Human Development to 600 BCE

The First MigrationsModern humans first appeared in East Africa between 200,000 and 100,000 years ago. They were labeled as hunter gatherers because they survived by hunting animals and foraging for seeds and edible plants. These groups remained relatively small in population and their migration patterns depended on geography, climate, and food availability. Early humans migrated from East Africa about 100,000- 60,000 years ago and began populating the globe. By 10,000 BCE (Before Common Era) humans lived on every continent except Antarctica. In each region, they developed genetic differences and distinctive cultures.

Early humans in this Paleolithic time period (pre-history to 10,000 years ago) adapted to their environment, learned how to control fire, and make stone tools. Paleolithic societies developed a system of religious beliefs (animism) centered around the worship of gods associated with nature forces, like animals and rivers, and even experimented with art as shown in the cave paintings in Lascaux, France around 25,000 years ago. These societies were fairly egalitarian, but showed early signs of being male dominated (patriarchy).

The Neolithic RevolutionAround 10,000 years ago, as the climate was warming from an Ice Age, humans began to domesticate plants and animals. Some groups, called pastoralists, domesticated animals and controlled their food supply by moving with their herds. Others settled down and began to grow crops. The domestication of plants and animals, known as the Neolithic or Agricultural Revolution, developed first in the Middle East and would have profound changes on the development of humans. Once humans began to farm, they were able to produce a food surplus, which set in place numerous changes. More food meant more people, a trend seen throughout history.

This growing population would lead to the first urban centers. With food provided, people began to focus on other tasks and job specialization resulted. Artisans made tools and weapons and merchants engaged in trade. As these settlements became more complex, governments were needed to organize the growing population and taxation developed, which then led to the invention of writing to keep records about trade and tax payments. Competition for resources and the accumulation of wealth led to conflicts. Technology continued to develop, resulting in more advanced irrigation systems, the invention of the wheel, and the experimentation with different metals creating the Bronze Age (circa 3000 BCE) and the Iron Age (circa 1300 BCE). Varying levels of social classes also began to emerge and women’s status declined.

The First CivilizationsTrends that began to emerge in the Neolithic Revolution became even stronger as the first civilizations developed. The first four civilizations, large societies with cities and a powerful state, occurred gradually after the Neolithic Revolution and developed in river valleys around the world. Two other early civilizations in the Americas emerged, the Olmec in Mesoamerica and the Chavin in the Andes, but were exceptions to the river valley rule.

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is considered the location of the world’s first civilization. Because of its location in the Fertile Crescent of the Middle East, many groups were situated there. The first of these groups, the Sumerians, developed politically into the city-state of Ur (a city-state is a city and its surrounding territory that form an independent state). They were highly patriarchal and polytheistic (belief in many gods), built monumental architecture (religious temples called ziggurats), and engaged in long distance trade. The Sumerians invented cuneiform, the first written language in history largely out of the necessity to record tax records and economic transactions. They also organized the first written laws (laws of Ur-Nammu) which reflected growing social hierarchies and behavior expectations. Later, the Babylonians under King Hammurabi, further articulated a strict set of legal codes to address growing complexities and to consolidate power. Hammurabi’s depiction of himself receiving these laws mark a precedent of rulers trying to legitimize their rule by connecting themselves with the divine.

EgyptEgypt was isolated in the Nile River valley. Due to predictable flooding and protective barriers, Egypt was able to grow and prosper. As in Babylon, the leader of the government and the leader of the religion, were the same person. Egypt was highly centralized, developed a sophisticated writing system (hieroglyphics) as well as a complex system of mathematics, and built monumental architecture (pyramids) that demonstrated and legitimized the power of the pharaoh. Although Egypt was highly patriarchal, women could own property and were legally equal to men in court giving women a higher social standing than their counterpart civilizations.

IndusBecause their written word has not yet been deciphered, there is little known about the ancient Indus River civilizations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in South Asia. Archaeological remains reveal evidence of long distance trade with Mesopotamia, polytheism, sophisticated technology (indoor plumbing), and advanced urban planning.

ChinaThe Shang and Zhou dynasties that developed in China along the Huang He River was a highly patriarchal and centralized system that introduced ancestor veneration and the Mandate of Heaven. The Mandate was a social contract between different classes of society and the ruler that encouraged respect and made the emperor semi-divine.

Religious Development It was during this time that two significant developments happened in the arena of religion. With the development of urban centers, religion evolved from an animistic state to a polytheistic faith where religion began to become codified and harnessed by governmental leaders to control the behavior of the governed. One such example is Hinduism. Hinduism developed over time when Indo European migrants called Aryans moved into India and recorded their beliefs and traditions in ancient scriptures called the Vedas. These beliefs included the importance of the caste system, reincarnation (cycle of rebirth), and achieving moksha (liberation of the soul). The caste system was a social system of Hinduism that prohibited social mobility and defined social and political roles that kept society stratified but together.

A second development at this time was the development of monotheism or belief in the existence of one supreme deity. One example is Judaism which was inspired by the teachings of Abraham and Moses and saw its early development along the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The Jews believed that they had entered into a covenant with their God, whom they called Yahweh, and in return for their devotion he would consider them his chosen people. Judaism was further developed with the codification of Hebrew Scriptures. A second example of monotheism was the Persian belief of Zoroastrianism which focused on human free will and the eternal battle between the forces of good and evil. The idea of monotheism would become very influential to later religions.

Organization and Reorganization of Human Societies (600 BCE- 600 CE) Classical CivilizationsBetween 600 B.C.E. and 600 C.E., the rise of great empires became the core foundations of later civilizations in much of the world. The Persian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires in western Eurasia, the Mauryan and Gupta empires in South Asia, the Qin and Han dynasties in East Asia, and the Mayan Empire in Mesoamerica

provided security for their people while establishing a stable economy. Goods and ideas flowed along land routes such as the Silk Roads and maritime routes in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean. These trade routes fostered the development of such great cities as Rome, Carthage, Constantinople, Damascus, Pataliputra, and Chang’an.

Developments in South AsiaOf all the continuities in Indian history, spirituality and social organization stand out the most. Strong political centralization does not. Rarely in this time period was the entire region of South Asia unified under one government.

The Mauryan Empire In 327 BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the Indus Valley. When he left India, he created a void that was filled by the centralized government of the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryan Empire (322-187 BCE) reached its high point under Ashoka who created an efficient tax system, increased the importance of the capital city of Pataliputra, and built roads that connected commercial centers. Ashoka is best known for his conversion to Buddhism which kept the faith alive and spread it throughout India. His edicts inscribed on pillars throughout his empire helped to maintain his authority. After Ashoka, the Mauryan empire soon fell resulting in political decentralization.

The Gupta EmpireThe second (and last) major Indian empire of the Classical Era was the Gupta empire (320-550 CE) which is referred to as the Golden Age of India. The Gupta empire had a centralized authority located in Pataliputra, which became the intellectual and cultural center of the empire. Public hospitals were built where physicians made advances in medicine (like inoculations) and Indian mathematicians developed the numerical symbols 0 through 9 that are still used today. The Gupta were patriarchal, as evidenced by the practice of some Hindu widows sacrificing themselves on their husband’s funeral pyre (sati). In regards to religion, the Gupta strongly reasserted Hinduism where it remained in the region throughout history.

Beginning of BuddhismThe founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama. Around 530 BCE, after being raised in the Hindu tradition, he became aware of the suffering in life. He left his wealthy family and pursued a life of meditation and rejection of worldly pleasure. According to tradition, Siddhartha meditated for several days underneath a bodhi tree, reached enlightenment, called himself the Buddha or “enlightened one,” and sought to teach others how to do the same. Buddhist doctrines are summarized in the Four Noble Truths which sought to eliminate desire and suffering by following the Eightfold path. This path requires an individual to meditate, reflect, and refrain from earthly pleasures.

The goal is, over time, to achieve enlightenment and the peaceful bliss known as nirvana, which would end the cycle of reincarnation.

The Spread of BuddhismBuddhism arose as a reaction to Vedic beliefs (Hinduism) and spread quickly throughout India. It became quite popular with members of the lower caste because of its rejection of the caste system. Although Buddhism was supported by Ashoka and the Mauryan empire, it soon extended beyond India and spread dramatically across Asia (see map below) through missionaries and merchants across trade routes like the Silk Road and Indian Ocean. By actively seeking converts and becoming easily adaptable outside its place of origin, it became the world’s first universalizing religion. It is important to note that Judaism and Hinduism were not universalizing religions as they were religions associated with a particular people and place. Buddhism was also a monastic faith, a belief system that set up monastery communities for men and women.

Developments in East AsiaTowards the end of the Zhou dynasty (1076-256 BCE), China suffered a period of instability and decentralization referred to as the Warring States period. It was the desire to bring order from chaos during this time period that led China to develop significant schools of thought.

Development of Confucianism and DaoismThe philosopher K’ung Fu-tzu, known today as Confucius, was born around 551 BCE. The ideas of Confucius, which were recorded after his death in the Analects, became the foundation of the belief system of Confucianism. Confucianism focused on behavior

in everyday life, not about the existence of any deity. It emphasized education, the importance of benevolence and virtue (especially when pertaining to the emperor), and a patriarchal social structure. It taught filial piety, which emphasized the importance of family, respect for one’s elders, and reverence for one’s ancestors. The teachings of Confucius affected Chinese beliefs and values more than any other philosophy and continue to be important in twenty-first century China.

At the same time that Confucianism was addressing the instability of the warring states period, Daoism attempted to do the same. However, Confucianists sought to actively better society while Daoists chose to disengage from worldly affairs and reflect on being in harmony with nature.

The Qin and Han DynastiesThe instability of the Zhou dynasty ended with the centralized control brought by the Qin (221-207 BCE) and Han dynasties (206 BCE- 220 CE). The Qin dynasty unified China after the warring states period by standardizing Chinese script and establishing a uniform system of weights and measures. The Qin expanded the size of the Chinese empire and ordered the construction of canals and roads to improve trade.

The Han dynasty followed the short-lived Qin dynasty and carried on its centralized legacy. The Han dynasty is often considered the Golden Age of Chinese history because during this period of Chinese peace the economy grew and population increased. Under Han rule, Chinese science and technology prospered with such developments as the magnetic compass, paper, and the sternpost rudder. A major accomplishment under the Han was the creation of a civil service exam. This exam used Confucian beliefs to choose a bureaucracy based on merit which ensured an intelligent government and allowed for social mobility. Under Han stability and regulation, trade would extend from Chang’an, the capital and cultural center of the empire, west to the Mediterranean Sea and become known as the Silk Road. Classical Civilizations in Persia, Greece and Rome

PersiaBeginning in 559 BCE, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, the Persians conquered most of the lands from the Aegean Sea to the border of India. Their empire became known as the Achaemenid Empire, sometimes called the first Persian empire (contemporary Iran). A strong centralized government created an efficient bureaucracy that allowed for policy developed in the capital of Persepolis to be administered throughout the empire. As a result of military expansion, the Persians governed a very multicultural empire and relied on provincial leaders called satraps to help maintain control. Although the Persian empire embraced Zoroastrianism, they followed a strong policy of religious toleration which helped prevent rebellion. Accomplishments of the

Persians to stimulate trade included the building of the Royal Road, the creation of standardized currency, and the construction of caravanserai, which were inns and markets used by people traveling the Royal Road.

Greece Geography shaped the development of Greece. Numerous islands and a mountainous peninsula dictated the development of city-states with a maritime emphasis. Two rival city-states, Athens and Sparta, developed differently. Sparta remains famous for developing a society organized around a powerful military while Athens’ heritage remains centered around the development of democracy. Because all of Greece remained culturally united in a common belief of Greek mythology, which centered around gods who possessed human frailties, the Greeks developed a feeling that they controlled their own destiny. This attitude contrasted sharply with the Hebrew relationship with an almighty God that controlled their destiny.

Early on, the Greeks and the Persians clashed over trade disputes. Threatened by a common enemy, the Greek city-states put aside their differences and united in a common effort. In a series of wars between Greece and Persia, the Greek coalition was victorious in 449 BCE and led to the Greek Golden Age centered in Athens. This Golden Age produced significant advances in architecture, literature, theater, and philosophy. The Golden Age of Athens allowed democracy to flourish by giving citizens, free adult males, the ability to participate in the political decision making process.

Jealousy between the city-states would lead to the Peloponnesian War, which weakened Greece and paved the way for the eventual takeover by Philip of Macedon. Later, his son Alexander the Great, would expand and spread Greek culture into Egypt, across Persia and east to India, ushering in the Hellenistic world.

RomeLike the Greek civilization, Roman civilization developed on a peninsula. But while geography hindered Greek unity, it did not prevent Italian unity. Beginning as a city-state, Rome extended its influence across the peninsula and throughout the Mediterranean as it evolved from a Republic (509 BCE- 27 BCE) to an Empire (27 BCE- 476 CE). It was during the Roman Republic that significant advances in government were achieved like the concept of “ innocent until proven guilty” and the development of representative government via the Roman senate. To protect individual rights, the Romans publicly displayed written laws known as the Twelve Tables, which provided a check on injustices, a concept that would be built into numerous constitutions in the future.

After the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, the Republic came to an end and with the emergence of Augustus Caesar, the empire began. At its height during the Pax Romana (27 BCE to 180 CE), the Roman Empire included all territory bordering the Mediterranean Sea and extended as far east as Babylon, as far west as Spain, as far north as Scotland, and south to the Sahara Desert. In fact, the Mediterranean Sea has often at this time been referred to as “the Roman Lake.” The success of Rome was due to a powerful military, strong centralization, and efficient and well kept roads that connected the empire to its capital. Roman engineering feats, which also demonstrated the power of the emperor, included aqueducts, the Colosseum (80 CE), and public work projects.

Roman culture borrowed heavily from the Greeks. They incorporated the Greek gods into their pantheon of deities. The Romans also relied heavily on slaves and were patriarchal just like the Greeks. However, during the empire, women gained more rights, including the right to own and inherit property, and the right to initiate divorce proceedings. Over-extension, corrupt leadership, and devastating epidemics such as smallpox began the downward spiral of Rome. Foreign invasion by groups such as the Huns, Ostrogoths, Visigoths and Vandals weakened the empire until its eventual collapse came in 476 CE.

The Development of ChristianityRome’s most enduring legacy would come in the empire’s grudging tolerance and ultimate institutionalization of Christianity. Rome had a general policy of religious toleration as long as its subjects would accept the divine nature of the emperor. The Jews in the Middle East, who fell under Roman domination in 37 BCE, refused to recognize any deity but their own. This led to conflict, persecution and the continuing diaspora which had begun in earlier centuries. Complicating this issue came Jesus, the central figure in Christianity. Jesus, who was raised in Jewish tradition, was martyred by the Romans for his teachings. The beliefs of Christians (as followers of Jesus were called) were based on his teachings and in their belief in his divinity. Despite persecution by the Romans, his disciples continued to spread his teachings and by the end of the 1st century CE, Christians were practicing their faith throughout the empire.

This new faith was particularly attractive to the poor because it practiced an afterlife of redemption. Despite continued persecution, Christianity grew stronger and by the 4 th century it became legal under the emperor Constantine and soon was accepted as the official religion of the empire. This drastically accelerated its growth. Like Buddhism, Christianity was a universalizing religion meaning it spread and was easily adaptable to areas outside its place of origin. It also offered monastic lifestyles for men (monks) and women (nuns) to devote their lives to practicing the faith. This new monotheistic faith would have far-reaching impact on future civilizations.

ByzantineBy the middle of the 4th century CE, the eastern half of the Roman Empire had become wealthier and more important than the western half. For this reason, in 330 CE Emperor Constantine moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople (Istanbul today). In 395 CE, the Roman Empire was divided into two distinct entities with Rome the capital in the west and Constantinople the capital in the east.

Constantinople quickly became a political and economic hub. Geography aided its rise to prominence as rivers from the north flowed into the nearby Mediterranean and Black seas. As an entrepot (coastal trading center), Constantinople prospered as raw goods arrived from northern Europe, cereals came from Egypt, and precious spices and finished products came from the east. At its height, the Byzantine Empire extended throughout the eastern half of the Mediterranean world. It was during the reign of Justinian the Great (527-565 CE) that the empire achieved much, including the construction of the Hagia Sophia, a Christian church, and the creation of the Justinian Code, a consolidation of Roman law that would serve as the foundation of legal knowledge in Europe into the 19th century. Though constantly threatened by foreign incursion, the Byzantine Empire would survive for another 900 years.

Early American CivilizationsThe Western Hemisphere remained isolated from the developments in the Afro-Eurasian world. During this time period, two important civilizations in the Americas were the Teotihuacan and the Mayans. Teotihuacan, the name for the city and the civilization, began around 150 BCE as a religious center. By the 6th century CE, with a population over 125,000, it was one of the largest cities in the entire world. Located near modern Mexico City, this multi-cultural urban center was a regional trade hub. This well gridded city was the site of monumental religious temples dedicated to the gods of the sun and moon. Abandoned by 650 CE, the “city of the gods” as it was called, would later influence the development of the Aztecs.

The most influential classical civilization in the Americas were the Mayans. The Mayans can be traced as far back as 1500 BCE but reached their height as a civilization between 250 CE and 900 CE. Located in Mesoamerica (Central America and Mexico today), the Mayans were a collection of city-states under the same king. The Mayans, using only stone tools, built cities that included monumental pyramids (like Tikal in Guatemala and Chichen Itza in Mexico). These stepped pyramids served as both religious temples and observatories. Human sacrifice was practiced and served as a

reason to go to war with other city-states. The Mayan king was considered to be divine and women could rule.

The Mayans developed the most complex written language in the pre-Columbian Western hemisphere. Mayan priests created a calendar more accurate than that of Europe and Mayan understanding of mathematics included the concept of zero, not recognized in the Mediterranean world at this time. Despite these advancements, environmental damage and urban overpopulation is believed to have led to their decline.

Comparisons of the Classical Age

Comparing Classical Forms of Governance

COMPARING EARLY FORMS OF GOVERNMENT IN CLASSICAL PERIOD (600 BCE TO 600 CE)CIVILIZATION FORM OF

GOVERNMENTLEADING

INDIVIDUAL OR BODY

CHARACTERISTICS RELATIONSHIP OF GOVERNMENT TO

RELIGIONMauryan/Gupta(c. 320 BCE-550 CE)

Empire, highly centralized

Most famous Mauryan emperor Ashoka adopted/ spread Buddhism

Sophisticated bureaucracy

Hinduism dominant in Gupta but toleration practiced

Qin/Han(221 BCE-220 CE)

Empire, highly centralized

Qin Shi Huangdi,Han Wudi

Civil Service Exam in Han created a merit-based bureaucracy

Han supported Confucianism, otherwise secular

Persian(550 BCE-330 BCE)

Emperor, highly centralized

DariusXerxes

Created satraps, regional provinces

Religiously tolerant

Greek City States Direct Democracy An Assembly of Citizens were adult Religion separate

(c. 550 BCE-336 BCE)

in Athens, Decentralized

citizens (direct voting)

males from government but influential

Roman(509 BCE-476 CE)

Republic and then Empire, highly centralized

Emperor and Advisors

Citizens elected SenatorsTwelve Tables

Religion separate from government but influential

Byzantine(330 CE-1453 CE)

Empire, Highly centralized

Emperor, Justinian Sophisticated bureaucracy, Justinian Code

Theocracy, religious leaders appointed by government

Mayan(Golden Age was 250 CE-900 CE)

Network of city-states, Decentralized

Emperor, divine Emperor descended from a god

Theocracy, polytheistic, powerful priests

Comparing the Fall of Classical EmpiresBy 600 CE, the great classical empires had fallen or been significantly weakened. The spread of disease diminished urban populations. Decrease in trade, taxation problems, gaps between the rich and poor and weak leadership all contributed to the downfall of the classical empires. All civilizations except the Mayans collapsed due to outside invaders. The White Huns took down the Gupta, the Xiongnu collapsed the Han and the outside invaders, including the Huns, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths would bring down Rome. The adopted religions in these areas would serve as a glue to keep society unified until new empires could be reconstituted where the old ones failed.

Comparing the development of early trade networksAs technological developments made trade easier, strong and stable governments provided the wealth and security to foster and sponsor trade. The Eurasian exchange networks utilized stirrups and caravansaries as well as the strength of the Roman and Han dynasty to usher in the first Golden Age of the Silk Road. The lateen sail and dhows enabled ships to maneuver in less than favorable wind conditions and the knowledge of the monsoon winds facilitated trade along the entrepots in the Indian Ocean. The invention of the camel saddle (300 CE) made caravan trade profitable and possible across the Sahara. The Mediterranean Sea lanes continued to facilitate cultural exchange and goods between the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans and people of North Africa. Long distance trade was only beginning to hit its stride.

Post Classical Civilizations (600-1200 CE)

The Post-Classical World was characterized by the enlargement of new empires aided by the spread of trade. After 400 years of disunity, the Tang and Song dynasties brought stability and another golden age to East Asia, while Japan became decentralized and entered into a feudal state. In the Middle East, Islam burst on the scene and the Islamic dynasties quickly unified the region and extended this new religion eastward into India and westward across North Africa into Spain ushering in a golden age centered on learning. With the breakup of Rome, Western Europe became decentralized, though the Byzantine Empire and the Vikings would remain powerful forces in the region. The Americas would continue to develop in isolation in the western hemisphere.

Trade intensified during this timeframe as networks of exchange widened and became more profitable. Although the western and eastern hemispheres remained ignorant of each other’s existence, trade networks in Afro-Eurasia developed higher levels of interaction, not only ushering in a wider movement of goods but also exchanging ideas and technology. The Silk Road, Indian Ocean and Trans-Saharan trade routes all

exploded in volume and served as cultural diffusers. Powerful trading cities developed throughout Afro-Eurasia including Novgorod, Timbuktu, Huangzhou, Calicut, Melaka, and Baghdad which served as 10th century malls for such items as porcelain, ivory, teakwood, spices, and silk. More and more regions became familiar with the compass, the astrolabe, new forms of credit, and paper money. Movement of ideas such as religious beliefs also travelled along these trade routes. Of course, pathogens were no stranger to these pathways.

Birth and Spread of Islam

The fastest-growing major religion in the world today is Islam and it was during the Post-Classical period that it got its start in the Middle East. In the years before Islam, the Arabian peninsula was populated by groups of Bedouin tribes who practiced several different polytheistic faiths. However, because many Jews, Zoroastrians and Christians lived in the area, monotheism was not a foreign concept. At the beginning of the 7 th century a merchant named Muhammad experienced revelations that would ultimately be recorded in the Qur’an, the sacred scriptures of Islam. Muhammad served as Islam’s spiritual founder, and unlike other religious founders like the Buddha and Jesus, he would become a political and military leader. Muslims (followers of Islam) believe Muhammad to be the last in a line of great prophets that included Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.

The core principles of the Qur’an were known as the Five Pillars of Islam: a belief in one god, ritual prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. With the Qur’an as its base, sharia law evolved to regulate Muslim religious and civic behavior. Unlike the laws of the Romans, sharia law made no distinction between religious and civil law. Through Muhammad’s leadership, Islam quickly unified and brought peace to the warring tribes of the Arabian peninsula.

The religions first crisis came with the death of Muhammad in 632. Because he made no provision for a successor, a fight for who would become the political leader (caliph) of the Islamic community developed. This rift, which continues to the present day, created a divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims. Sunnis felt that the caliph could be selected from the Islamic community while Shia Muslims felt that the caliph should derive from the blood relatives of Muhammad. Today, Sunnis form the majority of Muslims in the world while Shia Muslims are strongest in Iran.

Sunnis took control in 661 and established a theocracy with the Umayyad Dynasty. The Umayyads used both soldiers and merchants to spread their faith. They spread Islam throughout the rest of the Middle East and across North Africa and into that continent’s interior. By the beginning of the 700’s, Islam had united southern Spain, North Africa,

the Middle East and parts of India. This area would be known as Dar al Islam or the House of Islam.

The Umayyads would be responsible for the growth of Islam but the Abbasid caliphate (750-1258) would be responsible for its golden age. A stable government allowed trade to once again prosper. The Abbasids helped Tang China re-establish a booming trade along the Silk Road. They also facilitated the growth of Trans-Saharan trade to West Africa and were major players in the diffusion of ideas and goods throughout the Indian Ocean. Islamic society became a center of learning where advances in medicine were made, astronomical observatories were built, algebra was created, the astrolabe was perfected, and Greek and Roman texts were preserved. The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad and would become a center of trade and learning. Religious toleration was offered as non-Muslims could keep their faith by paying an additional tax called the jizya. It was under the Abbasids that women’s rights improved, ending female infanticide and improving marriage and property rights. Society was still patriarchal as evidenced by the veiling of women and men being able to take up to four wives.

In the 1100s and 1200s, the Abbasid Empire suffered from a problem that plagued many prosperous empires in history: attacks from outside groups. The Mamluks from Egypt, the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia, and the Crusaders from Europe each chipped away at the empire’s stability and prosperity until the Mongols ended it in 1258.

INSERT MAP: NEED a map of the Islamic world that shows extent of the Islamic empires in 3 different years...say 750, 1000, 1200. Trade routes should be shown as well. (Trans Saharan, Indian ocean, and 2nd Golden Age of Silk Road) Something like this map from another textbook.

East AsiaThe short-lived Sui Dynasty (581-618) brought peace and prosperity to the region after centuries of turmoil and disunity. Besides reconstituting a centralized China, the most dramatic accomplishment of the Sui would be the construction of the Grand Canal, a state sponsored commercial undertaking that would connect the agricultural south to the population centers in the north.

Building on the accomplishments of the Sui, the Tang Dynasty (618-907) would extend its boundaries as far north as Mongolia, as far west as Central Asia, and south to Vietnam. While in Vietnam, China was introduced to a fast ripening rice that contained more calories per acre. This Champa rice resulted in a dramatic population increase in China, much like the Agricultural Revolution in Neolithic times. The Tang dynasty expanded the civil service exam and the empire’s bureaucracy, which developed into an ongoing feature of the Chinese government. This dynasty invented gunpowder and was responsible for developing paper money which helped to facilitate trade. Strong stability and the continued demand for China’s luxury goods, like silk and porcelain, ushered in a second golden age of the Silk Road with the Abbasid dynasty in the Middle East.

At this time the Chinese viewed their country as the Middle Kingdom, a society around which the whole world revolved. It is from this belief that they developed the Tributary System, the idea that surrounding kingdoms were expected to pay economic and diplomatic homage to them in exchange for trading privileges. Internal disorder

(peasant uprisings) and invasion led to their collapse and eventual recovery under the Song Dynasty.

The Song dynasty (960-1279) continued China’s golden age. Chinese meritocracy allowed for more upward mobility than any other hiring system of its time. China became the leading manufacturer in the world producing iron, steel, silk, and porcelain and had the largest cities in the world. As patriarchy intensified during the Song dynasty, footbinding became fashionable. Neo-Confucianism (a melding of Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist philosophies) became popular, though it was first developed during the Tang Dynasty. It was during this time that paper money and the magnetic compass would be exported from East Asia to other parts of the world.

Japan had their own political and cultural traditions at this time. Power started shifting away from the emperor. Noble families began fighting for power in Japan, resulting in a decentralized feudal state. A strong political and social hierarchy developed over the control of land and included hierarchical obligations. At the top was the shogun (military general), followed by powerful landlords called daimyos, then samurais (warriors) who were influenced by a code of conduct called bushido, then peasants, followed by merchants at the bottom. A similar system of feudalism was also developing in western Europe at this time. Culturally, Japan’s official religion was Shinto (a belief centered around the worship of ancestors and nature spirits) but Buddhism from arriving missionaries became popular at this time. Japan would adopt Buddhism yet still keep their Shinto beliefs.

AfricaMuch of sub-Saharan African history is characterized by autonomous kinship groups of people with very decentralized governments. Geography and a nomadic lifestyle dictated an independent spirit. Starting before this timeframe, a group of people called the Bantu moved out of west central Africa in a series of migrations beginning in 1000 BCE and ending around 1500 CE. The Bantu would help create a common culture throughout the sub-Saharan region by spreading their language, farming techniques, and knowledge of iron metallurgy.

By 1000 CE, complex agricultural practices demanded the development of sophisticated forms of government to control production and distribution of surplus products. This government regulation combined with the introduction of the camel and use of the camel saddle led to long-distance trade across the Sahara. Muslim merchants greatly increased trade which benefited the kingdom of Ghana (c. 700-1240). The trans-Saharan trade route allowed Ghana to become incredibly wealthy as they protected these trade routes and taxed the gold and salt that continually entered their trading centers. As Islam diffused through Muslim merchants from North Africa, Ghana would

become Islamic furthering their interaction with dar al Islam and setting a precedent for West Africa.

The Indian Ocean trading network connected the east coast of Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Middle East in a trading extravaganza. Knowledge of monsoon winds allowed East African entrepots such as the Swahili city-states of Kilwa and Mogadishu to develop, adding to the cross cultural exchange of this network. Swahili was a Bantu language that incorporated many Arabic words. Africa exported gold, ivory, and slaves and imported porcelain, silk, and spices. It was at this time that bananas were first imported from southeast Asia. Noteworthy is the rise of Great Zimbabwe, a kingdom in southeast Africa which dominated the region between the 11 th and 16th centuries.

South Asia and Southeast AsiaAfter the fall of the Gupta empire, South Asia at this time was characterized by internal bickering and disunity. Despite its decentralization, Hinduism and the caste system kept southern India unified and relatively stable. On the other hand, Northern India experienced a series of invasions and weak confederations. One of those invasions brought Islam to the region in 711. Throughout this time, South Asian trade flourished and emporiums (trading warehouses) developed. India’s location, use of the lateen sail, and knowledge of the monsoon tradewind patterns made it the hub of Indian Ocean trade. Traveling along the Indian Ocean, spices came from southeast Asia, slaves and ivory from Africa, silks and porcelain from East Asia, and horses from the Middle East.

Religion and trade dominated South Asia’s influence on Southeast Asia. Buddhism and Hinduism used trade networks to spread their teachings as evidenced by the temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Islam also had a huge impact on this region at this time. Muslim merchants were unwitting missionaries as they would remain in the region and form families that were raised in the Muslim faith. Before long Islam would be the dominant religion in the Spice Islands and the Malay peninsula.

EuropeThe post-classical period saw a dramatic change in Europe. With the decline of the Western Roman Empire, a dark hole was left in Europe that was only partially filled by the Byzantine Empire. While Constantinople and its hinterland would continue to flourish throughout this time period, central and western Europe devolved into thousands of duchies and fiefdoms (small, independent city states). Due to the lack of a centralized control, western Europe found itself on the outside looking in for long distance Afro-Eurasian trade.

These independent regions would be united by the growing influence of the Christian Church. Similar to the way Hinduism unified South Asia, Christianity unified western Europe. In the absence of strong political influence, the Church stepped in to fill the void. The pope naming Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans” in 800 symbolized the growing power of the leader of the Catholic church. A significant event in church authority came in 1054 when the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Church split apart.

Perhaps the apex of church authority in western Europe happened in 1095 when the Pope called for a Holy Crusade to free Jerusalem of Islamic domination. For the next 200 years, Europe would initially succeed but ultimately fail in its attempt to “free” the Holy Land. Though a military failure, the cross cultural interactions of the Crusades allowed for a transfer of knowledge from the enlightened Middle East to an awakening Europe.

Two developments are worth noting in Europe at this time. Due to overpopulation, Vikings from Scandinavia began expanding into western Europe. As a reaction to these invasions, the system of feudalism formed as people were willing to give up their freedoms for protection. In a second development, the Byzantine empire influenced Russia as evidenced by their conversion to Christianity.

The AmericasBy the year 900, the Mayan golden age was coming to an end. Due to a combination of environmental degradation, drought, and warfare, many Mayan cities were deserted. However, some Mayan cities (like Chichen Itza) continued to be inhabited. Besides the Mayans, two civilizations stand out in the western hemisphere during this time: the Mississippian culture and the Toltec civilization. Located on the Mississippi River near present-day St. Louis, the Mississippian civilization flourished between 700-1500. Its city of Cahokia was a major city and trade hub with a population larger than London. In the 10 century, the Toltecs established themselves in what is today southern Mexico. They adopted many Mayan practices, including a religion that was both polytheistic and animistic and would have a major influence on the Aztec empire.

A snapshot of the world in the year 1200...● Indian Ocean trade is thriving and connects East Africa, the Middle East,

Southeast Asia, South Asia and China. ● The Silk Road and Trans-Saharan trade routes are stable and waiting to be

revived● Theocracies are maintaining stability in the Byzantine and Islamic empires

● Dar al Islam continues to be the center of learning and trade● China is still experiencing its second golden age but is about to deal with

nomadic invaders from the north that threaten its stability● South Asia is at the heart of Indian Ocean trade and is about to experience

Islamic rule in the north● Western Europe and Japan are in a decentralized feudal state ● Africa largely remains stateless outside of Dar al Islam● America and Oceania are developing in isolation● Eurasian nomads are poised to unite under a single leader and change the post

classical world

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