learning process that will assist in providing a rewarding experience to the learners.

The first three are the basic laws: Law of Readiness, Law of Exercise, and the most famous and generally accepted, the Law of Effect. The other three laws were added later as a result of experimental studies; the Law of Primacy, the Law of Intensity and the Law of Recency.

•Law of Readiness

• Individual learn best if they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn and they do not learn if they see no reason for learning.

•Law of Effect

• The learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling.

• Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

• Experiments were designed to determine if animals solved a problem through reasoning or by a more basic process.

• Thorndike experimented with baby chicks, dogs, cats, monkeys and fish.

• A puzzle box was used to get each animal to trip a latch. The animals would claw, bite, scratch, and claw against the sides of the box.

• Repeated confinements decreased the time it took for the animals to escape confinement.

Law of Exercise

•Things most often repeated are best remembered.

“Without practice, there is no knowledge”

Paulo Freire

Additional Law

(Principles)

Law of Primacy

•Things learned first create a strong impression.

Law of intensity

The more intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned.

The Law of Recencythings most recently learned are best remembered

Law of Freedom:

Things freely learned are best learned

Selection and Organization of

Content

Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of

Content

• One guiding principle related to subject matter content is to observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of content:

•Validity- This means teaching the content that we ought

to teach according to national standards explicit in K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum; this also means teaching the content in order to realize the goal and objectives of the course as laid down in the basic education curriculum.

•Significance- What we teach should respond to the needs and interests of the learners, hence meaningful and significant.

•Balance- Content includes not only facts but also concepts and values. The use of the three-level approach ensures a balance cognitive, psychomotor, and affective lesson content.

• A Balance content is something that is not too easy to bore the above average student, neither not too difficult to turn off the average. It is something that challenges the student. To observe the principle of balance, no topic must be extensively discussed at the expense of other topics.

•Self-sufficiency- Content fully covers the essentials. Learning content is not “mile-wide-and-inch-deep”. The essentials are sufficiently covered and are treated in depth. This is a case of “less is more”.

• Interest- Teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental stages and cultural and ethnic background.

•Utility- Will this content be of use to the learners? It is not meant only to be memorized for test and grade purposes. What is learned has a function even after examinations are over.

•Feasibility- The content is feasible in the sense that

the essential content can be covered in the amount of time available instruction. A guaranteed an a viable curriculum is the first in the school-related factors that has the greatest impact on student achievement.

•Let us teach the content that:

⫸ is aligned with goals and objectives of the basic education curriculum

⫸ responds to the needs of the learner

⫸ includes cognitive skill and affective elements

⫸ fully and deeply cover the essentials to avoid the “mile-wide-and-inch-deep” impression.

⫸ that is of use to the learners

⫸ that is viable and feasible

2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content are facts. We can’t do away with facts but be sure to go beyond facts by constructing an increasingly richer and more sophisticated knowledge base and by working out a process of conceptual understanding. Facts are basic in the structure of cognitive subject but content must go beyond facts.

*Few ways which you can help you students*

⫸ Providing opportunities for experimentation- Our so-called experiments in the science classes are more of this sort-following a cook book recipe where students are made to follow step-by-step procedure to end up confirming a law that has already been experimented on and discovered by great scientists ahead of us instead of the students coming up with their own procedure and ends discovering something new. After teaching your students how to cook a recipe following the procedures laid down in a cookbook, allow them to experiment with mix ingredients.

⫸ Presenting the ideas of others- While it is beneficial for you to encourage your students to discover principles for themselves, it will not jeopardize your students if you present the ideas of others who worked hard over the years to explain phenomena.

⫸Emphasizing conceptual understanding- If we emphasize conceptual understanding, the emphasis goes beyond facts. We integrate and correlate facts, concepts and values in meaningful manner.

*Here are some specific strategies that can help you

develop conceptual understanding in your students.*

⫸Organize units around a few core ideas and themes

⫸ Explore each topic in depths

⫸ Explain how new ideas relate to students’ own experiences and to things they have previously learned

⫸Show students

⫸ Ask students to teach others what they have learned.

⫸ Promote dialogue

⫸ Use authentic activities

Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive,

skill and affective elements/components.

It is also an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.

⫸ Show students

⫸ Ask students to teach others what they have learned.

⫸ Promote dialogue

⫸ Use authentic activities

It is also an integration of facts, concepts, principles, hypotheses, theories and laws, thinking skills, manipulative skills, values and attitudes.

The structure of subject matter content- our subject matter

content includes cognitive, skill and affective components.

⫸Cognitive component is concerned with facts, concepts,

principles, hypotheses, theories and laws.

⫸Skill component refers to thinking skills as well as

manipulative skills.

⫸Affective component is the realm of values and attitudes.

Cognitive

Fact is an idea or action that can be verified

Concept is a categorization events, places, people and ideas.

Principle is the relationship between and among facts and concepts.

Hypotheses are educated guess about relationships

Theories refer to a set of facts, concepts and principles.

Laws are firmly established, thoroughly tested principle or theory.

⫸Skills

•Manipulative skills•Thinking skills•Divergent Thinking1. Fluent Thinking- characterized by a variety of thoughts inthe kinds of ideas generated.

2. Original Thinking- differs from what’s gone before.

3. Elaborative Thinking- embellishes on previous ideas orplants.

⫸Convergent Thinking

• It is narrowing down from many possible thoughts to end up on a single best thought or an answer to a problem.

⫸ Problem solving

• Is made easier when the problem is well-defined

⫸When it is ill-defined, then the first thing to teach our students is to better define the problem. Here are some techniques:

•break large problems into well-defined ones

•distinguish information needed

•identify techniques to find needed information.

⫸Algorithm strategy

Means following specific, step-by-step instructions.How can we help our students acquire effective problem-solving strategies?• provide worked-out examples of algorithms being applied.• help students understand why particular algorithms are relevant and effective in certain situations•when a student’s application of algorithm yields an incorrect answer, look closely at the specific steps the student has taken until the trouble spot is located.

⫸Heuristic strategy

Means general problem-solving strategy. These are informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometimes do not.

For teaching heuristic: give students practice in defining ill-defined problems. teach heuristic that students can use where no algorithms apply.

⫸Metaphoric thinking

This type of thinking uses analogic thinking, a figure of speech where a word is used in a manner different from its ordinary designation to suggest or imply a parallelism or similarity.Critical thinkingIt involves evaluating information or arguments in terms of their accuracy and worth.

It takes a variety of forms:• Verbal reasoning• Argument reasoning• Hypothesis reasoning• Decision making

⫸Creative Thinking

This type of thinking involves producing something that is both original and worthwhile.

⫸ For creative thinking, we must develop: Awareness Curiosity Imagination Fluency Originality Elaboration Perseverance

Attitudes and ValuesValues can be taught. They are both thought and caught. Values have:

⫸ Cognitive dimension -

⫸Affective dimension -

⫸ Behavioral dimension –

How can we teach values?⫸ By Deuteron-Teaching- your critical role as models in and outside the classroom cannot be overemphasized.

⫸ By positively reinforcing good behavior

⫸ By teaching the cognitive component of values in the classroom.

Selection and Use of Teaching Strategies

•Guiding Principles in the selection and use of teaching strategies:

1. Learning is an active process.

⫸ this means that we have to actively engage the learners in learning activities if we want them to learn what we intend to teach.

2. The more senses that are involved in learning, the more and the better the learning.

⫸ for more and better learning appeal to all the senses of the learner, if possible.

“Humans are intensely visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s receptors and send millions of signals along the optic nerves to the visual processing centers of the brain. We take in more information visually than through any of the other senses.) –Wolfe, 2001

3. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning

⫸ involve the emotion in learning. Cognitive processing is emotionally charged.

4. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to the students’ everyday life.

⫸Meaningfulness and relevance of what we teach is considerably reduced by our practice of teaching simply for testing.

5. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information.

⫸ Good thinking concerns itself with higher-order-thinking skills to develop creative and critical thinking.

6. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of information.

An integrated approach incorporates multiple intelligences and learning styles, research-based and brain based instructional strategies.*The seven more multi-intelligences introduced by Howard Gardner1. Spatial2. Musical3. Bodily-kinesthetic4. Intrapersonal5. Interpersonal6. Naturalist7. Existential

The Following are some research findings cited by Patricia Wolfe in her Book, “Brain Matters”

⫸Without rehearsal or constant attention, information remains in working memory for only about 15 to 20 seconds. This implies the need for memory aids.⫸ Learning is a process of building neural networks.

The Three Levels of LearningConcreteSymbolicAbstract⫸Our Brains have difficulty comprehending very large numbers because we have nothing in our experience to “hook” them to.

1. The eyes contain nearly 70 percent of the body’s sensory receptors and send millions of signals every second along the optic nerve to the visual processing of the brain.

2. There is little doubt that when information is embedded in music or rhyme, its recall is easier than when it is in prose.

Brain-Based Strategies

1. Involving students in real-life or authentic problem solving-sometimes students ask us when and where they need this and that they are learning in school.2. Using projects to increase meaning and motivation.3. Simulations and role plays as meaning makers.4. Classroom strategies using visual processing.5. Songs, jingles and raps.-content can be more easily learned when they give it a tune or make it into rhyme through their personally composed songs, jingles, and raps.6. Mnemonic Strategies- The mnemonic strategies assist students in recalling important information.

7. Writing strategies- Make students write their own word problems and make them ask their classmates to solve them. 8. Active review- Instead of the teacher conducting the review, students are given their turn. 9. Hans-on activities- Concrete experience is one of the best ways to make long-lasting neural connections.10. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method is the one that works, the one that yields results.

There are factors to consider in the choice of a

teaching method

Instructional objective

The nature of the subject matter

The Learners

The Teacher

School policies

Selection andUse of Instructional

Materials

General principles in the use of Instructional Materials:

1. All instructional materials are aids to instructions. They do not replace the teacher.

2. Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.

3. If possible, use a variety of tools.

4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.

•

5. Learn how to use the instructional material.

Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.

Provide a conducive environment.

Explain the objectives of the lesson.

Stress what is to be watched.

Assessment of Learning

Guiding Principles in the Assessment of

Learning

1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the teaching - learning process.

If assessment or evaluation is built into the teaching learning process, students allergy to test may be cured because it becomes very common and natural to them.

2. Assessment tool should match with performance objective.

- Which assessment tool use, which test to formulate must be based on our performance objective.

3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners.

4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’, learning styles and multiple intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing learning.

5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school, it is pedagogically sound that in our assessment techniques we give some positive feedback along with not so good ones

6. Emphasize on self-assessment.- Danielson asserts: “assessments should not force

students to compete against one another: any competition should be between students and their own prior performance”.

7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students, and that it is possible that all students, even those from limited backgrounds, will have access to opportunities and therefore can achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned.

8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a disciplinary measure.

9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to parents.

10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances over out-of-context drill items.

11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.

12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make sure of multiple sources.

•

Assessment in the Different Phases of Instruction.⫸ Prior to instruction

⫸ During instruction

⫸ After instruction

⫸ Appropriate Assessment Tools

Different Approaches and Methods

“A thousand teachers, a thousand methods ”

-Chinese Proverb

INTRODUCTION:

Teaching Approach, Strategy, Method and Technique

Teaching Approach- a set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning which is translated into the classroom.

Teaching Strategy- a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal.

•Teaching Method- a systematic way of doing something.

Teaching Technique- a well-defined procedure used to accomplish a specific activity or task.

Examples of Teaching

Approaches

Teacher-centered Approach- the teacher is perceived to be the only reliable source of information

Learner-centered Approach- the learner is also an important resource because he/she knows something and is therefore capable of sharing something

Subject matter-centered Approach- gains primacy over that of the learner. It is teacher-dominated

Interactive- there will have more student talk and less teacher talk

Teacher-dominated- only the teacher’s voice is heard. He/she is the sole dispenser of information

Constructivist Approach- students are expected to construct knowledge and meaning out of what they are taught by connecting them to prior experience

“Banking” Approach- teacher deposits knowledge into the “empty” minds of students for students to commit to memory

Integrated Teaching Approach- the teacher connects what he/she teaches to the other lessons of the subject or connects his/her lessons with other subject thus making his/her approach interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary

Disciplinal Approach- limits the teacher to discussing his/her lessons within the boundary of his/her subject

Collaborative Approach- welcome group work, team work, partnerships, group discussion

Individualistic Approach- will want an individual students working by themselves

Direct Teaching Approach- teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be taught

Guided Approach- teacher guides the learners to discover things for himself/herself

•

Other Teaching Approaches:

1. Research-based Approach- teaching and learning are anchored on research findings2. Whole Child Approach- the learning process itself takes into account not only the academic needs of the learners, but also to their emotional, creative, psychological, spiritual and developmental needs3. Metacognitive Approach- the teaching process brings the learner to the process of thinking about thinking4. Problem-based Approach- the teaching-learning process is focused on problems

Direct/Expository Approach

•1. Direct Instruction/Lecture Method-aimed at helping students acquire

procedural knowledge which is knowledge exercised in the performance of some task. Procedural knowledge refers to skills needed in the performance of a task

Steps of the Direct Method

1. provide the rationale

2. demonstrate the skill

3. provide guided practice until mastery

4. check for understanding and provide feedback

5. provide extended practice and transferassess learning at the end

2. Demonstration Method

⫸ the teacher or an assigned student or group shows how a process is done while the students become observers. Employed in presenting lessons that use sophisticated equipment and technical know-how.

•Advantages:⫸ Follows a systematic order⫸ Use of expensive equipment and machines⫸Wastage of time, effort and resources will be avoided⫸ Will not result to trial-and-error learning⫸ Findings are reliable and accurate⫸ Value of confidence is developed⫸ Curiosity and keen observing ability are instilled among observers

Indirect/Guided/Exploratory Approach

•1. Inquiry Method⫸ provide students with opportunities to

explore, inquire and discover new learning. It is spontaneous and self-directed exploration.

Steps in Inquiry Method

1. Define the topic or introduce the question.2. Guide students plan where and how to gather data and information.3. Students present findings through graph, charts, PowerPoint presentation, models and writing.

•2. Problem Solving Method⫸ is a teaching strategy that employs the

scientific method in searching for information. Five basic steps:⫸ Sensing and defining the problem⫸ Formulating hypothesis⫸ Testing the likely hypothesis⫸ Analysis, interpretation and evaluation of evidence⫸ Formulating conclusion

•Advantages:

1. Most effective in developing skill in employing the science process.2. Can be used in other non-science subjects.3. The student’s active involvement resulting in meaningful experiences serves as a strong motivation.4. Problem-solving develops higher level thinking skills.

5. A keen sense of responsibility, originality and resourcefulness are developed

6. The students become appreciative and grateful for the achievement of scientists.

7. Critical thinking, open-mindedness and wise judgment are inculcated8. The students learn to accept the opinions and evidence shared by others.

•3. Project Method⫸ the learners solve a practical problem

over a period of several days or weeks.⫸ a teaching method that requires the

students to present in concrete form the results of information gathered about a concept, principle or innovation.

•Advantages:

•1. Emphasizes “learning by doing”2. Constructing projects develops the students manipulative skill3. they become resourceful and innovative4. The finished project ca serve as evidence of learning achieved5. adds to one’s feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction

•Cooperative Learning

•-students work in groups or teams to help each other learnCharacteristic Features:1. It has two important components: cooperative incentive structure and cooperative task structure2. Students work in teams3. Reward systems are group-oriented4. interaction is controlled by members5. Teams are made up of mixed abilities6. Each individual is accountable in learning7. The group reflects on process they underwent

•Overview of Selected Structures in Cooperative

Learning

• 1. Round robin-teambuilding

• 2. Corners-Class building

3. Match Mine-Communication building

• 4. Numbered Heads Together-mastery

5. Three-Step Interview-concept development

6. Roundtable-multifunctional

•Peer Tutoring/Peer Teaching

•⫸ the teacher requests the older, brighter and more cooperative number of the class to tutor.

a. Instructional tutoringb. Same age tutoringc. Monitorial tutoringd. Structural tutoringe. Semi-structured tutoring

• Partner Learning-learning with a partner-may also mean assigning “study buddy”

Guidelines for effective use:1. To prevent from socializing, give students specific amount of time and a specific prompt for discussion.2. Give your students less time than you think they actually need.

Inductive Deductive

• Deductive Method⫸ The direct method and demonstration method of instruction are deductive method

⫸ The teacher tells or shows directly what -he/she wants to teach

⫸ It is a teacher-dominated. Teacher begins with the abstract rule, generalization, principle and ends with specific examples and concrete details

• Deductive Method

⫸ The direct method and demonstration method of instruction are deductive method

⫸ The teacher tells or shows directly what -he/she wants to teach

⫸ It is a teacher-dominated. Teacher begins with the abstract rule, generalization, principle and ends with specific examples and concrete details

• Disadvantages:-It is not supportive of the principle that learning is an active process. There is less involvement on the part of the learners. -The learners do not take part in the generalization of conclusion. The learners’ involvement will be on the drill that come after the of the rule.-Lesson appears uninteresting at first. We begin our lesson with the abstract, with what the learners do not know so at the outset our lesson will look irrelevant and uninteresting.

• Other Approaches

• 1. Blended Learning

-It is learning that is facilitated by effective combination of different modes of delivery modes of teaching and styles of learning , and is based on transparent communication amongst all parties involved with a course-It is described as “integrative learning”, “hybrid learning”, “multi-method learning.” “It combines classroom learning, mobile learning, and on-line learning.”

•2. Reflective Teaching

-students/teachers learn through an analysis and evaluation of experience

-Without analysis, no new learning and ideas can be constructed

•Different strategies:1. Self-analysis

-A student/teacher engages himself/herself in self-analysis when he/she reflects on why he/she succeeded or failed at some work2. Writing journals

-Journals reveal feelings about the days activities including what could have enhanced or inhabited their learning 3. Keeping a portfolio

-Reactions which are recorded for future recall and study that will be needed in analyzing changes in values being developed.

• 3. Metacognitive Approach-an approach that goes beyond cognition-makes students think about their thinking

• 4. Constructivist Approach-an active process that results from self-

constructed meanings-a meaningful connection is established between

prior knowledge and the present learning

• 5. Integrative Approach-is intradisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and

transdisciplinary-teachers integrate the sub disciplines within a

subject area.

• Problem-based Learning (PBL)-a concrete example of transdisciplinary teaching-it is the learning that results from the process of

working toward the understanding of the resolution of a problem

Selection and

Use of Instructional

Materials

General principles in the use of Instructional Materials:

⫸ All instructional materials are aids to instructions. They do not replace the teacher.

⫸ Choose the instructional material that best suits your instructional objectives.

⫸ If possible, use a variety of tools.

⫸ Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working properly.

⫸ Learn how to use the instructional material.

Prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.

Provide a conducive environment.

Explain the objectives of the lesson.

Stress what is to be watched.

•Assessment of Learning

This Chapter will be the assessment of

learning of learning and on assessment

tools in the three phases of instruction.

•Guiding Principles in the Assessment of

Learning

1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the teaching - learning process.

If assessment or evaluation is built into the teaching learning process, students allergy to test may be cured because it becomes very common and natural to them.

2. Assessment tool should match with performance objective.

- Which assessment tool use, which test to formulate must be based on our performance objective.

3.The results of assessment must be fed back to the learners.

4.In assessing learning, teachers must consider learners’, learning styles and multiple intelligences and so must come up with a variety of ways of assessing learning.

5. To contribute to the building of the culture of success in the school, it is pedagogically sound that in our assessment techniques we give some positive feedback along with not so good ones.

6. Emphasize on self-assessment.- Danielson asserts: “assessments should not force students to

compete against one another: any competition should be between students and their own prior performance”.

7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all pupils/students, and that it is possible that all students, even those from limited backgrounds, will have access to opportunities and therefore can achieve, then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned.

8. Assessment of learning should never be used as punishment or as a disciplinary measure.

9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated regularly and clearly to parents.

10. Emphasize on real world application that favors realistic performances over out-of-context drill items.

11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.

12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make sure of multiple sources.

Assessment in the Different Phases of Instruction.

Prior to instruction

During instruction

After instruction

Appropriate Assessment Tools

Guiding Principles in Classroom Management

• “Classroom management is not teaching; it is a necessary condition to teaching.”

As classroom managers, we manage resources

to facilitate learning, these includes: the 3Ms

⫸Moment

⫸Materials

⫸Man

1. Consistent, proactive discipline is the crux of effective classroom management.

Principles in Classroom

Management

“Prevention is better than cure” so goes the adage. If we are proactive in our approach to discipline we avoid unnecessary disciplinary problems from cropping up.

2. Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs.

We have not explain or instruct our pupils/ students on

how to pass papers, collect assignments, prepare for

experiments day in and day out because we have

established the routines for these everyday tasks.

• They have become habitual for each member of the class. Students already know what to do and under what condition. Routine procedures give rise to orderly learning environment and maximum and optimum use of precious time.

Doyle says, “Routinization makes classroom activities less susceptible to breakdowns and interruptions because students know the normal sequence of events and what is expected of them.” (Ornstein)

Smooth transitions and continuity of momentum throughout the day ensure us that every instructional moment is made us wisely.

3. Orchestrate smooth transitions and continuity of momentum throughout the day.

No unnecessary null is created that will breed classroom restlessness, which is the father of disciplinary problems.

4. Strike a balance between variety and challenge in student’s activities.

A variety of student activities will ensure that students’ multiple intelligences and varied learning styles are considered in the conduct of student activities. Most of the time our activities fall under linguistically intelligent group category. Games that require word use, talking, and writing will challenge linguistically intelligent students but bore math and logic.

5. As a classroom manager, be aware of all actions and activities in the classroom.

• Our heightened awareness of everything that is happening in our classroom puts our pupils and students on their toes all the time. While our back faces them when we write on the board, our “eyes on the back of our heads” will make our pupils and students feel that we know what they are doing. This is what Kounin calls with-it-ness.

• Our visibility in and outside the classroom may serve as a deterrent in the outbreak of untoward students’ behavior. Research findings point that “effective classroom management skills include the use of space and proximity or movement around the classroom for nearness to trouble spots and to encourage attention.”(Stronge, 2002)

6. Resolve minor inattention and disruption before they become major disruptions.

• “A stitch on time saves nine.”

We have not to wait until our class is out of control. Misdemeanor has a “riffle effect” if not checked early. We ought to respond to inappropriate behavior promptly.

•Unit IV

Chapter 3

•DISCIPLINE

•DISCIPLINE

Discipline is controlled behavior. It constitutes the next important concern of teachers as part of good management. No matter how well-managed a learning environment is, students will occasionally misbehave . Teachers must be ready to deal with them with utmost

care and consideration

•Some causes of disciplinary problems 1 UNFAVORABLE LEARNING CONDITIONS -Overcrowded with more than the regular number of students to a class -With poor lightning facilities and inadequate ventilation -With furniture and storage cabinets disorderly positioned, making the collection and retrieval of tools less efficient -With inappropriate seating arrangement such as distractions can easily occur -Near sources of noise which obstruct understanding of the lesson.

• 2. Teachers poor management skills

• 3. Students varied background

•How to prevent discipline problems

• Depending on the students abilities and interests, teachers can implement group-oriented methodologies such as :

• 1) cooperative learning approach

• 2) team learning

• 3) peer tutoring , and

• 4) group projects and collections.

• Teachers who are sensitive to possible misdirection of efforts and interactions are fast to switch from one technique to another as the need arises

• Of prime importance are the teachers personal attributes such as:

• 1) patience

• 2) compassion

• 3) concern and caring attitudes

• 4) respect and trust for the others

The teachers personalities influence students behaviorThe teachers teaching style will determine how the students will respond, at times receptive, sometimes withdrawn

Every school sets its own policies regarding maintenance of appropriate discipline. Said policies would depend upon the concept of discipline they believe in and the extent of the responsibilities willingly accepted by all. Schools differ in how they achieve and maintain good discipline.

•Following are some common practices

• 1) Discipline is the students responsibility. If they misbehave, the teacher accept no excuses. They must be ready for the consequences.

• 2) Discipline is the teachers’ way of establishing a desirable student-oriented environment for learning.

• 3) Discipline is coupled with effective teaching strategies and techniques.

• 4) Discipline is achieved through the effects of group dynamics on behavior.

• 5) Discipline is believed to be the exclusive responsibilty of the teachers.

• ACCEPTABLE AND EFFECTIVE • 1) Use verbal rein forcers• 2) use nonverbal gestures• 3) Dialogues• 4) Focus attention to disturbers• 5) Award merits and demerits• 6) Private talk to fix misunderstanding• 7) Give students freedom to explain agitated feelings.

• UNACCEPTABLE AND INEFFECTIVE • 1) Scolding and using of harsh words• 2) Nagging and faultfinding• 3) Bringing student in “detention area”• 4) Denying a student some priveleges• 5) Assignment of additional homework compared to the rest can make them dislike the subject.

• 6) use of ridicule or sarcasm • 7) Grades for academic achivement should not be affected due to misdemeanor

•Disciplinary Interventions

TEACHER REACTION

TANGIBLE RECOGNITION

DIRECT COST

GROUP CONTINGENCY

HOME CONTINGENCY

•WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING STRATEGIES

IS/ARE EFFECTIVE FOR STUDENT BEHAVIOR

MANGEMENT ?

Proximity control

Planned ignoring

Signal interference

Removal of seductive object

Redirection

“ Self discipline connotes internal motivation for one’s behavior, the internalization of domestic ideals and is most evident when external regulations of behavior are absent.”

-George Bear

ESTABLISHING

CLASSROOM ROUTINE

•Routine have to be learned

We get to used to doing them in order for them to becomeroutinized. It is, therefore necessary that we identify andexplain specific rules and procedures in our classroom.

When? The first days of school will be most timely. It isalso good to rehearse classroom procedures (especially forelementary pupils) until they become routines.

Reinforcing correct procedure and re-teaching an incorrectone will be of great help.

Some routines on the following can be of

great help:

BEGINNING AND ENDING THE CLASS

DAY OR PERIOD

• TRANSITIONS• Management of most instructional interruptions is fully within the teacher’s control. Transitions can either be anticipated or unanticipated.

a. Solving pre-lesson transitions

b. Solving transitions during the lesson

c. Solving post-lesson transitions

d. Unanticipated transitions

• USE OF MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT• Make clear your rules and procedures on the distribution and

collection of materials, storage of common materials, the teacher’s desk and storage areas, the use of the pencil

sharpener.

• GROUP WORK

•Research shows that group work like cooperative learninghas positive impact on student achievement, interpersonalrelationships and attitudes about learning.

• SEATWORK AND TEACHING-LED ACTIVITIES