psych vocab ap

8/7/2019 Psych Vocab AP

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IB/AP Psych Vocabulary

1. Research and Experiments

Independent Variable- the experimental factor that is manipulated; he variable whose effect isbeing studied.

Dependent Variable- the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable hat may change

in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Control (Condition)- the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental

condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Confounding Variable- a variable that cannot be controlled for and can have an impact on thedependent variable.

Target Population- a population from which a sample of participants in psychological research is

drawn.

Sample- a small part of something intended as representative of the whole

Stratified Sample- the population is divided into strata and a random sample is taken from eachstratum

Matched Pairs- concerned with measuring the values of the dependent variables for pairs ofsubjects that have been matched to eliminate individual differences and that are respectively

subjected to the control and the experimental condition

Experimenter Bias- bias introduced by an experimenter whose expectations about the outcome of

the experiment can be subtly communicated to the participants in the experiment

Double Blind- an experimental procedure in which neither the subjects of the experiment nor thepersons administering the experiment know the critical aspects of the experiment

Demand Characteristic Placebo- an innocuous or inert medication; given as a pacifier or to the

control group in experiments on the efficacy of a drug

Mean- the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividingby the number of scores.

Median- the middle score in a distribution.

Mode- the most frequently occurring score in a distribution.


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Positively Skewed- tail of a curve extends to the right.

Negatively Skewed- tail of a curve extends to the left.

Social Desirability Scale- describes the tendency of respondents to reply in a manner that will beviewed favorably by others

2. Biology/ Evolutionary

All or Nothing Principle- Involving either complete success or failure, with no intermediate

result.

Electrochemical Process- A chemical change accompanying the passage of an electric current,

especially as used in the preparation of commercially important quantities of certain chemical

substances.

Axon- the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages

pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

Dendrite- the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct

impulses toward the cell body.

Myelin Sheath- a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fivers of many neurons; enable

vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the

next.

Terminal Button- receive the message transferred down the axon, store them in their synaptic

vesicles and are responsible for then secreting these transmitter substances.

Synaptic Gap- The minute space between the cell membrane of an axon terminal and that of the

target cell with which it synapses.

Refractory Period- a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another

orgasm.

Acetylcholine- a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction.

Dopamine- a monoamine neurotransmitter found in the brain and essential for the normalfunctioning of the central nervous system

Endorphins- morphine within- natural, opiate- like neurotransmitters linked to pain control andto pleasure.

Serotonin- has various functions, including the regulation of mood, appetite, sleep, muscle

contraction, and some cognitive functions including memory and learning. Modulation of


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serotonin at synapses is thought to be a major action of several classes of pharmacological

antidepressants.

Nervous System- the bodys speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the

nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

SAME (sensory/afferent, motor/ efferent)- Afferent neurons take information from the senses to

the brain. Efferent neurons take information from the brain to the rest of the body.

Central Nervous System- the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous

system to the rest of the body.

Autonomic Nervous System- the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands

and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic

division calms.

Somatic Nervous System- the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the bodysskeletal muscles.

Sympathetic Nervous System- the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the

body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System- the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the

body, conserving its energy.

Spinal Reflex- a feedback mechanism that controls increasing muscle tension by causing muscle

relaxation before tension force becomes so great it may damage the muscle.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)- an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that

sweep across the brains surface.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)- a visual display of brain activity that detects where aradioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

CAT (Computed Tomography Scan)- a series of x-ray photographs taken from different anglesand combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves toproduce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows

us to see structures within the brain.

Medulla- the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

Pons- connect the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain and are involve in facial

expressions.


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Cerebellum- the little brain attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary

movement and balance.

Thalamus- responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending

them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain.

Hypothalamus- controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal,

hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system.

Amygdala- is vital to our experiences of emotion.

Hippocampus- is vital to our memory system.

Cerebral cortex- surface of the brain thats densely packed with neurons.

Corpus- The corpus callosum is a massive bundle (body) of myelinated nerve fibers connectingthe two cerebral hemispheres.

Frontal Lobes- large areas of the cerebral cortex located at the top front part of the brain behind

the eyes.

Parietal Lobes- Contain the sensory cortex.

Occipital Lobes- interpret messages from our eyes.

Temporal Lobes- process sound sensed by our ears.

Adrenal Glands- produce adrenaline, which signals the rest of the body to prepare for fight orflight.

Ovaries and Testes- produce sex hormones.

Pituitary- the master gland of the endocrine system; located at the base of the brain.

Down Syndrome- a congenital disorder caused by having an extra 21st chromosome; results in aflat face and short stature and mental retardation.

Klinefelters Syndrome- a condition in which males have an extra X sex chromosome.

Turner Syndrome- a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex

chromosomes is absent.

3. Sensation and Perception


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Sensation-the passive process of bringing information from the outside world into the body andto the brain.

Perception-the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information broughtto the brain by the senses.

Transduction- changing physical energy into electrical signals (neural impusles) that can make

their way to the brain.

Cocktail Party Effect- the ability to focus one's listeningattentionon a single talker among a

mixture ofconversations and backgroundnoises, ignoring other conversations.

Pupil- The opening in your eye that allows light to enter. The light then hits your neural receptors

which transforms the stimulus into neural impulses which can be interpreted by your brain

(mainly, the occipital lobe).

Iris- the part of the eye that gives you those beautiful blue (or whatever color) eyes that youhave. Specifically it is a ring of muscle tissue that not only forms the colored portion of the eyearound the pupil, but also is responsible for controlling the size of the pupil opening.

Lens- The human eye is made of several layers and components. Behind the cornea, iris, andpupil sits the lens (it is directly behind the pupil) which actually changes shape as you try to

focus on something. When you try to focus on something the lens changes shape (called

accomodation) and then focuses the incoming light onto the back of the eye (the retina) whichsend the information on to be processed by the brain.

Retina- The retina is the area in back of the eye that contains your rods and cones. Rods help you

detect movement while cones help you see color. Both of these receptors transfer light intoelectrical impulses so that your brain can interpret them.

Optic Nerve- The optic nerve is one of the twelve cranial nerves. The optic nerve is behind theeyeball and transmits visual information to the brain.

Blind Spot- Visual information travels along the optic nerve in the eye before it begins itsjourney to the brain for processing. There is a certain spot on the optic nerve that does not have

any receptor cells (the area where the optic nerve leaves the eye), and, as a result, can't receive

information. The result is the blind spot.

Feature Detectors- The ability to detect certain types of stimuli, like movements, shape, and

angles, requires specialized cells in the brain called feature detectors. Without these, it would be

difficult, if not impossible, to detect a round object, like a baseball, hurdling toward you at 90miles per hour.

Opponent Process Theory- A theory suggested by Solomon where emotional reactions to astimulus are followed by opposite emotional reactions. This theory may explain why stunt people

enjoy their work. First the individual will feel intense anxiety before performing a stunt and then
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the person will receive an opposite reaction of relief after the stunt is completed. The theory also

postulates that repeated exposure to the stimulus will cause less of an initial reaction and a

stronger opposing reaction. This may explain why drugs, such as opiates, give diminishingreturns after prolonged use yet the effects of withdraw become more intensified and unpleasant.

Frequency- Frequency is the number of complete wavelengths (also known as cycles) that occurwithin a specific time. A wave with high frequency means it occurs more rapidly or often and is

also considered shorter. Frequency is used to measure all sorts of wavelengths, such as light

waves, sound waves, and brain waves.

Cochlea- The cochlea (from the Greek word meaning "snail") is a bony, spiral-shaped, fluid-

filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves travel and trigger nerve impulses. The

cochlea looks very much like a snail and is a vital component in hearing. Nerve impulses thatsend auditory signals to the brain for interpretation are sent from it.

Frequency Theory- This theory of how we hear sounds states that there are pulses that travel up

the auditory nerve, carrying the information about sound to the brain for processing, and that therate of this pulse matched the frequency of whatever tone you are hearing exactly. We thus hear

the tone because the pulse traveling up the auditory nerve matches the actual tone. Essentially,we are getting a copy of the real sound.

Kinesthetic Sense- Imagine this...you drive into a parking lot, get out of the car, and start to walk

toward your destination. You decide to cut through a bunch of parked cars and notice that someof them are close together, so when you get to them, you have to turn and adjust your body in

order to get through the tight spaces. The reason you are able to sense whether you can fit, what

type of movements you need, how to adjust your body position, etc., is because you havekinesthetic sense, or an ability to sense body position and the movement of muscles, tendons, and

joints.

Absolute Threshold- This is a term that many students have a difficult time understanding, but

it's not as complex as it might seem. One formal definition is that absolute threshold is the

smallest intensity of a stimulus that has to be present for the stimulus to be detected. Let's use anexample to clear this up. Think of an electric burner on a stove. Imagine turning that burner on

and then placing your hand directly on it. At first you won't feel much heat because is takes time

for the burner to heat up. But at some point it will get hot enough for you to detectmeaning,

there is some temperature that is just hot enough for you to notice it. This isn't the point at whichyou get burned, but the point at which it is just hot enough for you to detect the presence of the

heat.

Just Noticeable Difference- The Just Noticeable Difference (JND), also known as the difference

threshold, is the minimum difference in stimulation that a person can detect 50 percent of the

time. For example, let's say I asked you to put your hand out and in it I placed a pile of sand.Then, I add tiny amounts of sand to your hand and ask you to tell me when you notice any

change in the overall weight. As soon as you can detect any change in the weight, that difference

between the weight of the sand before I added that last bit of sand and the amount of sand after I

added it, is the just noticeable difference.


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Top-down Processing- Top-Down Processing is also known as "large chunk" processing and

states that we form perceptions (or focus our attention) by starting with the larger concept or idea(it can even be the concept or idea of an object) and then working our way down to the finer

details of that concept or idea. If you're the type of person who learns new ideas and concepts (or

forms impressions) by starting first with the high-level aspects and then working your way downto the fine details, then you're a top-down processor.

Bottom-up Processing- Bottom-up processing is also known as "small chunk" processing andsuggests that we attend to or perceive elements by starting with the smaller, more fine details of

that element and then building upward until we have a solid representation of it in our minds.

Similarity- Similarity is one type of "grouping rule" that we, as humans, follow in an effort tomake sense of our basic sensations and the world around us. We follow these very specific rules

unconsciously, but they are very important for our everyday survival. One grouping principle or

rule is "similarity" which refers to the tendency for humans to group together objects or stimuli

that seem similar to each other.

Continuity- Continuity is a Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states people have atendency to group stimuli into continuous lines and patterns. For example, when you see geese

flying south for the winter, they fly in a formation that, to us, looks like a big "V".

Closure- Closure is a Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that explains how humans fillin visual gaps in order to perceive disconnected parts as a whole object.

Visual Cliff Experiment- The Visual Cliff is a test given to infants to see if they have developeddepth perception.

Relative Size- Relative size is a perceptual clue which allows you to determine how close objectsare to an object of known size.

Retinal disparity- Each eye receives a slightly different perspective or image, however, a persondoes not see two separate images. The images overlap in the center, and the brain connects these

together into one seamless view. Thus, Retinal Disparity is the difference between the visual

images that each eye perceives because of the different angles in which each eye views the

world. Retinal disparity is important for depth perception.

Convergence- In order to perceive depth properly, your eyes must move slightly inward or

converge. In so doing, people are able to determine if objects are close to them or far away.

Conscious- Consciousness refers to our awareness of our own mental processes, such as our

thoughts, feelings, and sensations. It is possible that we are the only beings on this planet thathave this type of self awareness or level of consciousness and the ability to introspect, or look

inward and examine these processes.


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Hypnosis- Hypnosis is a temporary state of heightened relaxation and suggestibility during

which some (not all) people are able to become so focused that they experience imaginary

happenings as if they were real. Hypnosis is not some trans-like, magical state in which peoplewill engage in behaviors that are completely against their "normal, non-hypnotized" will.

Circadian Rhythm- Circadian rhythms are what people often refer to as your body's internal,biological clock. The typical human circadian rhythm occurs on a cycle of approximately 24

hours. However, the clock is not really functioning on time, but on body temperature. It is just

that body temperature fluctuates on somewhat of a regular type of schedule, and so many peopleoften believe that the circadian rhythms are time oriented instead of body temperature oriented.

REM Cycle- There are two types of sleep, REM and NREM (non-REM). REM, which is also

known as paradoxical sleep, stands for Rapid Eye Movement and occurs in cycles every 60-90minutes throughout your sleep period. This means that every 60-90 minutes you enter a REM

stage during which you have rapid eye movements and your muscles become almost paralyzed

(this is why it's called paradoxical sleep - the rest of your body is active but your muscles are

inactive).

Insomnia- Insomnia is a type of sleep disorder in which the person has trouble in one of thefollowing areas of sleep- falling asleep, staying asleep throughout the night, or waking up to

early and not going back to sleep. Insomnia is not as common as people often like to think.

Narcolepsy- a sleep disorder where the affected individual falls asleep without warning. Aperson with narcolepsy can fall asleep while driving or while filming their family on vacation.

Sleep Apnea- Sleep Apnea is a sleep disorder in which the person's muscles become so relaxedthat the airways become blocked and the person has trouble breathing and actually stops

breathing momentarily). These people tend to snore a lot.

Night terrors- A disorder that interrupts your sleep. Individuals wake overcome by fear and an

increased heart and respiratory rate. Unlike nightmares, night terrors do not occur in REM and

there is no recollection of a bad dream.

Manifest Content- According to Freud, our dreams are important and meaningful in

understanding the causes of our problems, hidden issues, and painful issues we can't face during

wakefulness. Freud identified two types of content in our dreams; latent content and manifestcontent. Manifest content is all the parts of the dream that we remember (the actual content). It's

not the stuff we associate with our dreams, but the actual story lines of the dreams.

Latent Content- According to Freud, dreams have two types of content, each of which contains

different meanings to the dreams. One of these type of content is latent content, which is the

underlying, more hidden, but true meaning of a dream (as opposed to the manifest content).Freud believed that the latent content was somehow censored by the subconscious which was a

way to protect us from the real meanings of the dreams.


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Information Processing- The Information Processing Model is a framework used by cognitive

psychologists to explain and describe mental processes. The model likens the thinking process to

how a computer works.

Tolerance- Although there are a few different ways to define and use this term, in this case we

are talking about tolerance as it relates to drugs. When you take medications or drugs your bodybegins to get used to the drug. As a result, you may need to take more and more of it in order to

get the same effects. This reduced effect of the drug is tolerance - your body is getting used to the

drug causing a reduction in its effectiveness. In some cases, psychologists require patients to gowithout medications or take breaks from their medications (drug holidays) in order to reduce

tolerance and maintain its effectiveness.

Withdrawal- When an organism (does not have to be a human; can be another type of animal)becomes addicted to a substance, and then they are prevented from having that substance for an

extended period of time, they go through a period of withdrawal. This period of withdrawal

involves feelings of discomfort and distress. For example, a person addicted to cocaine may

experience long periods of nausea, vomiting, cold sweats, headaches, mood swings, and othervery uncomfortable feelings. Both physiological and psychological aspects are involved in

withdrawal.

Stimulants- Stimulants are drugs that arouse or excite the nervous system and speed up bodily

processes.

Depressants- a drug which reduces central nervous system activity, by enhancingthe effects of the neurotransmitter GABA; in large doses, depressants can causecoma and even death

Hallucinogens - a psychoactive drug that induces hallucinations or altered sensory

experiences

Opiates - A medication or illegal drug that is either derived from the opium poppy,or that mimics the effect of an opiate; they depress the activity of the centralnervous system and reduce pain

5. Learning

Classical Conditioning:

CS- (conditioned stimulus) a stimulus which by repeated pairings with anunconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

CR- (conditioned response) a response to a previously neutral stimulus which hasbecome a conditioned stimulus by repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

UCS- (unconditioned stimulus) a stimulus which elicits a reflexive (unconditioned)response


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Law of Effect- (Thorndike) all behavior has a consequence; positive behaviorcontinues, negative behavior stops

Skinner box- experiment which includes a cage that has a bar or pedal on one wallthat, when pressed, causes a little mechanism to release a food pellet into the cage;an animal in put inside and accidently presses the pedal; the animal learns that the

food falls out and does it again and again; the operant (the behavior occurring justbefore the reinforcer) is the pressing of the pedal, and the reinforcer is the food

Reinforcement- anything that increases a behavior

Positive reinforcement- adding something good after the behavior

Negative reinforcement- removal of something bad when they do the behavior wewant

Punishment- adding something bad after a behavior, causing it to stop

Omission- removal of a positive after a behavior

Shaping- the process of creating a new behavior by rewarding the steps up to a finalcomplicated behavior

Chaining - involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to forma complex behavior

Types of ReinforcersPrimary- things we do not have to learn are good/bad (food, comfort, violence)

Secondary- things that we have to learn are good/bad (getting As, Gucci)

Generalized- can be used to obtain primary and secondary reinforcers (money)

Token Economy- worthless items that can be exchanged for something of value atonly a certain location (god stars)

Continuous reinforcement- every single occurrence is rewarded/punished; learning(+) happens the fastest; extinction (-) happens the fastest

Partial reinforcement- a contingency of reinforcement in which reinforcement foesnot follow every response

Fixed ratio- set amount of behavior before reinforcement

Fixed interval- set amount of time before reinforcement

Variable ratio- random amount of behaviors before reinforcement

Variable interval- random amount of time before reinforcement
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforcement


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Fixed vs. Variable- set vs. random

Ratio vs. Interval- behavior vs. time

Instinctive Drift- (preparedness) (Lorenz) out biology affects the rate at which we

learn things

Prepared- behaviors that we are wired to learn (brain set up that way)

Counter Prepared- behaviors that we are wired not to learn (ex. to dislike yourmother)

Unprepared- no bias either way; neutral

Cognitive Shift:

Observational Learning- (Albert Bandura) shows that we can learn by seeing othersgetting rewarded/punished

Bobo dolls- an experiment carried out by Albert Bandura; kids who watched an adultplaying with a doll and then getting punished would not play with it

Latent Learning- (Tohlman) learning sometimes occurs without reinforcement oreven knowing that we are learning

Tohlmans experiment: half of the rats were allowed to wander the maze withoutreinforcement; the other half stayed in cages; when reinforcement started, the onesallowed to wander learned quicker

Abstract Learning- we develop rules that govern reinforcement; we think, we do notjust react

Insight Learning- (Kohlers Apes) sometimes we can solve problems though a mentaltrial and error and without reinforcement; a type of learning that uses reason,especially to form conclusions, inferences, or judgments, to solve a problem

Kohlers Apes: an experiment conducted by Kohler; bananas were placed outside ofreach of a cage of apes; through trial and error, they were able to use a stick to getthe bananas

6. Cognition

Memory:

Information Processing Model- a term used to describe the mental functions whichoccur between stimulus and response
http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Reasonhttp://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Reason


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Sensory - involving or derived from the senses

Short term memory- (STM) the component of memory which handles retention overrelatively brief intervals of up to approximately 15 seconds

Long term memory- (LTM) the component of memory which is involved withretention over relatively long periods (hours, days, weeks, or longer)

Selective Attention- out brain is being overwhelmed with billions of pieces ofinformation; we are only aware of the things we choose to pay attention to

Chunking- combining items so they only count as one in STM

Mnemonic devices- memory and/or learning aid

Maintenance rehearsal- the retention of material in STM by mean of rote repetition

Elaborate rehearsal- by attaching meaning to something we are trying to learn, itmakes it easier to access it later (LTM)

Types of Long Term Memory

Episodic memory- portion of LTM which contains personal experiences, organizedaccording to where and when events happened, such as what happened on yourlast birthday

Procedural memory- portion of LTM which stores how-to) information; things we canphysically do even though we cant tell you how we do it (texting without looking)

Semantic memory- portion of LTM which involves general knowledge of the world(including language)

Declarative memory- (explicit memory) random facts and trivia

Eidetic memory- photographic memory

Recognition- accessing memories with cues (help); ex. matching with word bank

Recall- accessing memories without cues; ex. fill in the blank

Serial Positioning Effect- if given a list, we are more likely to remember thebeginning and end of it and forget the middle

Recency- more likely to remember the end

Primacy- more likely to remember the beginning


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Tip of the Tongue - an instance of knowing something that cannot immediately berecalled

Flash Bulb Memory- an emotional or important event that goes directly to LTM; wewill always remember it in vivid detail

Cue Dependent Coding- our memories overlap; uncovering one memory couldtrigger others

State Dependent Memory- we are more likely to access a memory if we are in thesame emotional state as when we learned it

Context Dependent Memory- we are more likely to access a memory if were in thesame place as were we learned it

Interference- when a similar memory keeps us from accessing another one

Retroactive Interference- losing old information because new information is gettingin the way

Proactive Interference- losing new information because old information is getting inthe way

Mere Exposure - the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more we will tend tolike it

Language:

Phonemes- simplest units of sound

Morphemes- simplest units of sound with meaning

Babble- we make random sounds and are rewarded for the ones that occur in ourculture

Telegraphic Speech- simple one or two word sentences that convey meaning

Overgeneralization- goed, wented, bes; grammar rules dont apply

Language Acquisition- we all have an innate ability to learn language (criticalperiod)

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis- (Benjamin Wharf) our vocabulary shapes ourthinking

Problem Solving:


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Algorithm- slow and boring way of solving problems that, if done correctly, is alwaysright

Heuristic- rule of thumb; cutting corners that leads to quicker answers, but that issometimes wrong

Mental Set- when we look at a problem a certain way, it is difficult for us to changeour views

Functional fixedness- the idea that an item can only be used for its expressedpurpose

Framing- presenting information in a way that makes it look more or less favorable

Convergent thinker- tries to narrow down to a single correct answer; everything elseis wrong

Divergent thinker- multiple correct answers measured in percentages of correctness

7. Motivation and Emotion

Motivation:

Drive Reduction Theory- if our needs are not being met, it creates a state of tensionthat must be reduced

Arousal Theory- we all need different levels of activity to feel normal

Incentive Theory- we are motivated by rewards and punishments

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs- part of the humanistic branch of psychology; if giventhe opportunity, we will all make decisions that allow us to build self esteem andbecome a complete person

Our needs from greatest to least:Biological Needs- food, water, sleep

Safety- shelter; we cannot move on to friendship and self esteem if we are living infear

Belongingness- we must feel like we are a part of something

Self Esteem- belief in oneself

Self Actualization- we become so confident in whom we are that we no longer needothers to boost our self esteem

Eating:


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Lateral Hypothalamus- tells us to eat

Ventromedial Hypothalamus- tells us to stop eating

Set Point Theory- each fat cell tries to maintain its normal level of fullness

Internal factors of eating- eating because we are hungry and need sustenance

External factors of eating- eat for other reasons (bored, depressed, lunchtime)

Bulimia- binge and purge; sometimes will maintain their weight

Anorexia- falling below 80% of your normal body weight by dramatically cuttingcalories; irrational belief about what they should and do look like

Achievement:

Intrinsic Motivation- internally motivated; we do it because we feel like it is the rightthing to do and it feels good to do it

Extrinsic Motivation- externally motivated; motivated by rewards or to avoidpunishment

Theory X- tries to motivate by using extrinsic techniques

Theory Y- tries to motivate by using intrinsic techniques; often taken advantage of

Incentive Theory- motivated by rewards and punishments

Approach-Approach- deciding between two good things; choosing one costs us theother; opportunity cost

Approach-Avoidance- choosing whether or not to do something that has both a proand a con

Avoidance-Avoidance- forced to choose between two options, both of which are bad;choosing the lesser of two evils

Multiple- several options all have pros and cons

Emotion:

James-Lange- emotions are feelings which come about as a resultof physiologicalchanges, rather than being their cause; physiological then emotional

Cannon-Bard - suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them;emotional then physiological


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Schachter 2 Factor - theory that views emotion as having two components (factors):physiological arousal and cognition. According to the theory, "cognitions are used tointerpret the meaning of physiological reactions to outside events."

Stress and Health:

Daily Stress- short term stress composed of daily hassles; stress that lasts 24 hours

Life Changing Stress- more significant and difficult stress; can last up to 6 months

Social Readjustment Scale- any change in our life, good or bad, results in stress

General Adaptation Syndrome- (Hans Seyle) describes the bodys short term andlong term reaction to stress

Alarm- signal that there is a threat; immediate reaction; fight or flight

Resistance- our body activates to overcome the problem; sympathetic nervoussystem

Exhaustion- after the prolonged resistance period, our chemicals are depleted; weget sick

8. Developmental Psych

Nature- genetics and biologics made you the way you are; everything that happens

before you are born is the reason you are the way you are

Nurture- the way you are brought up and everything that happens after you areborn made you the way you are

Cross Sectional Study- a study of development that brings in kids of different agesand tests them to compare how theyre different (takes one day); the con is thatthere are personal differences

Longitudinal Study- a study of development that follows the same group aroundover many years to see how they change (eliminates individual differences becauseit includes the same people); the con is that it takes a very long time

Teratogens- any outside chemical that affects the baby while in the womb (ex.alcohol)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome- happens when a mother drinks alcohol while her baby is inthe womb; effects include shrunken heads and lower mental functioning

Reflexes:


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Rooting- any touch near a babys mouth causes them to turn towards it (feedingpurposes)

Sucking- it is a reflex for babies to suck (also for feeding purposes)

Grasping- it is a reflex for babies to grasp things

Moro- when frightened, babies will extend their arms and legs out and then curl upinto a ball

Babinski- if you rub the bottom of their foot, the babys toes will spread apart andextend

Senses: hearing vs. sight for babies- sight is the last sense to develop; they canhear in the womb

Parenting:

Attachment the relationship we form with our parents early in life will impact ourbehavior and how we handle relationships the rest of our lives

Harlows Monkeys- monkeys were separated from their mothers at birth and weregiven fake mothers; half were given a wire mom that provided food, while the otherhalf got a cloth mom that did not provide food; the monkeys with the cloth momformed an attachment; this show that touch and comfort is the number one factor inattachment

Ainsworth (strange situation)- Mary Ainsworth; kids were put into a room with

strangers; when they were distracted, the mothers left; psychologists studied theirbehavior when the kids realized their moms were gone and when they returned

Secure- the kids that were distressed when mom was gone, but easily comfortedwhen she came back; as adults, they will form normal relationships

Avoidant- the kids that may have been distressed when mom left; but they allignored her return; as adults, they will be emotionally closed off and will struggleforming relationships

Anxious (disorganized)- the kids that were distressed when mom left and thenrotated between pick me up, put me down when she returned; as adults, they willbe extremely needy

Parenting Styles

Authoritarian- have rules for the sake of rules; no explanation, no negotiation; asadults, the kids will struggle with decision making if mom and dad arent there totell then whats right and wrong


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Authoritative- enforce rules, but they are explained and negotiated; most effective

Permissive- have little to no rules; dont enforce the ones they have; as adults, thekids will struggle with authority figures

Stage Theories:

Psychosexual Development - The concept of psychosexual development, asenvisioned by Sigmund Freud at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of thetwentieth century, is a central element in his sexual drive theory, which posits that,from birth, humans have instinctualsexual appetites (libido) which unfold in a seriesof stages

Oral- conflict focuses on putting things in your mouth; we are not born with a superego; mom acts as super ego during the first stage; if the id is not satisfied, wedevelop oral fixation

Anal- conflict focuses around potty training and going to the bathroom; failure toresolve the stage could result in

Anal Retentive- extremely neat and organized

Anal Expulsive- unorganized and messy

Phallic- the ids focus moves towards the reproductive organs

Oedipus/Electra Complex- we become attracted to our opposite sex parent

Latency- sexual feelings are repressed

Sublimation- psychic energy is redirected into socially acceptable outlets; positive,useful way to deal

Genital- at puberty, the ids focus goes back to sex and adds aggression

Psychosocial Stages- (Eric Ericson) believes major conflict is between how weoperate within our social network; no fixation, we either develop positive ornegative trait and movie on

Trust vs. MistrustAutonomy vs. ShameInitiative vs. GuiltIndustry vs. InferiorityIdentity vs. Role ConfusionIntimacy vs. IsolationGenerativity vs. StagnationIntegrity vs. Despair
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_theory_(psychoanalysis)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instincthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libidohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmund_Freudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twentieth_centuryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drive_theory_(psychoanalysis)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instincthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libido


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Cognitive Development:

socks pulled over cold feet- stages of cognitive development

Sensory Motor (0-2)- focuses on learning to control our bodies

Object Permanence- knowledge that an object exists even though we cant see it

Preoperational (2-6)- focuses on learning language

Egocentrism- unable to understand others perspectives; believe the world is seeingthrough their eyes only

Concrete (6-12)- focus on learning logic and simple math

Conservatism- idea that an objects volume doesnt change just because the shapeor size does

Formal- sophisticated thinking

Hypothetical Thinking- able to understand impossible situations and complicatedideas

Assimilation- placing something new in a pre-existing schema (4 legged animal =doggy)

Accommodation- creation of a new schema to correct an improper assimilation(thats a dog!, no, thats a cow, oh)

Moral Development:

Kohlberg and Moral Development

Pre-Conventional- for little kids, right or wrong is determined by am I gonna get introuble?

Conventional- right or wrong is determined by the laws of society and how behavioris viewed

Post-Conventional- higher moral reasoning; what you individually think is right

Getting Old:

Decremental Model of Aging- as we get older, things start to break down (physicallyand mentally)

Ageism- in American, most people would rather die than get old and feel the effectsof getting old


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Death and Dying DABDA- the death and grief cycle

Denial- initial reaction is that it is not true

Anger- once we realize it is happening, were going to blame people and get mad

Bargaining- try to get out of the situation by bargaining; once we realize it wontwork, we go into

Depression- intense sadness; if we are able to make it through this stage, it leadto

Acceptance- ready to move on

Alzheimers- a degenerative, age-related disease that impairs an individual'scognitive ability (mainly memory)

psych vocab ap

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