Psychological Reports, 1984, 55,8 15-8 18. @ Psychological Reports 1984

PROBLEM-SOLVING APPRAISAL VERSUS HYPOTHETICAL PROBLEM SOLVING1

KATHLEEN M. RITCHM, DAVID M. CARSCADDON, CHARLES H. MORGAN

Morehead State University

Summary.-The relationship between hypothetical problem solving and actual appraisal of problem sol1:ing was investigated. The actual problem- solving appraisal was measured by the Problem Solving Inventory of Heppner and Petersen. Scores on this instrument were correlated with scores on the Coping Strategies Inventory which utilizes a hypothetical Situation, and was developed by Tobin, Holroyd and Reynolds in 1982. Significant relationships (rs of .27 to --.54) hold between how people respond to real life situations and to hypothetical ones. Also significant reliability estimates (.72 to .90) for the Problem Solving Inventory were obtained. The inventory seems to re- late most to measures of perceived flexibility in problem solving and goal- oriented strategies. The investigation has implications for research on ap- praisal of problem solving.

Research on problem solving within counseling is in the beginning stages.

In the past researchers have either studied problem-solving outside of counsel-

ing or remained speculative (4, 5 ) . Since counseling often concerns effective problem solving and the application of such skills to every day demands, em-

pirical research is needed. Recently researchers have attempted t o relate to problem solving several

psychological variables including intelligence, locus of control, social desirabil-

ity, and self-efficacy (2 , 3) . These studies suggest that the problem solving

process is related to such variables but not necessarily to measures of intelli-

gence and social desirability. Of particular interest is the finding that ap- praisal of problem solving is unrelated to strategies in solving a hypothetical

dilemma ( 3 ) . In fact, some reports suggest there is a qualitative difference in the way people respond to hypothetical and to real-life situations ( 1, 7, 8).

The present study examined the relationship between one's beliefs about real-life personal problem solving, as measured by the Problem Solving Inven- tory ( 3 ) , and coping strategies involving a hypothetical situation, using the

Coping Strategies Inventory." In addition reliability estimates of the former

measure were obtained.

METHOD The sample of 64 undergraduate students were recruited voluntarily from intro-

'The authors extend their gratitude to Angela Waugh and Kent Hill for their assistance in phases of the data collection. The authors also thank Alan D. Blotky, Francis H. Osborne, and Gary Silker for their comments on an earlier draft. Requests for reprints should be sent to David M. Carscaddon, UP0 Box 938, University Counseling Center, Morehead State University, Morehead, KY 40351. -m. L. Tobin, K. Holroyd, & R. Reynolds. The assessment of coping: Psychometric de- velopment of the Coping Strategies Inventory. (Unpublished manuscript, Ohio Univer., Athens, OH, 1982)

816 K. M. RITCHEY, ET AL.

ductory psychology classes. Of the 64 individuals, 45 were women (70%) and 19 were men ( 3 0 % ) . The subjects' ages ranged from 17 to 40 yr., with a mean age of 20.7 yr. They were primarily freshmen (56% ) , sophomores (27% ) , and Caucasian (94% ) .

The Problem Solving Inventory was developed ( 3 ) as a measure of individuals' be- liefs about their problem-solving skills and behavior patterns. Subjem respond to each of the 35 items by indicating the extent to which they agree using a six-point Likert format. The items contain an equal number of positive and negative statements con- cerning problem solving. The score is the sum of items for three factors: ( a ) problem- solving confidence, ( b ) approach-avoidance style, and (c) personal control. These fac- tors are then summed for a total inventory score, with lower scores indicating beliefs and styles which are generally associated with successful problem solving. Reliability esti- mates of the three factors as well as the total score have been reported ( 3 ) and in- cluded internal reliability coefficients ranging from .72 to .90 and test-retest reliability coefficients of .83 to .89.

The Coping Strategies Inventory' was designed to analyze the cognitive and be- havioral strategies a person utilizes when confronted with a stressful circumstance. This questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first part asks the individual to respond to 76 items on a 5-point Likert scale, in the context of a prior stressful situation which actually occurred. The second part, using the same 76 items, asks the individual to re- spond to the items with a specific hypothetical situation in mind. In this study only the second part of the inventory was used. The rationale for the use of this modified version was to test Heppner and Petersen's conclusion that the inventory measures con- structs which are unrelated to the problem-solving strategies invested when solving a hy- pothetical situation.

The Coping Strategies Inventory is scored by summing the responses within each of its six factors. These factors include: ( a ) problem-centeredness-behaviors which are likely to focus on the stressful situation, ( b ) emotion-centeredness+xamination of the emotional aspects of the stressful situation, (c) social-centeredness-advocating the use of social resources, ( d ) avoidance--avoidance of people, situations and thoughts. ( e ) cognitive restructuring-redefining the problem into a more workable situation, ( f ) self- denigration-tendency toward self-criticism or self-blame. As reported by Tobin, er al.,' Cronbach's alpha for internal consistenq across these factors ranged from .76 to .93. High factor scores represent a greater proclivity to respond to a problematic event in the manner indicated by the factor name. For example, a high cognitive-restrumring score represena a tendenq toward reframing the problem situation. High scores, however, do not necessarily indicate effective coping strategies, e.g., self-denigration. Given the nature of the two tests one would expect a lack of significant linear relationship between global Problem Solving Inventory and Coping Strategies Inventory scores. Also, one would expect some negative correlations.

During an initial session subjects were given the Problem Solving Inventory and a demographic sheet. After three weeks, subjects were administered the Coping Strate- gies Inventory and the Problem Solving Inventory. The order of presentation of che rwo instruments was counterbalanced. The procedures for maintaining confidentiality were explained as was the right of participants to choose not to take part. At the beginning of the first testing session, each subject was asked to sign a written consent form and was provided with a brief written description of the study. Each of the sessions lasted be- tween 20 and 45 min.

m U L T S AND DISCUSSION The Problem Solving Inventory total score mean and standard deviation

PROBLEM-SOLVING APPRAISAL 817

were 95.36 and 21.16; for the Coping Strategies Inventory M ,= 205.10, SD = 33.62.a Pearson correlations between test and retest administrations of the Problem Solving Inventory yielded significant reliability for the three factors and the total inventory ( p < .01): on problem-solving confidence r = .78; on approach-avoidance style r = .77; on personal control r = .81. Total test- retest, r = .81. The internal consistency reliability for the whole inventory yielded a significant value of .76 ( p < .01).

On total scores the Problem Solving Inventory and Coping Strategies In- ventory correlation of -.I9 was nonsignificant ( p = .14) as expected. As can be seen in Table 1, 10 of the 18 factor combinations were significantly correlated. Scores on the Problem Solving Inventory problem-solving confi- dence factor were correlated with those on the Coping Strategies Inventory factors of avoidance, cognitive restructuring, and problem centeredness. These correlations suggest that individuals with greater problem-solving confidence tend to focus more on the situation and reframe ~roblems to make them more soluble. Individuals with low confidence may tend to avoid personal dilem- mas. The Problem Solving Inventory factor of approach-avoidance style was significantly correlated with the Coping Strategies Inventory factors of prob- lem-centeredness, cognitive restructuring, emotion-centeredness, and social- centeredness. This suggests that the more individuals approach their problems the more likely they are to focus on dilemmas, reframe situations, examine the emotional aspects of problems, and enlist the support of others to help find solutions. The final Problem Solving Inventory factor of personal control was significantly related with the Coping Strategies Inventory factors of self-den- igration, avoidance, and problem-centeredness. The less personal control over a problem an individual perceives, the greater likelihood there is for self-blame and avoidance of the problem. On the other hand, persons who feel more in- dividual control over their circumstances will tend to be more problem-cen- tered.

TABLE 1 PEARSON CORRELATTONS AMONG FACTORS (N = 64 )

Coping Strategies Inventory Problem Solving Inventory Confidence Approach- Personal

Avoidance Control Self-denigration .24 -.02 .27* Emotion Centeredness -. 14 -.31* -.04* Social Centeredness '-.01 -.30* -.07 Avoidance .27* .09 .32* Cognitive Restrucruring -.28* -.42+ -.23 Problem Centeredness -.45 t -.54t -.3W

* p < .05. t p < .01. 3Ms and SDs for individual factors are on file with Microfiche Publications, POB 3513, Grand Central Station, New York 10017. Request Document NAPS-04247; remit $7.75 for photocopy or $4.00 for fiche.

An interesting result was that the Coping Strategies Inventory problem- centeredness items were correlated with all Problem Solving Inventory factors ( F > .01). This factor contains items which reflect a flexible style to problem solving as well as goal-oriented strategies that focus highly on the problem situation (e.g., "I tried to analyze the problem in order to understand it bet- ter." "It was a tricky problem, so I had to work around the edges to make things come out OK."). This suggests that the Problem Solving Inventory relates most to measures of perceived flexibility in problem-solving and goal- oriented strategies.

The present study confirms previous reliability estimates of the Problem Solving Inventory providing more evidence for its stability and consistency. Present results also suggest that personal problem-solving appraisal may be re- lated to problem-solving responses made in an hypothetical situation. This result contradicts previous reports ( 3 ) . A possible explanation is that in this study the hypothetical problem-solving instrument was more structured than that of the previous study. Heppner, et d. ( 3 ) used the Means-Ends Problem Solving Procedure (6) which requires scoring judges and is more subjective than the Coping Strategies Inventory. It could be argued, however, that both instruments are hypothetical and that study of actual problem-solving strate- gies would have to include "actual problems" (e.g., anagrams, mathematics, and logic problems) in conjunction with these instruments. Research might include comparing the Problem Solving Inventory with actual tasks. Addi- tional information is required to investigate this and other areas.

1. COLLINS, B. E., & HOn, M. F. Personal responsibility for consequences: an inte- gration and extension of the "forced compliance" literature. Journal of Exper- imental Social Psychology, 1972, 8, 558-593.

2. HEPPNER, P. P., HIBEL, J., NEAL, G. W., WEINSTEIN, C. I., & RABINOWITZ, P. E. Personal problem solving: a descriptive study of individual differences. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1982, 29, 580-590.

3. HEPPNER, P. P., & PETERSEN, C H. The development and implications of a per- sonal problem solving inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1982, 29, 66-75.

4. JACOBU~, K. A., & JOHNSON, N. F. A n experimental set to adopt a set. Psycho- logical Reports, 1964, 15, 737.

5. MAHONEY, M. J., & ARNKOFF, D. B. Cognitive and self-control therapies. In A. Bergin & S. Garfield (Eds.), Handbook o f psychotherapy a d behauior chunge: an empirical analysis. New York: Wiley, 1978.

6. P L A ~ , J . J., & SPIVAQC, G. Manual for !he nreanr-end5 problem-~olving ocedure (MEPSI: a measure o f interpersonal cognitive problem solving s k i l r Phila- delphia: Department of Mental Health Sciences, Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital, 1975.

7. SINGER, D. G., 8t KORNPIELD, B. Conserving and consuming: a developmental study of abstract and action choices. Developmentsl Psychology, 1973, 8, 314.

8. TAYLOR, S. E. On inferring one's attirudes from one's behavior: some delimiting conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 31, 1126-1133.

Accepted September 14, 1984.