Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport,Urban and Regional Development

www.hessen-nanotech.de

Application of Nano-technologies in the Energy Sector

Hessen Nanotech

Hessen – there’s no way around us.

Application ofNanotechnologiesin the Energy Sector

Volume 9 of the series Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech

ImprintApplication of Nanotechnologiesin the Energy Sector

Volume 9 of the series Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech of the Hessian Ministry of Economy,Transport, Urban and Regional Development

Created by:

Dr. Wolfgang Luther

VDI Technologiezentrum GmbH

Zukünftige Technologien Consulting

Graf-Recke-Straße 84

40239 Düsseldorf, Germany

Editorial Staff:

Sebastian Hummel

(Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport and

Urban and Regional Development)

Dr. Rainer Waldschmidt, Alexander Bracht,

Markus Lämmer

(Hessen Agentur, Hessen-Nanotech)

Publisher:

HA Hessen Agentur GmbH

Abraham-Lincoln-Straße 38-42

65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

Phone +49 (0)611 774-8614

Telefax +49 (0)611 774-8620

www.hessen-agentur.de

The publisher does not take any responsibility for cor-

rectness, preciseness and completeness of the given

information. Opinions and views expressed in this publi-

cation do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher.

© Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport,

Urban and Regional Development

Kaiser-Friedrich-Ring 75

65185 Wiesbaden, Germany

www.wirtschaft.hessen.de

Reproduction and reprint – even in parts –

subject to prior written approval.

Design: WerbeAtelier Theißen, Lohfelden, Germany

Print: Werbedruck Schreckhase, Spangenberg, Germany

www.hessen-nanotech.de

August 2008

Siem

ens

AG

Illustrations Covertop: Siemens AGbottom left: Evonik Degussa GmbHbottom center: Fraunhofer Institut für solare Energiesystemebottom right: BASF

ContentPreface .............................................................................................. 2

Abstract ........................................................................................... 4

1 Introduction into Nanotechnologies ................................. 9

2 Innovation Potentials in the Energy Sector .................. 13

3 Application Potentials of Nanotechnologiesin the Energy Sector ............................................................... 36

4 Practical Examples from Hessen ....................................... 54

5 Research Programs, Funding andSupport Possibilities ............................................................... 65

6 Statements of Associations and Networksin the Energy Sector ............................................................... 71

7 Annex ............................................................................................. 78

1

Preface

The worldwide energy demand is continuously growingand, according to the forecasts of the InternationalEnergy Agency, it is expected to rise by approx. 50 per-cent until 2030. Currently, over 80 percent of the primaryenergy demand is covered by fossil fuels. Although theirreserves will last for the next decades, they will not beable to cover the worldwide energy consumption in thelong run. Nuclear energy covers a part of the globalenergy demand without climatic effects, according to cur-rent assessments, however the supply of nuclear fuels willalso run short in the foreseeable future. In view of possi-ble climatic changes due to the increase in the atmos-pheric CO2-content as well as the conceivable scarcity offossil fuels, it becomes clear that future energy supply canonly be guaranteed through increased use of renewableenergy sources. With energy recovery through renewablesources like sun, wind, water, tides, geothermy or bio-mass the global energy demand could be met manytimes over; currently however it is still inefficient and tooexpensive in many cases to take over significant parts ofthe energy supply. Due to the usual adaptation reactionson the markets, it is foreseeable that prices for fossil fuelswill rise, while significantly reduced prices are expectedfor renewable energies. Already today, wind, water andsun are economically competitive in some regions. How-ever, to solve energy and climate problems, it is not onlynecessary to economically utilize renewable alternativesto fossil fuels, but to optimize the whole value addedchain of energy, i.e. from development and conversion,transport and storage up to the consumers’ utilization.Innovation and increases in efficiency in conjunction witha general reduction of energy consumption are urgentlyneeded in all fields to reach the high aims within thegiven time since the world population is growing andstriving for more prosperity. Nanotechnologies as key

and cross-sectional technologies exhibit the uniquepotential for decisive technological breakthroughs in theenergy sector, thus making substantial contributions tosustainable energy supply. The range of possible nano-applications in the energy sector comprises gradual shortand medium-term improvements for a more efficient useof conventional and renewable energy sources as well ascompletely new long-term approaches for energy recov-ery and utilization. This NanoEnergy brochure of theAktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech published by my Ministryis offering information on these topics. The aim is todescribe which technical solutions can already be appliedtoday, and for which issues new solution options will beavailable only in the medium to long run. With this, wewant to trigger off innovation processes urgently requiredin Hessian companies and science.

Dr. Alois Rhiel

Hessian Minister of Economics, Transport,

Urban and Regional Development

2

Dr. Alois Rhiel

Hessian Minister of Economics,Transport, Urban and RegionalDevelopment

3

High demands are placed on a strategy for the reorgani-zation of the current energy supply structure:The drastic reduction of global CO2-emissions with con-temporaneously high supply reliability requires strategicchanges in the design of future energy systems. Apartfrom the enhancement of energy efficiency, mainly thequick implementation of low-emission technologies hasto be advanced. Renewable energies have a long-termpotential to take over the entire global energy supply.However, during a transition period, conventional fossilfuels will have to be utilized and, probably, technologiesfor the separation and safe final storage of CO2 in suit-able deposits. In this case, the transformation process hasto allow utmost flexibility and economic efficiency for theapplication of individual energy technologies. Utmostefficiency of supply systems will be achieved, if preferablyall fossil and biogenous energy sources are used for thecoupled generation of electric current and heat. This alsoincludes the possibility of highly efficient exploitation ofcoal through coal gasification. The feeding into the natu-ral gas grid anyway requires the CO2 separation from bio-gas or the conversion of synthesis gas into methane andmay thus be a first step towards decarbonization. Thealmost complete separation of carbon both from synthe-sis gas and methane and the provision of pure hydrogenare possible in a later stage without difficulty. The utiliza-tion of nanotechnologies in the most important fields ofenergy supply such as building, transport and traffic,portable resp. off-grid power applications may contributedecisively to the solution of these problems. Due to theexisting research and development capacities in universi-ties and extra-faculty facilities, above all in industry, thestate of Hessen is already well-positioned in nanotech-nologies and the adjacent fields of material and surfacetechnologies, microsystems technologies and optical

technologies. The future challenge is the integration ofthe promising nanotechnological approaches into techni-cal innovations for the development of a sustainableenergy supply up to the commercial implementation, andtheir realization as a contribution to cost reduction inrenewable energies to increase efficiency in generationand consumption. To enhance competitiveness and inno-vative strength of Hessian enterprises, intensive coopera-tion with Hessian universities and research facilities mayprovide essential impulses, in particular by combining thefields of materials research and energy research.

Against the background of the potential of nanotech-nologies in the energy sector, the previous research anddevelopment activities altogether seem to have room forimprovement. Therefore, we actively support the verywelcome initiative of the Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech ofthe Hessian Ministry of Economy to spotlight the issue ofNanoEnergy with projects, events and this brochure.

Prof. Dr. Jürgen Schmid

Institute for Solar Energy Technology

(ISET, Germany)

Prof. Dr. Jürgen Schmid

Chairman of Institut für SolareEnergieversorgungstechnik(ISET), Kassel

Key to Sustainable Energy Supply

Examples for potential applications of nanotechnology along the value-added chain in the energy sector (source: VDI TZ GmbH)

Energysources

Energychange

Energydistribution

Energystorage

Energyusage

Gas Turbines

Heat and corrosion protectionof turbine blades (e.g. ceramicor intermetallic nano-coatings)for more efficient turbinepower plants

Nano-catalysts and new pro-cesses for more efficienthydrogen generation (e.g.photoelectrical, elektrolysis, biophotonic)

Hydrogen Generation

Nano-optimized membranesand electrodes for efficient fuelcells (PEM) for applications inautomobiles/mobile electronics

Fuel Cells

Nanostructured compounds (interface design, nanorods)for efficient thermoelectrical power generation (e.g. usageof waste heat in automobiles or body heat for personal electronics (long term))

Thermoelectrics

Combustion EnginesWear and corrosion protectionof engine components (nano-composites/-coatings, nano-particles as fuel additive etc.)

Electrical MotorsNano-composites for supercon-ducting components in electromotors (e.g. in ship engines)

Power Transmission

Super Conductors: Optimizedhigh temperature SC‘s basedon nanoscale interface designfor loss-less power transmis-sion

CNT Power Lines: Super con-ducting cables based oncarbon nanotubes (long term)

Wireless Power Transmission: Power transmission by laser,microwaves or electromag-netic resonance based onnano-optimized components(long term)

High-Voltage Transmission:Nanofillers for electrical iso-lation systems, soft magnetic nano-materials for efficientcurrent transformation

Smart GridsNanosensors (e.g. magneto-resistive) for intelligent and flexible grid management capable of managing highly decentralised power feeds

Heat TransferEfficient heat in- and outflowbased on nano-optimized heatexchangers and conductors (e.g. based on CNT-composi-tes) in industries and buildings

Electrical Energy

Batterries: Optimized Li-ion-batteries by nanostructured electrodes and flexible, ceram-ic separator-foils, applicationin mobile electronics, auto-mobile, flexible load manage-ment in power grids (mid term)

Supercapacitors: Nanomaterials for electrodes(carbon-aerogels, CNT, metall(-oxides) and elektrolytesfor higher energy densities)

Chemical EnergyHydrogen: Nanoporous mate-rials (organometals, metal hy-drides) for application in micro fuel cells for mobile electronicsor in automobiles (long term)

Fuel Reforming/Refining: Nano-catalysts for optimized fuel production (oil refining, desulphurization, coal lique-faction

Fuel Tanks: Gas tight fueltanks based on nano-com-posites for reduction of hydro-carbon emissions

Thermal EnergyPhase Change Materials: Encapsulated PCM for airconditioning of buildings

Adsorptive Storage: Nano-porous materials (e.g.zeolites) for reversible heatstorage in buildings andheating nets

Thermal Insulation

Nanoporous foams and gels (aerogels, polymer foams) forthermal insulation of buildingsor in industrial processes

Air ConditioningIntelligent management oflight and heat flux in buildings by electrochromic windows,micro mirror arrays or IR-reflectors

Lightweight ConstructionLightweight construction ma-terials using nano-composites(carbon nanotubes, metal-matrix-composites, nano-coated light metals, ultra performance concrete, polymer-composites)

Industrial ProcessesSubstitution of energy inten-sive processes based onnanotech process innovations (e.g. nano-catalysts, self-assembling processes etc.)

LightingEnergy efficient lighting sys-tems (e.g. LED, OLED)

Nano-composites for radiationshielding and protection (personal equipment, container etc.), long term option fornuclear fusion reactors

Nuclear

Wear and corrosion protectionof oil and gas drilling equip-ment, nanoparticles for impro-ved oil yields

Fossil Fuels

Regenerative

Photovoltaics: Nano-optimized cells (polymeric, dye, quantumdot, thin film, multiple junction), antireflective coatings

Wind Energy: Nano-compos-ites for lighter and strongerrotor blades, wear and corro-sion protection nano-coatings for bearings and power trains etc.

Geothermal: Nano-coatingsand -composites for wear resistant drilling equipment

Biomass Energy: Yield opti-mization by nano-based pre-cision farming (nanosensors,controlled release and storage of pesticides and nutrients)

Hydro-/Tidal Power: Nano-coatings for corrosion protection

Nanotechnologies provide the potential to enhanceenergy efficiency across all branches of industry andto economically leverage renewable energy pro-duction through new technological solutions andoptimized production technologies. In the long run,essential contributions to sustainable energy supply

and the global climate protection policy will beachieved. Here, nanotechnological innovations arebrought to bear on each part of the value-addedchain in the energy sector.

4

Abstract

Development of Primary Energy Sources

Nanotechnologies provide essential improvementpotentials for the development of both conventionalenergy sources (fossil and nuclear fuels) and renew-able energy sources like geothermal energy, sun,wind, water, tides or biomass. Nano-coated, wear-resistant drill probes, for example, allow the opti-mization of lifespan and efficiency of systems for thedevelopment of oil and natural gas deposits or geot-hermal energy and thus the saving of costs. Furtherexamples are high-duty nanomaterials for lighterand more rugged rotor blades of wind and tide-power plants as well as wear and corrosion protec-tion layers for mechanically stressed components(bearings, gear boxes, etc.). Nanotechnologies willplay a decisive role in particular in the intensified useof solar energy through photovoltaic systems. Incase of conventional crystalline silicon solar cells, forinstance, increases in efficiency are achievable byantireflection layers for higher light yield. First andforemost, however, it will be the further develop-ment of alternative cell types, such as thin-layer solarcells (among others of silicon or other material sys-tems like copper/indium/selenium), dye solar cellsor polymer solar cells, which will predominantlyprofit from nanotechnologies. Polymer solar cells aresaid to have high potential especially regarding thesupply of portable electronic devices, due to the rea-sonably-priced materials and production methodsas well as the flexible design.

Medium-term development targets are an efficiencyof approx. 10 % and a lifespan of several years. Here,for example, nanotechnologies could contribute tothe optimization of the layer design and the mor-phology of organic semiconductor mixtures in com-ponent structures. In the long run, the utilization ofnanostructures, like quantum dots and wires, couldallow for solar cell efficiencies of over 60 %.

Energy Conversion

The conversion of primary energy sources into elec-tricity, heat and kinetic energy requires utmost effi-ciency. Efficiency increases, especially in fossil-firedgas and steam power plants, could help avoid con-siderable amounts of carbon dioxide emissions.Higher power plant efficiencies, however, requirehigher operating temperatures and thus heat-resis-tant turbine materials. Improvements are possible,for example, through nano-scale heat and corrosionprotection layers for turbine blades in power plantsor aircraft engines to enhance the efficiency throughincreased operating temperatures or the applicationof lightweight construction materials (e.g. titaniumaluminides). Nano-optimized membranes canextend the scope of possibilities for separation andclimate-neutral storage of carbon dioxide for powergeneration in coal-fired power plants, in order torender this important method of power generationenvironmentally friendlier in the long run. Theenergy yield from the conversion of chemical energythrough fuel cells can be stepped up by nano-struc-tured electrodes, catalysts and membranes, whichresults in economic application possibilities in auto-mobiles, buildings and the operation of mobile elec-tronics. Thermoelectric energy conversion seems tobe comparably promising. Nano-structured semi-conductors with optimized boundary layer designcontribute to increases in efficiency that could pavethe way for a broad application in the utilization ofwaste heat, for example in automobiles, or even ofhuman body heat for portable electronics in textiles.

5

(Source: Siemens AG)

Nanocrystalline mag-netic materials for

efficient componentsin current transfor-mation and supply(e.g. transformers,electric meters etc.)

Nano-optimizedfuel cells for

automobiles andtransport vehicles

High temperaturesuperconductors for

motors andgenerators in ships

Nanostructuredheat protection

layers forgas turbines

Nanomembranesfor separation of

carbon dioxide in CCS(Carbon Capture andStorage) power plants

6

Low-loss Power Transmission and Smart Grids

Regarding the reduction of energy losses in currenttransmission, hope exists that the extraordinary elec-tric conductivity of nanomaterials like carbon nan-otubes can be utilized for application in electriccables and power lines. Furthermore, there are nan-otechnological approaches for the optimization ofsuperconductive materials for lossless current con-duction. In the long run, options are given for wire-less energy transport, e.g. through laser, microwavesor electromagnetic resonance. Future power distri-bution will require power systems providingdynamic load and failure management, demand-dri-ven energy supply with flexible price mechanisms aswell as the possibility of feeding through a numberof decentralized renewable energy sources. Nan-otechnologies could contribute decisively to therealization of this vision, inter alia, through nano-sen-sory devices and power-electronical componentsable to cope with the extremely complex control andmonitoring of such grids.

Energy Storage

The utilization of nanotechnologies for the enhance-ment of electrical energy stores like batteries andsuper-capacitors turns out to be downright promis-ing. Due to the high cell voltage and the outstandingenergy and power density, the lithium-ion-technology is regarded as the most promising vari-ant of electrical energy storage. Nanotechnologiescan improve capacity and safety of lithium-ion-batteries decisively, as for example through newceramic, heat-resistant and still flexible separatorsand high-performance electrode materials. The com-pany Evonik pushes the commercialization of suchsystems for the application in hybrid and electricvehicles as well as for stationary energy storage.

In the long run, even hydrogen seems to be a prom-ising energy store for environmentally-friendlyenergy supply. Apart from necessary infrastructuraladjustments, the efficient storage of hydrogen isregarded as one of the critical factors of success onthe way to a possible hydrogen management.

Current materials for chemical hydrogen storage donot meet the demands of the automotive industrywhich requires a H2-storage capacity of up to tenweight percent.

Carbon nanotubes ashigh-tensile con-struction materials e.g.for rotor blades ofwind power stationsor as material for low-loss cables/power lines

Polymer solar cellsfor large-scaleapplications inbuildings or formobile electronics

Dye solar cellsas decorativefacade elementsin buildings

Nanostructured wearprotection layers formachine componentswith a high mechani-cal load (e.g. engines,bearings, drillingequipment)

Nanoporoushydrogen storagematerials forfuel cell vehicles

Lithium-ion-batteriesfor stationaryenergy storage or aspower unit forhybrid/electric cars

OLED for large-scale displays andlighting devices

Nanostructuredthermoelectricmaterials forpower supply ofmobile electronics

Various nanomaterials, inter alia based onnanoporous metalorganic compounds, providedevelopment potentials which seem to be econom-ically realizable at least with regard to the operationof fuel cells in portable electronic devices. Anotherimportant field is thermal energy storage. Theenergy demand in buildings, for example, may besignificantly reduced by using phase change mate-rials such as latent heat stores. Interesting, from an

economic point of view, are also adsorption storesbased on nanoporous materials like zeolites, whichcould be applied as heat stores in district heatinggrids or in industry. The adsorption of water in zeo-lite allows the reversible storage and release of heat(see practical example Viessmann, p. 60).

77

Scenario with examples for future application possibilities of nanotechnologies in the energy sector

(Design: VDI TZ GmbH; Photo credits: Siemens, BASF, Evonik, Bayer, FHG-ISE, Rewitec, GKSS, Magnetec, FH Wiesbaden)

8

Energy Use

To achieve sustainable energy supply, and parallelto the optimized development of available energysources, it is necessary to improve the efficiency ofenergy use and to avoid unnecessary energy con-sumption. This applies to all branches of industryand private households. Nanotechnologies providea multitude of approaches to energy saving. Exam-ples are the reduction of fuel consumption in auto-mobiles through lightweight construction materialson the basis of nanocomposites, the optimization infuel combustion through wear-resistant, lighterengine components and nanoparticular fuel addi-tives or even nanoparticles for optimized tires withlow rolling resistance (cf. brochure Automotive Nan-otechnologies). Considerable energy savings are

realizable through tribological layers for mechanicalcomponents in plants and machines, as commer-cially marketed by REWITEC from Lahnau (cf. practi-cal example on page 61). Building technology alsoprovides great potentials for energy savings, whichcould be tapped, for example, by nanoporous ther-mal insulation material suitably applicable in theenergetic rehabilitation of old buildings. In general,the control of light and heat flux by nanotechnolog-ical components, as for example switchable glasses,is a promising approach to reducing energy con-sumption in buildings (cf. brochure Uses for Nan-otechnologies in Architecture and Civil Engineer-ing).

In view of a globally increasing energy demand,threatening climatic changes due to continuouslyincreasing carbon dioxide emissions, as well as theforeseeable scarcity of fossil fuels, the developmentand provision of sustainable methods for powergeneration belong to the most urgent challengesof mankind. Massive effort at political and eco-nomical level is required to basically modernize theexisting energy system. Growing efficiency and newmethods through nanotechnological know-howmay play a key role for the required innovation inthe energy sector. Nanotechnological componentsprovide potentials for the more efficient utilizationof energy reserves and the more economical devel-opment of renewables. This brochure provides anumber of examples for possible applications anddevelopments in which Hessian enterprises andresearch facilities are actively involved.

When implementing nanotechnological innova-tions in the energy sector, the macroeconomic andsocial context must not be lost sight of. The designof a future energy system requires long-term invest-ments in research activities based on realisticpotential assessments and the careful adaptationof the individual supply chain components. In caseof renewable energy production by wind or solarenergy, for example, it has to be considered thatpower generation occurs discontinuously andenergy stores have to be provided as buffers tobalance the fluctuating demand.

When replacing fossil fuels, not only their functionas energy source, but also as energy store has tobe taken into account, for instance in the automo-tive sector. Here, alternatives must be found for thelong-term storage of energy and its availability atshort notice and in an efficient infrastructure. Themove into hydrogen economy and the increasedutilization of biofuels are discussed as solutions forthe future, which, however, require considerableinvestments and technological leaps, inter alia onthe basis of nanotechnologies. Further challengesof the energy sector are the optimization and inte-gration of mobile energy supply systems for theoperation of wireless electronic devices, tools andsensors, which have become a key factor in mod-ern industrial society.

To enable the immediate practical implementationof nanotechnological innovations in such a broadfield like the energy sector, an interbranch andinterdisciplinary dialog with all players involved willbe required. This brochure wants to contribute tobuilding a bridge and providing generally under-standable information for coordinated and target-oriented acting in politics, economy and society.

Conclusion

9

Nanotechnologies are worldwide regarded as keytechnologies for innovations and technologicalprogress in almost all branches of economy. Nan-otechnologies refer to the target-oriented technicalutilization of objects and structures in a size in therange of 1 and 100 nm. They are less seen as basictechnologies in the classic sense with a clear and dis-

tinct definition, than they describe interdisciplinaryand cross-sector research approaches, for examplein electronics, optics, biotechnology or new materi-als, using effects and phenomena which are onlyfound in the nano-cosmos.

1 Introduction into Nanotechnologies

1.1 Definition of Nanotechnologies

Up to now, there is no internationally accepted defi-nition of nanotechnologies. First approaches are cur-rently being worked out by the International Stan-dardization Organization (ISO) (cf. brochure Nano-Standardization). The topical area of nanotechnolo-gies, however, does not reveal itself through formaldefinitions, but through the description of basic prin-ciples and research approaches playing a decisiverole in this connection. On the one hand, in nan-otechnologies, engineering with elementary units ofbiological and inorganic nature, i.e. atoms and mol-ecules, is applied as if working with a lego-kit (“bot-tom-up strategy”). On the other hand, even struc-tures measuring only one thousandth of the diame-ter of one hair can be created by means of sizereduction (“top-down strategy”). This problem iscomparable to the challenge of writing the wholeroad network of Germany, true to scale, on a finger-nail– and faultlessly, of course. Partially, nanotechno-

logical processes as such are not basically new, butoften represent further developments of proven pro-duction and analysis techniques. Nano-effects hadalready been used in the Middle Ages, for instance,for the red staining of church windows by finely dis-tributed gold colloids or for the hardening of Dam-ascene steel of sword blades by carbon nanotubes,without being aware of the physicochemical princi-ples. Thus, the essence of nanotechnologies is thecontrolled utilization of nano-scale structures, theunderstanding of the principles effective at molecu-lar level and the technological improvement of mate-rials and components.

Nanotechnologies describe the creation, analysis and application of structures, molecular

materials, inner interfaces and surfaces with at least one critical dimension or with manu-

facturing tolerances (typically) below 100 nanometers. The decisive factor is that new

functionalities and properties resulting from the nanoscalability of system components

are used for the improvement of existing products or the development of new products

and application options. Such new effects and possibilities are predominantly based on

the ratio of surface-to-volume atoms and on the quantum-mechanical behavior of the

elements of the material.

10

In contrast to coarser-structured materials, nanoma-terials dispose of drastically modified propertiesconcerning physical, chemical and biological fea-tures. Physical material properties of a solid, such aselectric conductivity, magnetism, fluorescence, hard-ness or strength change fundamentally in accor-dance to the number and arrangement of the inter-acting atoms, ions and molecules. In contrast tomacroscopic solids, electrons in a nanocluster canonly adopt certain “quantisized” energy states influ-enced by the number of interacting atoms.

This results in characteristic fluorescence propertieswhich vary strongly with the size of the cluster. A cad-mium telluride particle of 2 nm, for example fluo-resces green light, while a particle of 5 nm fluorescesred light. Such quantum dots principally allow a sig-nificant enhancement of the quantum yield of solarcells and thus of their conversion efficiency. Evenchemical material properties depend much on thearrangement and structuring of atoms and mole-cules. Nanostructuring usually achieves significantlyhigher chemical reactivity, since materials brokendown to nanoscale substructures show a stronglyincreased ratio of reactive surface atoms to inert par-ticles in a solid. In a particle with a diameter of 20nm, for example approx. 10 % of the atoms are onthe surface, while in a particle of 1 nm the ratio ofreactive surface atoms amounts to already 99 %. In

biology, nanomaterials play a decisive role, too,since nearly all biological processes are controlledby nanoscale structural components such as nucleicacid, proteins etc. The structuring of complex bio-logical systems, like cells and organs, occurs accord-ing to the self-organization principle, where individ-ual molecules are assembled to larger units on thebasis of chemical interactions and molecular recog-nition mechanisms. In the history of evolution, naturesucceeded in realizing extremely complex reactionmechanisms, such as photosynthesis, due to thehighly efficient interaction of such “molecularmachines”. This is the basis for life on earth and alsofor today’s energy supply, which is mainly based onthe utilization of fossil energy supplies generated byphotosynthesis during the history of earth.

1.2 Nanoeffects as a Basis for Product Innovations

The smaller the particle, the larger the

portion of particles present on the

reactive surface of the particle (blue) in

contrast to the more inert center of the

particle (red). With particle sizes between

1 nm and 20 nm, the ratio of surface

particles to total number of particles

varies considerably.0

20 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

20

40

60

80

100

particle diameter (nm)

Frac

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rfac

eat

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11

Although the total energy yield of photosynthesis isrelatively low (despite a high quantum yield in thereactive center of the photosynthesis complex ofapprox. 97 %, altogether less than 1 % of the radiatedlight energy is being transformed into chemicalenergy), this may serve as a paradigm for future tech-nical energy conversion systems, for example forOrganic Photovoltaics. This applies in particular to theproduction through self-organizing processes fromelementary basic modules as well as to high functionstability and regenerability.

Thus, nanostructuring provides new possibilities forintelligent material design, with the possibility of com-bining the desired material properties and adjustingthem to the respective technical application purpose.

For the energy sector, inter alia, the examples listed inthe following overview are of interest.

Optical

a Optimized light absorption properties of solarcells through quantum dots and nanolayers instack cells.

a Anti-reflection properties for solar cells toincrease energy yield of solar cells.

a Luminescent polymers for the production ofenergy-efficient organic light diodes.

Electronic

a Optimized electron conductivity through carbonnanotubes and nano-structured superconductors.

a Electric insulators through nano-structured fillersin components of high-voltage power lines.

a Enhanced thermoelectrica for more efficientpower generation from heat through nano-struc-tured layer systems.

Thermal

a Nano-structured heat protection layers forturbine blades in gas and aircraft turbines.

a Improved heat conductivity of carbonnanotubes for optimized heat exchangers.

a Optimized heat stores based on nanoporousmaterials (zeolites) or microencapsulatedphase-change storage.

a Nanofoams as super-insulation systems inbuilding insulation which are capable of effi-ciently minimizing the convective heat trans-port even at small thickness of the insulationlayer, due to the nanoporous structure.

Chemical

a More efficient catalysts in fuel cells or for thechemical conversion of fuels through extendedsurfaces and specific catalyst design.

a More powerful batteries, accumulators andsupercapacitors through higher specific elec-trode surfaces.

a Optimized membranes with higher tempera-ture and corrosion resistance for application inpolymer electrolyte fuel cells or separators inlithium-ion-batteries.

a Nanoporous materials for the storage ofhydrogen, e.g. metal hydrides or metalorganiccompounds.

Mechanical

a Improved strength of construction materialsfor rotor blades of wind power plants.

a Wear-resistant nanolayers for drill probes,gear boxes and engine components.

a Optimized separability of gas membranes forthe separation and deposition of carbon diox-ide from flue gases of coal-fired power plants.

a Gas-tight polymer nanocomposites for thereduction of hydrocarbon emissions fromvehicle tanks.

12

In 2006, the investments in the field of nanotech-nologies amounted to approx. 12.4 bn $ with publicand private investments of approx. 6.4 bn $ resp. 6bn $ being more or less balanced. The private invest-ments are attributable to company investments with5.3 bn $ and to Venture Capital Investment withapprox. 0.7 bn $ (Source: Lux Research 2007). Withregard to private investments, the USA is in the lead,closely followed by Asia and clearly ahead ofEurope. Regarding public investments however,Europe (European Commission and member coun-tries) with approx. 1.7 bn $, the USA (at federal andstate level) with approx. 1.9 bn $ and Japan withapprox. 975 m $ belong to the three leading regionsin nanotechnologies worldwide. Other countries, inparticular in Southeast Asia, China and India increasetheir commitment considerably and close up quickly.This enormous public commitment is driven by thehigh expectations regarding the overall economicbenefit in the form of turnovers and employmentdirectly related to nanotechnological developments.

In international comparison, Germany is well posi-tioned in nanotechnologies. With regard to publicR&D expenses and patent applications in nanotech-nologies, Germany ranks third worldwide. Concern-ing nanoscientific publications, Germany was alsoranking third in the last years, but meanwhile it hasbeen displaced in rank by China and is now forth.The strengths of Germany comprise the well-devel-oped R&D infrastructure and the advanced level ofresearch and development in various disciplines ofnanotechnologies, as in nanooptics, nanomaterials,nanoanalytics and nanobiotechnology. With cur-rently 700 enterprises involved in development,application and sales of nanotechnological prod-ucts, there is an industrial basis for the utilization ofthe research results. With more than 100 enterprises,the state of Hessen belongs to the strongest regionswith regard to the economic realization of nan-otechnology in Germany. In many branches of econ-omy, nanotechnological know-how already con-tributes decisively to economic competitiveness – inparticular in the mass markets of electronics, chem-istry and optical Industry.

In the medium to long term, nanotechnologies willalso have considerable commercial influence in thefields of car manufacturing, Life Science and tradi-tional branches of industry like construction engi-neering and textile industry. Although the enormouseconomic importance of nanotechnologies as keyand interdisciplinary technologies is undisputed, theeconomic potential of nanotechnologies is hardlyquantifiable. This is due to the fact that nanotech-nology as an “enabling technology” sets in at a rela-tively early stage of the value added chain, i.e. at theoptimization of components/intermediate products,e.g. through nanoscale coatings or nanostructuredmaterials. Usually, these components account onlyfor a small part of the finished end products (con-sumer and investment goods). Frequently, the mar-ket value of nanotechnological components in theadded value of the end product cannot be exactlydetermined. However, without the application ofnanotechnological procedures and components,products of many industrial branches would not becompetitive (e.g. hard disc storage units, computerchips, ultra-precision optics, etc.).

1.3 International Status Quo

13

Energy “powers“ our life; it provides our living spaceand working environment with pleasant tempera-tures and lightness, it feeds production plants, urbaninfrastructure as well as the multitude of our elec-tronic assistants in everyday life and enables almostunlimited mobility around the globe. The worldwideenergy demand increases continuously and, accord-ing to forecasts of the International Energy Agency,it will rise from currently approx. 12,000 MTOE (mil-lion tons oil equivalents) up to more than 18,000MTOE until 2030 (approx. 750 exajoule =750.000.000.000.000.000.000 Joule). The majordriver for this sharp increase in energy consumption,and thus also in the worldwide carbon dioxide emis-sion, is in particular the backlog demand of upcom-ing economies like China and India, which more andmore adapt their energy consumption to that of theindustrial nations and mostly use fossil fuels. Thelargest share in global energy consumption is attrib-utable to the industrial sector, followed by transportand traffic, households and other business enter-prises (services, trade etc.). However, there are bigregional differences regarding energy consumptionand the development in the individual sectors. Inindustrial nations like Germany, for instance, trans-port holds the top position in energy consumption

showing also the highest growth rates, while theenergy consumption in the industrial sector declinedin the last years.

At a global level, however, an increase in all sectorsis forecasted, with the highest growth rates beingexpected in Non-OECD countries like China andIndia. It is obvious that for the long-term coverageof this increasing energy demand, a radical changein the energy sector is required, which means adevelopment away from previously dominating fos-sil fuels towards the enhanced utilization of renew-able energy sources. The threatening climaticchange caused by rising carbon dioxide emissionand the foreseeable scarcity of fossil fuels leaves noother choice than to further push the urgentlyneeded innovations in the energy sector. Thisapplies both to the enhanced development ofrenewable energy sources and to the entire value-added chain including energy recovery from primaryenergy sources, conversion, storage, distribution aswell as the use of energy.

2 Innovation Potentials in the Energy Sector

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

2004 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Ener

gy

cons

ump

tion

1018

Joul

e Transport Households Services Industry

Forecast of the world-

wide energy demand by

sectors (source: Energy

Information Administra-

tion: International

Energy Outlook 2007)

14

With about 80 %, the fossil fuels coal, crude oil andnatural gas cover the main part of the current globalenergy demand. Current scenarios for the develop-ment of the future energy demand go on theassumption that the share of fossil fuels in the world-wide supply will remain nearly unchanged until2030. This trend can only be countered by massiveglobal effort and investments in the field of renew-able energies and by energy saving measures. TheEuropean Union sees itself in a pioneer role and hasset the ambitious target to achieve a binding shareof renewables in the overall EU-energy consumptionof 20 %, a reduction of the EU-wide greenhousegases by 20 % and an increase in energy efficiencyby 20 % by 2020.

Currently the global share in renewable energiesamounts to about 15 %, with energy recovery frombiomass being clearly in the lead. It is followed bywater power and geothermal energy, while wind andsolar power together account for a share of belowone percent. The following figure represents theglobal state of the year 2004 in relation to the totalprimary energy supply, i.e. current and heat suppliesas well as fuels.

2.1 Potentials of Primary Energy Sources

Share of different

energy sources in the

global primary energy

supply in the year

2004 (source: Energy

Information Adminis-

tration, Annual Energy

Review 2006)

There are great regional differences regarding to theutilization of renewables. In Germany, the share ofrenewable energy sources in the total energy con-sumption is currently at approx. 9 % and thus belowthe global average, a fact mainly due to the low uti-lization of biomass for energy supply in comparisonto less industrialized nations. However, there hadbeen a sharp upward trend in the utilization ofrenewable energy sources in Germany during thelast years, especially in the field of electric powersupply. Due to a very dynamic development in thewind energy sector, its share in the total energy sup-ply in Germany amounts already to more than 5 %.Sharp growth rates were also achieved in photo-voltaics, although with a total share of 0.5 % in the

power demand they are hardly noticeable in the totalamount. Thus, the ambitious objective of the FederalGovernment, to cover half of the total powerdemand in Germany by renewables until 2050, is stilla distant prospect. Such objectives will only berealizable through new approaches and technologi-cal breakthroughs, which enable a considerableimprovement in efficiency in the supply of renew-ables and the development of significant efficiencypotentials throughout the whole value-added chainof the energy sector.

Coal25,2%

Oil34,3%

Gas20,9%

Renewables13,1%

Nuclear6,5%

Other 0,5%

Hydro2,2%

Biomass10,4%

Tide0,004%

Wind0,064%

Solar0,039%

Geothermal0,41%

15

The total potential of fossil fuels available on earthis assessed at approx. 5.500 MTOE, with 60 % attrib-utable to coal, approx. 30 % to natural gas andapprox. 10 % to crude oil. In principle, this amountof energy suffices to meet the global energydemand for some centuries. It has to be consideredhowever that, a large part of the global crude oil andnatural gas resources cannot be efficiently utilizedwith conventional methods. The statistical range ofalready developed resources is assessed at approx.

40 to 60 years for crude oil, natural gas and uranium,and at approx. 200 years for coal. These figures varycontinuously according to the development of theworldwide consumption and progresses in explo-ration and production technologies. With regard tocrude oil, however it will be necessary to revert, toan increasing extent, to non-conventional sourceslike heavy oil, oil sand or oil shale, the developmentof which entails high costs and environmentalimpacts.

Market shares of renew-

ables in Germany

2005-2007 (source:

German Federal

Association of Renew-

able Energies 2008)

Energy supply through

renewable energy sources

in Germany 2005–2007

(source: German Federal

Association of Renewable

Energies 2008)

5,4%6%

6,5%

3,6%

6,6%7%

6,6%

8%

9,1%

0%

4%

8%

12%

16%

2005 2006 2007

Share ofPower consumption

Share ofHeat consumption

Share offuel consumption

Share oftotal energy consumption

14,3%

11,9%

10,3%

21,5 21,6 21,7

27,2 30,738,5

1,32,2

3

4,56,2

6,6

2,5

5

8,9

6,4

7,3

8

0

20

40

60

80

100billion kilowatt hours

HydroWindPhotovoltaicsBiomass solidBiogasOther Biomass

20072005 2006

16

The potential of renewable energy sources isunequally higher. Especially through direct utiliza-tion of the sun’s radiation energy the global energydemand could be met many times over. Wind andtidal energies also provide considerable potentials.From today’s view, however the technically and eco-nomically usable part of it is negligible, above alldue the low energy density and the limited numberof economically usable locations. The energy yieldfrom the incidence of solar radiation on the earth’s

surface in Central Europe, for example, is limited toa maximum of approx. 1000 Watt per square meter.Further constraints on the utilization of renewableenergies are the inconsistent energy yield independence of environmental influences, low effi-ciencies in energy conversion as well as cost-inten-sive production methods and materials.

Range of conventional

fuels in years (source:

German Federal Institute

for Geosciences and Natu-

ral Resources, BGR, 2007

www.bgr.bund.de)

reserves: assured deposits

which can be exploited

economically with existing

technology

resources: ascertained

deposits, which can not be

exploited economically

with existing technology

resp. presumed not local-

ized deposits

conventional: economi-

cally exploitable with cur-

rent extraction technology

unconventional: need for

new extraction technolo-

gies for economical

exploitation

Oil

Gas

Coal

Uranium

conventional

2000 2050 2100

10050

42 527

64

0 150 >200 >1000 Years

2150

Resources

Reserves

conventional+ non-conv.

conventional

conventional+ non-conv.

Hard Coal

Soft Coal

64 149

62 157

43 67

207 1425

198 1264

756

17

A prerequisite for a significant growth in energy sup-ply through renewable energy sources are consid-erable cost reductions, for example by efficienteconomies of scale in the further development oflow-cost production methods and increased effi-ciencies through technological innovations. In thelong run, there will be no alternative to an optimizedtapping of the potentials of renewable energysources. Especially, the utilization of solar energythrough solar cells and solar-thermal power plants

will play a key role. Long-term scenarios forecast thatby 2100, the utilization of solar energy will meetmore than 50 % of the global energy demand.Whether there will be further options, as for examplefor a technically and economically realizable utiliza-tion of nuclear fusion, is still open at this point.

Fossil fuelsGlobal reserves/resources

RenewablesGlobal energy potential per year

Energy potential/Globalannual energy consumption1 Energy potential/Global

annual energy consumption1

1 3 5 285060 200155348 20

Global energy demand 2006: ~ 470 EJ

Thereof conven-tionally utilizable2

Energy potentialReserves/Resources2

~ 135.000 EJCoal

~ 12.000 EJ~ 60.400 EJNatural gas

~ 9.800 EJ~ 23.000 EJCrude oil

technologically utiliz-able (state of the art)2

Energy potential (amount of energy p. a.)2

~ 1.482 EJ~ 1.111.500 EJSolar radiation

~ 195 EJ~ 78.000 EJWind energy

~ 156 EJ~ 7.800 EJBiomass

~ 390 EJ~ 1.950 EJGeothermal

~ 78 EJ~ 1.170 EJHydro/tide power

Global potential of

available renewables

and fossil fuels

1: Data referring to

global energy con-

sumption of 390 EJ in

1997, data from M.

Fischedick, O. Langniß,

J. Nitsch: „Nach dem

Ausstieg – Zukunftskurs

Erneuerbare Energien“,

S. Hirzel Verlag, 2000

2: Data source: German

Federal Institute for

Geosciences and

Natural Resources

Scenario of the devel-

opment of global

energy demand

(source: www.solar-

wirtschaft.de)

The internationally acknowledged measurementfor energy is Joule (kg · m2/s2). Common units inthe energy sector are also kilowatt hours, hardcoal units, tons of oil equivalents (TOE) or, in theAnglo-Saxon region, the British thermal unit(Btu).

Conversion factors:Kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 3.6 MJHard coal units (HCU) = 29.3 MJTon of Oil Equivalent (TOE) 1 TOE = 41.87 GJBritish thermal unit (Btu) 1 Btu = 1.05506 kJ

Prefixes for decimal powers:k (kilo) = 103, M (mega) = 106 , G (giga) = 109

T (tera) = 1012, P (peta) = 1015, E (exa) = 1018

Annual primary energy consumption [GWh]

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2100

Others

Solar thermal

Photovoltaics

Wind energy

Biomass

Hydro power

Nuclear

Natural gas

Coal

Crude oil

1600

800

400

200

600

1000

1400

0

1200

2.2 Innovation Potentials along theEnergy Value-Added Chain

Measured values for energy units

To secure global power supply in the long run, it isnot only necessary to develop existing energysources as efficiently and environmentally friendly aspossible, but also to minimize energy losses arisingduring transport from source to end user, to provideand distribute energy for the respective applicationpurpose as flexibly and efficiently as possible and toreduce energy demand in industry and privatehouseholds. Each sector of the value added chainbears potentials for optimization which could betapped through the application of nanotechnolo-gies. All in all, the implementation of nanotechno-

logical innovations, especially in the energy sector,depends to a large extent on the political, econom-ical and social environment and general conditions.The answer to the question which technologicaldevelopment will finally find acceptance, is thusdetermined, above all, by economical necessitiesand political and social parameters, apart from thetechnological feasibility.

18

Energysources

Energychange

Energydistribution

Energystorage

Energyusage

Framework Conditions

Energy Supply Chains

Politics• Legislation (renewables, heat insulation

ordinance, nuclear energy laws,immission protection, competition law ...)

• taxes, subsidies (gas, coal, biofuel, solar ...)

• International climate protection agreements • Research funding

(solar, fuel cells, nuclear fusion ...)

Society/Environment• Climate change• Environmental protection• Air pollution/

radiation protection• Public technology

acceptance• labor market trends

• Energy and raw material costs • Competition structure

(monopolies/cartels)• Private investments/write offs

(infrastructure)• Capital market (VC, interest rates)• Economic trends (world, regional)

Value-added chain

and environmental

and general condi-

tions in the energy

sector

2.2.1 Development of Primary Energy Sources

Photovoltaics

The world market for solar energy is assessed atapprox. 16 bn $ in 2007 and will presumably reach avolume of 30 bn $ by 2010 (source: CSLA). In the lastyear, two-digit growth rates were achieved in thebooming photovoltaics market, especially in Japan,Germany and the USA, which are expected to con-tinue also in the years to come. Studies by GermanShell and the European Photovoltaic Industry Asso-ciation (EPIA) and Greenpeace go on the assump-tion that in already two or three decades, solar tech-nology will be able to supply 20 % to 30 % of theenergy required worldwide. In Germany, approx.50.000 people are employed and about 150 com-panies are working in the solar industry achieving a

turnover of approx. 4 bn Euro (source: Federal Asso-ciation of the Solar Industry). Independent of theseimpressing figures, the production of solar energy iscurrently still not competitive. Due to high materialcosts and insufficient quantity of components resp.assembly elements for solar modules, the produc-tion costs of solar energy in Germany are more thanthree times higher than for conventional powerplants.

19

20

Photovoltaics will achieve a broad breakthrough,independent of state subsidies, only if it is possible toeconomically equip large surfaces with solar cells.This requires not only an efficiency increase in energyconversion, but first and foremost also less expensivematerials and production processes, which could beenabled through the application of nanotechnolo-gies.

Today’s market dominating technology, which usesmonocrystalline or multicrystalline silicon wafers,hardly allows cost reduction through technologicalimprovements and mass production. The major con-straint here is the high raw material price of the high-purity crystalline raw silicon, which, owing to bottle-necks in production, has risen by 500 % since 2004.Thus, in the medium to long run, promising marketpotentials will result from the further development ofalternative cell types such as thin-layer solar cells(inter alia, of silicon or other material systems likecopper/indium/selenium), dye solar cells or polymersolar cells.

Left: World market

solar energy (source:

CLSA study “Solar

Power” July 2004)

World market (bn. $)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

7

10

13

16

19

24

30

Copper/Indium/Diselenid 0,2 %

Silicon(multi-crystalline)46,5 %

Silicon(mono-

crystalline)49,4 %

Silicon(amorphous)

4,7 %

Cadmium telluride

2,7 %

Silicon(ribbon materials) 2,6 %

Right: Market shares

of different solar cell

types worldwide in

2006 (source: Photon

International March

2007)

The 64-megawatt parabolic trough

power plant “Nevada Solar One“ in the

US-state of Nevada, on stream since June

2007, supplies approx. 129 million kilo-

watt hours (kWh) of solar energy each

year (source: Schott).

Off-grid power supply through solar

plants is profitably applicable especially

in economically underdeveloped

regions, as for example in some regions

of Indonesia (source: Schott).

21

Nanotechnology companies in the field of materialand module production can substitute a great dealof the added value of conventional silicon cells resp.tap additional market potentials through drastic costreductions. Mainly polymer solar cells are said tohave a high potential especially for the supply ofportable electronic devices, due to their cheapmaterials and production processes as well as theirflexible design. Further application potentials areprovided for self-sustaining and mobile product-integrated applications in traffic-control systems,safety and telecommunication systems as well as atoff-grid sites in developing and newly industrializedcountries for locations with high solar radiation.Medium-term development targets regarding poly-mer solar cells are an efficiency of approx. 10 % anda lifespan of several years, for which, however, basicprogress in the understanding of function and influ-ence of nanomorphology of organic semiconduc-tors is required. Also required are new concepts toachieve cost-effective electrode materials and effi-

cient encapsulation of cells, which are importantprerequisites for economic mass production. Nan-otechnologies also contribute to the optimization ofconventional crystalline silicon solar cells whichdominate the photovoltaics market with a marketshare of 90 %. Here, increases in efficiency may beachieved by nanostructured anti-reflection layers,which provide higher light yield.

Such anti-reflection glasses have already been com-mercially marketed and show high growth rates forapplication not only in photovoltaics but also insolarthermy (see page 24).

Basic structure and effi-

ciency of current solar

cell types (source: HMI:

Results of the workshop

“Nanotechnology for

sustainable power sup-

ply”, November 29-30,

2007, Berlin). Further

information on solar

cell types: www.fv-

sonnenenergie.de/fors

chung/forschungsthe-

men/photovoltaik

Wafer based Thinfilm Electrochemical Electrochemical

CrystallineSilicon

Amorphous Silicon CIGS

cadmium telluride

Dye solar cells, nanoporous

titanium dioxide

Fullerenes (C60)conjugated

polymers

Efficiency(State of the art) 25% 19% 10% 5%

Materials

Structure

Type of solar cells

Offshore wind park

in Sweden

(source: Siemens)

Forecast of the devel-

opment of the global

wind power market

(data source: BTM

consult March 2007)

Wind Power

The world market of wind power is assessed atapprox. 27 bn $. Further two-digit growth rates areforecasted for the years to come. In Germany, windpower has become established as an importantbranch of industry with approx. 64.000 employeesand a turnover of about five billion Euros. Accordingto calculations of the German Wind Power Institute,more than 50 percent of all wind power plants andtheir components worldwide come from Germany.Today, wind power in Germany is already competi-tive, i.e. power generation costs are in the sameorder of magnitude as those of conventional powerplants. The Federal Environment Ministry goes onthe assumption that by 2015 at the latest, windpower will be available at the Energy Exchange atcheaper prices than power from conventional gen-eration. In future, the further development of windenergy in Germany will be confronted with the prob-lem of choosing the suitable sites, which will beincreasingly relocated off-shore. In this case, basicproblems such as maintenance will have to besolved.

Nanotechnologies can contribute decisively to theoptimization of wind power utilization, inter alia,through high-strength lightweight materials for rotorblades based on nano-composites, tribological coat-ings and wear protection layers of bearings and gearboxes, conductive nanomaterials for improved light-ning protection or nano-optimized energy stores,which allow more economic feeding of wind powerin the grid.

22

10.000

0

20.000

30.000

40.000

50.000

60.000

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

onshore

Annual global wind energy market ($ millions)

offshore

0

40.000

60.000

80.000[MW] [GWh]

20.000

0

20.000

30.000

Gen

erat

edw

ind

po

wer

inG

erm

any

Inst

alle

dw

ind

ener

gy

po

wer 40.000

10.000

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

World

Europe

Germany

Wind power gener-ation in Germany Development of

the installed wind

power capacity in

Germany, Europe

and worldwide

(source: ISET

2007, data by BTM

consult, wind-

power monthly,

IWR, ISET, BWE,

WWEA)

Biomass

With a share of approx. 10 % worldwide in energysupply, biomass is currently the most importantrenewable energy source, however with regionalfluctuations regarding its utilization. On the onehand, biomass serves the generation of energy andheat, on the other hand the provision of fuels. How-ever, the share of biofuels in the global fuel marketis only approx. 1 %, with bioethanol being the mostimportant biofuel with a production volume of about40 million t in 2006. Currently, Brazil is the major pro-ducer worldwide. Brazil, however, is criticized forsacrificing rainforest for sugar cane plantations usedfor bioethanol production. In Europe, bioethanolproduction is not yet competitive. Nevertheless, inGermany and Europe its production increased in thelast years in consequence of political guidelines andhigh subsidies. A more competitive variant of bio-mass utilization is the biogenous generation ofprocess energy from biogas. With regard to the cli-mate change policy, the energetic utilization of bio-mass, in particular of biofuels however is not undis-puted, since it requires great land resources andcompetes with food production.

Thus in future, alternative raw material sources arein demand, such as algae, domestic waste, paper orlignocelluloses-containing residual products likestraw or hay to produce biofuels of the second gen-eration on an industrial scale. Prior to this, however,basic process innovations are required. Nanotech-nologies may contribute to the optimization of ener-getic biomass utilization, for example in the devel-opment of new conversion methods (catalysts,process technology and sensorics) as well as in thenano-optimized cultivation of bio-resources (e.g. effi-cient utilization of fertilizers and pesticides throughnano-encapsulation and nano-sensors).

23

24

Solarthermal Energy

In future, solarthermy will play a growing role in theutilization of solar energy, since it enables the rela-tively cheap provision of both electric power andheat. Solar-thermal heat supply in buildings occursdecentralized through roof-mounted solar collec-tors, which convert solar energy into heat with effi-ciencies of approx. 60-70 %. Solarthermy can also beused on an industrial scale for power generation insolar power plants. Here, solar energy is being con-centrated e.g. by parabolic mirrors, which will after-wards be used for steam generation and the ensuingpower generation. In comparison to photovoltaicpower generation, solar-thermal power plants arecurrently more economic and, in approx. 5 to 10years, solar energy at locations in Southern Europe isexpected to be competitive compared to electricpower from fossil fuels. Two large solar-thermalpower plants with a capacity of 50 MW each are cur-rently being built in Spain, lead-managed by Ger-many. Conceivable are also solar chimney powerplants, using thermal air flows through heated air lay-ers for power generation.

The impact of nanotechnologies on individual com-ponents and optimized materials will becomenoticeable in such fields (e.g. anti-reflection coatingsfor optimized energy yield, optimized phase-changestores and heat exchangers or carbide coatings ofcollectors, which enhance energy absorption as wellas thermal and mechanical stability.

Principle of a solar-

thermal parabolic

trough power plant.

Inside the vacuum

tubes, a heat carrier is

heated to almost

400 °C through con-

centration of sun rays

by means of mobile

parabolic reflectors.

The heat thus gained

generates steam for a

downstream steam

power station

(source: EECH AG)

Support(e. g. gas heating)

Steamturbine plant

SteamHeat carrier

Grid

Receiver in solar-thermal

parabolic trough power

plants (source: Schott)

25

Geothermy

Geothermy is a long-range energy source withdeposits capable of meeting a multiple of the globalenergy demand. Geothermy provides the possibil-ity of decentralized direct use of heat or the conver-sion into electric current in geothermal power plants.With regard to the optimization of efficiencies, com-bined heat and power generation is ideal.

In Germany, economically utilizable geothermalenergy deposits can often only be developedthrough depth drilling in depths of more than 2 km.A nanotechnological application potential, forinstance, is the improved wear protection throughnanostructured hard layer systems for geothermaldrill probes exposed to extreme stress in depthdrilling.

What is also energetically favorable is the combinedutilization with heat pumps or solarthermy. Here, sur-face-near heat reservoirs (approx. 14° C in 100mdepth) are used for heating in winter which areregenerated again during the cooling process insummer.

More information: www.energieland-hessen.de

2.2.2 Energy Conversion

In the field of energy conversion, innovation poten-tials are mainly provided through the improvementof conversion efficiency, for example in the genera-tion of electric power from fossil fuels through tur-bines or fuel cells, in combustion and electricengines, in thermoelectric energy conversion as wellas in the generation and conversion of chemicalenergy sources. Apart from generation of electriccurrent and heat through stationary large-scalepower plants, decentralized and mobile energy con-verters like fuel cells or thermoelectrics will play agrowing role in future. The conversion of fossil fuelsinto electricity, heat and kinetic energy form thebackbone of today’s energy supply. Conversionprocesses of utmost efficiency are required to saveresources and reduce CO2-emissions. Optimizationpotentials are given, in particular, in coal-fired powerplants, which have a great share in global powergeneration. Coal-fired power plants in operationworldwide have an average efficiency of approx.30 %, while new plants show efficiencies of morethan 45 %. Gas turbine power plants reach efficien-cies of almost 60 % already today. The completereplacement of the coal-fired power plants world-wide with modern plants would result in a reductionof the CO2-emissions of 35 % compared to conven-tional coal power generation.

The world’s largest gas

turbine with a capacity of

340 MW installed in a

power plant in Irsching

which began trial opera-

tion at the end of 2007.

The overall efficiency of

the power plant is stated

to be approx. 60 %

(source: Siemens).

Rotor and combustion

chamber of a gas tur-

bine. More heat resist-

ant materials provide

for further increase in

operating tempera-

tures and thus in effi-

ciencies of gas and

steam turbine power

plants (source:

Siemens)

1 D. Golschmidt:

„Neue Werkstoffe

für effiziente Kraft-

werke“, presentation

by Siemens Power

Generation at the

WING Conference,

October 22-24, 2007,

Berlin

Optimizations through a further increase in powerplant efficiencies, while basically maintaining thepower plant process, require higher operating tem-peratures. New materials with extreme heat resist-ance, for example based on nanotechnology, willhave to be developed. Improvements will beachieved, inter alia, through optimized thermal bar-rier layers for turbine materials based on nanoscalegradient layers. One development objective for thenext 10 years is to raise the admissible hot-gas tem-peratures in gas turbines to over 1600 °C, thusincreasing the efficiency of the power plant signifi-cantly to over 60 % (without power-heat coupling).Lightweight materials, like titanium aluminides, withnano heat-protection can be utilized for more effi-cient turbines in aircraft engines. Further potentialsfor the reduction of CO2-emission are provided byseparation and sedimentation procedures in sub-surface storage sites. According to the process type,separation technologies with a CO2-retention of 85–100 %, however, entail losses in the overall efficiencyof approx. 10 %.1 In Germany, the first CO2-freebrown coal power pilot plant worldwide is currentlybeing built according to the so-called oxyfuelmethod. Completion is expected in 2008. Nano-optimized membranes for gas separation can ren-der CO2 separation more efficient.

Fuel Cells

Fuel cells convert chemical energy with a high effi-ciency directly into electric current. Apart from purehydrogen, also natural gas, methanol, benzene orbiogas may be used to operate fuel cells. In a refor-mation process, “on-board” if possible, the requiredhydrogen is extracted from these fuels. The poten-tial application spectrum of the fuel cell reaches frompower supply to mobile phones or laptops anddrives of electric vehicles as well as heat and elec-tricity supply of houses up to small power stations.An important field of application is also the Uninter-ruptable Power Supply (UPS), for example in the fieldof information and communication technology or for“premium applications” like yacht engines. Depend-ing on the field of application, different fuel celltypes based on different material systems areapplied, with operating temperatures ranging fromroom temperature to up to 1000 °C. Here, particu-larly attractive are high-temperature fuel cells likeMCFC (Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell) or SOFC (SolidOxide Fuel Cell), since they enable the realization ofpower-heat coupled systems with high overall effi-ciencies. Such fuel cells are compatible to the exist-ing supply infrastructure. They are already on theverge of broad commercial realization and couldthus contribute decisively to an increase in energyefficiency.

26

Top left: Schematic

diagram of a fuel cell.

At an electrolyte/elec-

trode unit, gaseous

hydrogen or a hydro-

gen-containing fuel

with air oxygen is

electrochemically

converted into water

and electric current is

generated.

Bottom left: Prototype

of a house energy

center on the basis of

a PEM-fuel cell com-

ing on the market

from 2010. It is

expected to cover the

basic power and heat

demand of a single-

family house. Devel-

opment goals are

electric power of 2

kilowatt and heating

power of 2.5 kilowatt.

The electric efficiency

is said to be more

than 32 %, the overall

efficiency at least 87 %

(source: Viessmann)

Schematic structure

of a thermoelectric

energy converter

utilizing the Seebeck-

effect. In n-doped

material in the warm

area, more electrons

are raised from the

valence band to the

conduction band

and are available as

charge carriers;

correspondingly, in

p-doped material

more electron holes

are available. This

potential difference

causes the genera-

tion of an electric

current flow.

High potentials are also seen in mobile fields ofapplication. For the broad application in cars, anadequate infrastructure, as for example a distribu-tion net for hydrogen, methanol or natural gas aswell as technical and economic competitivenesscompared to combustion engines is still wanted. Inthe short run, a widespread realization seems to bepossible for the application of miniaturized fuel cellsfor the operation of mobile electronic devices, whichare able to be operated with e.g. methanol, butwhich are not yet standard. Innovation potentials forfuel cells resulting from nanotechnologies are mainlydue to higher electricity yield from the conversion ofchemical energy, especially through nanostructuredelectrodes, catalysts and membranes. At the locationFrankfurt-Höchst, the BASF division Fuel Cell (formerPEMEAS) is developing safe and cost efficient high-temperature membrane fuel cells on the basis of so-called membrane electrode units, using solid, non-extractable polymer electrolytes instead of phos-phoric acid-doped polymer membranes.

Thermoelectrics

Thermoelectrics may be used to directly convertheat into electric energy by utilizing the Seebeck-effect. The Seebeck-effect describes the develop-ment of voltage between two points of an electricconductor with different temperatures. The biggerthe temperature difference, the more energy can begenerated by thermoelectric generators. Desiredmaterial properties in thermoelectrics are low heatconductivity in connection with good electric con-ductivity, which has a direct impact on the thermo-electric efficiency determined by the nondimen-sional parameter ZT (“Figure of Merit“). The materi-als used are semiconducting solid compounds, usu-ally silicon/germanium alloys, for example, whichachieve efficiencies between 5 and 10 % at a tem-perature gradient of 700° C and are efficient in nicheapplications, at the most. Nanotechnological inno-vations could give a boost to thermoelectricsthrough significantly improved efficiencies demon-strated in current research works. Nanostructuredsemiconductors with optimized boundary layerdesign could help realize increases in efficiencywhich might pave the way for a broader applicationof waste heat utilization, e.g. in cars, or of humanbody heat for portable electronics in textiles (cf. sec-tion 3.2).

27

Heat Source

p n

Us

RLI

Heat sink

AnodeCathode

HydrogenOxygen

Water

Electrolyt

H2O

Electric engines on the

basis of high-temperature

superconductors for use in

ships. The power density of

superconductors is 100

times higher than that of

conventional copper wind-

ings. This allows significant

savings in mass and volume

while efficiency increases,

since no electric losses

occur in the superconduc-

tor. In comparison to Diesel

engines, electric engines

are clearly quieter and

advantageous, above all, in

case of strongly varying

power demands, e.g. on

cruisers and yachts with

many berthing maneuvers

(source: Siemens).

Combustion and Electric Engines

A significant part of the global energy consumptionis attributable to the motorized individual traffic.Thus, a further increase in efficiency of combustionengines could help save considerable amounts ofenergy. Nanotechnologies provide solutions, forexample, through wear protection layers for enginecomponents or Diesel injectors, which providehigher injection pressures and therefore improvedenergy yield (cf. brochure Automotive Nanotech-nologies). Nanoparticular Diesel additives based onceroxide are being tested, which are said to optimizecombustion in Diesel engines and to allow fuel sav-ings of 5-10 %.

In the long run, the development of electric enginescould also benefit from nanotechnology develop-ments. Nanostructures provide the key to furtheroptimization of superconductor technology. Mate-rial improvements for high-temperature supercon-ductors will allow for significantly higher power den-sities and thus high-efficient and powerful electricengines and generators. Fields of application are, forinstance, ship engines (in the long run, also aircraftengines are conceivable) or generators for powergeneration coupled to gas turbines or ship aggre-gates.

Generation of Chemical Energy Sources

For the storage of large energy amounts, chemicalenergy stores able to assure supply guarantee, evenat seasonally strongly fluctuating demands, are indis-pensable in the long run. Currently the chemicalstorage of energy is, to a large extent, based on thefossil fuels coal, oil or gas. For their recovery fromthe deposits, highly stressable drill probes and con-veying systems are required, the wear and corrosionresistance of which can be enhanced by nanomate-rials and nanolayers. For the production of liquidfuels from fossil energy sources, nanostructured cat-alysts like zeolites are applied in oil refinement. Fur-ther potentials are provided to render coal liquefac-tion for fuel production economically competitive bymeans of improved catalysts.

28

Hydrogen-driven

F-cell vehicle from

Daimler at Frankfurt

Airport.

In the long run, high hopes are pinned on hydrogenas a promising energy source for environmentallyfriendly power supply, since its availability is unlim-ited and pollutants do not occur in conversion. In theeconomic and ecological evaluation of the utilizationof hydrogen as an energy source, substantial energylosses have to be considered, which occur in theconversion chain from production over transportand storage to use, as well as the required massiveinvestments in a new supply infrastructure. Currently,various pilot projects for the development of ahydrogen infrastructure are being initiated, in whichespecially automobile groups and gas suppliers areinvolved. At the moment, already 300 hydrogen fuel-ing stations are operated or planned, above all in theUSA, in Europe and Japan (see www.h2stations.org).The US state of California is planning a “hydrogenhighway” by 2010 with about 200 supply stations. InNovember 2006, a hydrogen fueling station wasopened in the industrial park Frankfurt-Höchst,which utilizes an already existing large hydrogensource (30 mn m3/year). This hydrogen occurs as abyproduct in chemical production and is pumped tothe fueling station via a long 1.7 km pipeline. Carswill be able to refuel hydrogen both in liquid form,i.e. at cryogenic temperatures of –253 ° C and in gasform with 350 and 700 bar (see www.zeroregio.de).

According to a study by Linde, about 6 millionhydrogen-driven cars could roll on the streets ofEurope by 2020.

This would require investments of billions in hydro-gen production (by electrolysis plants or reformers)as well as in the infrastructural sector and dependsstrongly on the development of the general politicalconditions. Basic prerequisites for a broad use ofhydrogen, however, are the inexpensive availabilityof renewable energy sources and technologies forthe efficient production and storage of hydrogen.Here, nanotechnologies could contribute both toefficiency increases in the electrolytic production ofhydrogen and to the establishment of alternativemethods, such as hydrogen production in bioreac-tors or photoelectrolytic H2-production (cf. section3.2).

29

2.2.3 Energy Storage

Energy stores are indispensable at different pointsof the supply chain from energy conversion to enduser. What is mainly relevant is the storage of electriccurrent as the most universal energy source, which isreversibly stored either as electric energy or in theform of other kinds of energy, like chemical energy(e.g. hydrogen storage) or mechanical energy (pres-sure accumulator and pumped storage). In additionto this, the storage of heat energy, above all for heatsupply in buildings, plays an important role.

Pumped Storage and Compressed-Air-Storage

Usually, pumped storage hydro power stations areused to store large amounts of electric power in thegrids. In case of excess power, water is pumped intoa storage lake situated at a higher level, which canbe discharged if required and the water can be usedfor power generation through turbines. Thus largeamounts of energy can be stored with an efficiencyof approx. 80 % and fed back to the grid in the formof electric current to cover short-term peakdemands. The increasing number of renewableenergy sources with discontinuous, fluctuatingpower demand results in increasing requirementsfor power stores in the grid, which have previouslymainly been used to profit from the price differencesbetween off-peak and on-peak demand, and whichwere able to cover peak demand even without theextension of the maximum grid capacity. To com-pensate power fluctuations of wind and solar energyplants, pumped storages are suitable to only a lim-ited extent, since they are usually too far away fromthe feeding sources (especially in case of windenergy) and further extension is ecologically criticaldue to high landscape consumption. Therefore, tomeet the growing demand for efficient power stores,other kinds of storage, such as compressed-airstores are used, where air is pumped into subsurfacechambers by means of electric compressors and, ifrequired, electric current can be recovered using gasturbines. A disadvantage of this technology is therelatively low efficiency of currently approx. 55 %,which could be increased to approx. 70 % throughthe recovery of heat from air compression. Electricalenergy stores like lithium-ion batteries are also con-sidered as alternatives, especially for decentralizedenergy storage.

Electrical Energy Storage

The most important application field of electricalenergy stores is the supply of mobile electronicsand, in future, increasingly of hybrid and electricvehicles. Electrochemical stores (batteries, recharge-able batteries, supercapacitors) with higher efficien-cies, energy and power densities in comparison toother power stores, are advantageous in this field.Regarding the demand on electrical energy storesin the individual applications, a number of criteriahave to be optimized, inter alia, energy and powerdensity, lifespan, reaction time, operating tempera-ture range, safety and efficiency. Many of these per-formance features can be optimized through theapplication of nanotechnologies. Examples arelithium-ion batteries which are regarded to be thepower storage variant with the most promisingfuture, due to an excellent energy and performancedensity. Application potentials are seen in electricvehicles, but also in power stores in wind farms tobridge the gap between power demand and fluctu-ating power generation. In future, electric vehiclesequipped with lithium batteries, which draw exces-sive power from the grid and would be able to feedit back if required, could be a possibility for a smartand decentralized energy storage system. Nan-otechnologies could help enhance the capacity andsafety of lithium-ion batteries, but also of other bat-tery types like nickel hydride batteries (cf. section3.3).

Basic structure of lithium-ion

batteries (source: Evonik)

SeparatorNegative Electrode

SeparatorPositive Electrode

30

31

Storage of Chemical Energy

In future energy systems, chemical energy, in partic-ular hydrogen, recovered from renewable sourceswill play an increasingly important role. Apart fromnecessary infrastructural adjustments, efficienthydrogen storage is regarded to be one of the criti-cal factors of success on the way to a possible hydro-gen management. In addition to conventional high-pressure stores or liquefied gas stores, industry usesin particular chemical H2-stores of metal-hydridecompounds. However, the storage procedures cur-rently available still bear some disadvantages, whichare prejudicial to broad economic application. High-pressure stores are very heavy and liquefied gasstores are expensive due to the costly insulation,which is required to minimize losses through hydro-gen evaporation. Metal-hydride stores also entailhigh costs and are relative heavy. Furthermore, mate-rials currently used for chemical storage do not meetthe demands of the car industry, which requires, forexample, H2-storage capacities of up to ten percentby weight. Various nanomaterials, inter alia on thebasis of nanoporous metalorganic compounds ormetal hybrids provide development potentials,which may be profitably realized at least in the oper-ation of fuel cells in portable electronic devices. Thestorage of fuels on hydrocarbon basis, like petrol,can also be optimized through nanotechnology.With nanostructured fillers in polymers, for example,the diffusion density of plastic tanks and pipes canbe increased and undesired emissions and fuellosses reduced.

Heat Stores

Heat stores play an important role in the heating ofbuildings through solarthermal panels. In order toincrease the solar share in the annual useful heat,heat stores with high capacities are required, whichmake the solar heat stored in summer available inwinter. Another concept is based on adsorptionstores like zeolites, which dry up when heat is sup-plied and can be discharged when humid air passesthrough. The heat results from the adsorption heatof the water molecules in the nanometer-sized poresof the zeolites. New concepts are based, inter alia,on the application of phase-change materials, whichabsorb heat through a reversible phase transition inthe operating temperature range and emit it to theenvironment again. Nanotechnologies play a role inthe development of micro-encapsulated phase-change stores which are used for thermostatizationin buildings (cf. brochure Uses for Nanotechnologiesin Architecture and Civil Engineering).

Nanocubes (source: BASF)

*calculated for a range of 500 km

Data sources: Prof. Dr. Stefan Kaskel, TU Dresden, and Prof. Dr. Birgit Scheppat, FH Wiesbaden

Overview on types of hydrogen stores

Storage medium Temperatureresp. pressure

Mass* resp.volume*

Storagecapacity

+ Pros / – Cons

Liquid hydrogen –270 °C 140 kg, 86 l 7,5 Weight % + Small volume– Very expensive insulation– Energy loss by gas liquefaction– Gas leakage during storage

Gaseous hydrogen 700 bar 125 kg, 260 l 6 Weight % + low technical effort– high volume requirements for

cylindrical high pressure tanks– Safety risks from high pressure

Nanoscale metal hydrides(e. g. MgH2)

> 300 °C,8 bar

175 kg, 73 l 4–7 Weight % + low volume requirements– high weight– Requires very high temperatures

Nanoporous metal organicmaterials (MOFs)(e. g. MOF-177)

< –210 °C,> 50 bar

86 kg, 160 l 7,5 Weight % + low weight– low temperatures– high volume requirements

32

2.2.4 Energy Transfer

In the field of energy transfer, in particular energydistribution will have to face great challenges infuture regarding increases in efficiency and theadaptation to changing basic conditions. The currentpower grids are not designed for a massive devel-opment of renewable energy sources. Future powerdistribution requires grids providing dynamic loadand error management, demand controlled energysupply with flexible price mechanisms as well as thepossibility of feeding through a multitude of decen-tralized, renewable energy sources. Nanotechnolo-gies could contribute decisively to the realization ofthis vision, for example through nanosensoric andpower electronic components able to cope with theextremely complex control and monitoring of suchpower grids. Another issue to be discussed in con-nection with nanotechnologies is the reduction ofenergy losses in power transfer. Apart from furtherimprovements regarding high-temperature super-conduction, it is hoped that the extraordinary electricconductivity of nanomaterials like carbon nanotubescan be utilized for the application in electric cables.In the long run, options are given for wireless powertransport, e.g. through laser, microwaves or electro-magnetic resonance. Future scenarios providing forenergy generation through solar power plants inspace which transfer their energy to earth via laseror microwave radiation are being developed mainlyin the USA. More recent research results suggest that

electric power could also be transferred by electro-magnetic resonance, wirelessly and with high effi-ciency over longer distances, thus supersedingpower cables in certain applications.

2.2.5 Energy Use

In the short run, the greatest potential regarding theavoidance of greenhouse gas emissions is to beseen in the efficient usage of energy both in indus-try and in the private sector (cf. section 2.3). Toe-holds for nanotechnology arise first and foremost inheat insulation in buildings or in thermostatization intechnical processes, for lightweight constructionmaterials on the basis of nanomaterials and com-posites, in the application of energy-saving lightingthrough light-emitting diodes. Such applications willbe discussed in detail in section 3.5.

2.3 Market Potentials for Nanotechnologies in the Energy Sector

Nanotechnologies provide a number of applicationpotentials in the energy sector. Usually they takeeffect at an early stage of the value added chain,namely on the optimization of materials and compo-nents, which are frequently decisive for the capacityand functionality of the whole system. As “enablingtechnologies”, nanotechnologies often enable therealization and the economic breakthrough of newproduct ranges and technologies in the first place,and thus the opening up of promising market poten-tials. Experts expect nanotechnologies to provideoptimized components and procedures, which canbe profitably applied along the whole value addedchain from the development of energy from primarysources to the conversion, storage, transport and useof energy. According to estimations by Cientifica,nanotechnologies will tap the greatest market poten-tials in the field of energy savings with approx.

40 bn $ in the short to medium run, inter alia in thefollowing fields of application:2:

Transport

a Lightweight construction in the transport sectorthrough the application of nano-composites incar and aircraft manufacturing

a Higher efficiency in fuel consumption of auto-mobiles through nanoparticular additives orwear protection layers of engine components

2 T.Harper: “Energy

And Nanotech-

nologies: A

Rational Market

Based Analysis”,

Nano-Energie

Impulsveranstal-

tung, June 28,

2007, industrial

park Hanau-Wolf-

gang

33

Building and lighting engineering

a Thermal insulation through nanoporous materialand nano-components for optimum control oflight and heat flux in buildings, inter aliathrough switchable glasses, heat reflectors etc.The share in insulation materials for privateconsumption is 80 % of the total market volume,with sharply increasing growth rates. Frost &Sullivan assess the European Market at 2.9 bn $in 2006.

a Energy-efficient lighting through inorganic ororganic light-emitting diodes. LEDs areexpected to have growth rates in the order ofmagnitude of 15-20 % in the years to come, thusin 2010, a market volume of 8.3 bn $ isexpected. The growth is mainly determined bynew applications like lighting, automobile head-lights and the display illumination of computerand TV-screens.

Energy Stores

In the field of energy storage, the nanotechnologicalmarket potentials concern first and foremostenhanced lithium-ion-batteries for portable elec-tronics or hybrid and electric vehicles, nano-opti-mized supercapacitors and nanoporous hydrogenstorage materials. Cientifica forecasts a growth fornano-optimized energy stores from currently approx.1 bn $ to approx. 5 bn $ in 2014.The world marketfor lithium-ion battery materials shows a double digitgrowth rate and amounts to more than 1.2 bn dol-lar. Evonik goes on the assumption that the marketvolume will increase to approx. 4 bn US-dollar by2015.

Fuel and Solar Cells

Market potentials of nanotechnology in the energyconversion sector will mainly arise in the field of thin-layer solar cells and in the fuel cell technology.

According to estimations by Cientifica, a market vol-ume of approx. 10 bn $ will be reached with theseapplications. According to an assessment of the con-sulting firm WTC, the world market volume of thin-layer solar cells will more than double - from currently800 m $ to approx. 2 bn $ by 2010. This growth willbe generated mainly beyond the material system sili-con through compound semiconductors CdTe (cad-mium telluride) and CIGS (Copper, Indium, Gallium,Selene), the function of which is essentially based onan optimized layer design on the nano-level (cf. prac-tical example TU Darmstadt, p. 64).

Apart from potentially low production costs and amore flexible scalability, thin-layer solar cells bear theadvantage of a more constant performance – even atfluctuating temperatures and suboptimum radiationconditions (angle of light incidence, clouds). Thisopens up new application fields like flat roofs or exten-sive solar plants.

10.000

0

20.000

30.000

40.000

50.000

60.000

2007 2008 2009 2010

World Market millions $

Year2011 2012 2013 2014

Energy Saving

Energy Storage

Energy Generation

World market evaluation

for nanotechnology

applications in the

energy sector

(source: Cientifica 2007)

In Germany, about 10 percent of the electric final energy, which makes up approx. 51 billion kilowatt hours, is usedfor artificial lighting, approx. 3 bn kilowatts of which could be saved through more efficient lighting. More than 50percent of the total expenses for the energy supply of a business enterprise are attributable to lighting alone, insome companies of the wholesale and retail business even up to 70 percent. Lighting in administrative buildings isalso a high-demand area, which may account for up to 45 percent and more of the whole power consumption of abuilding.

5 Source: EnergieAgentur NRW:

„Innovation & Energie“, 3/2007

6 Source: H. Böttner: „Nanoskalige

Materialien für thermoelektrische

Anwendungen“, presentation at

the event WING 2007, October

22-24, 2007, Berlin

Forecast development of

the world market for

thin-layer solar cells;

CIGS: Cadmium, Indium,

Gallium, Selenium;

CdTe: Cadmium telluride;

multi-junction: Cells with

several layers of different

semiconductor materials;

a-Si: amorphous silicon

(source: WTC 2007:

“CdTe leads the pack in

thin-film solar business”,

Think Small No. 5 vol. 2,

November 2007)

Forecast market vol-

umes for fuel cell sys-

tems (source: NRI-IFCI

2007: “The Future of

Fuel Cells”, National

Research Council

Canada, Institute for

Fuel Cell Innovation,

data from “Fuel Cell

Industry Competitive

Analysis-Assessment of

Major Players, Global

Markets and Technolo-

gies”, Allied Business

Intelligence Inc., 2003

3 Allied Business Intel-

ligence Inc. 2003:

“Fuel Cell Industry

Competitive Analy-

sis-Assessment of

Major Players, Global

Markets and Tech-

nologies”

4 Press release of

PEMEAS (BASF

Fuel Cell) from

December 14, 2006,

www2.pemeas.de/

news.asp

34

A study of the Allied Business Intelligence forecastsan increase in the global market volume for fuel cellsystems to 18 bn $ in 20133, with a short-term dom-inance of stationary systems (combined heat andpower and domestic plants) in the fuel cell market,while in the medium run, micro fuel cells for portableelectronic devices and automotive applications willdevelop strong market dynamics. Assessments byBASF assume a slightly slower growth of the fuel cellmarket with a forecast increase of one billion Euro in2010 to 21.5 billion in 2020.4 However, in the yearsto come, most of the turnover will still be generatedby subsidized R&D-activities and pilot projects, sincefrom an economic point of view fuel cell systems, incomparison to competing solutions, are not yet com-petitive in a number of applications.

High-Temperature Superconductors

The field of high-temperature superconductors(HTS) is also a promising application field of nan-otechnologies, which expects a sharp market growthto a world market volume of approx. 300 m $ in thenext years.5 High-temperature superconductors pro-vide potentials for more efficiency and energy sav-ings in many supply chain sectors, such as in energystorage (e.g. centrifugal mass stores for low-lossstorage of electric current through conversion intorotational energy), in energy transport (low-loss elec-tricity transport and power supply through HTScables, current limiter and transformers), in energyconversion (efficient electric drives and generators)as well as in energy usage (e.g. induction heater inmetal processing).

Thermoelectrics

Currently, thermoelectric energy converters are stillniche applications, but even in this sector it will bepossible to tap new market potentials through nan-otechnological applications. The world market forthermoelectric energy converters (cooling, genera-tors) is presently being assessed at approx. 1 bn $. Inthe medium run, waste heat usage in the automotivesector provides a high energy savings potential,since approx. 2/3 of the energy input into an auto-mobile are lost as waste heat. In Germany alone, thetheoretical energy savings potential through ther-mogenerators would be approx. 10 TWH per year, ifall cars were equipped with 1 KW thermogenerators.In reality, we are still far from it, and in the automotiveindustry solely some pilot developments are beingpushed.

BMW, for example, plan to realize a 750-Watt gen-erator in the 5 series by 2011.6

millions $

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

a-Si

multi-junction

CdTe

CIGS

2

0

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

2005 2010 2015

Estimated Market Volume (billion $)

Year

Micro fuel cellsStationary fuel cellsAutomotive fuel cells

7 S. Kolb, A. Kessler,

J. Lambauer:

„Auswirkungen der

Nanotechnologie auf

die Energiewirtschaft“,

Energiewirtschaftliche

Tagesfragen, vol.57,

issue 3, 2007

8 T. Harper: “Energy And

Nanotechnologies:

A Rational Market

Based Analysis”, pres-

entation at the impulse

event NanoEnergie,

June 28, 2007, Hanau

Power

MW

5 10 15Years until broad commercialization

Measuring devices

Auxiliary power units

Tools

Camcorder, Laptops

Domesticenergy supply

Bus (Fleet)

Power plants

cars (individual)

kW

W

mW

Relative turn over /substitution potential

20 billion $/ Year

1 billion $/ Year

Application fields of fuel

cells broken down by

performance range,

years until widespread

commercial distribution

is achieved and by

turnover and substitu-

tion potential (sources:

VDI-VDE, VDI TZ GmbH,

Allied Business Intelli-

gence Inc.)

Energy and CO2 Savings PotentialsThrough Nanotechnologies

As cross-sectional technologies, nanotechnologieswill enable increases in efficiencies and energy sav-ings in many fields of the energy sector. However,due to the complexity of the applications and ablurred delineation of the subject area, precise state-ments regarding the quantitative energy savingspotential through nanotechnologies are currentlynot available. First approaches towards this goalwere made, for example, by means of a study whichattempted to calculate the energy savings potentialsthrough nanotechnologies for some selected tech-nology lines in Germany. For the selected applica-tions fields of transport, lighting, heat supply andheat demand, an energy savings potential of 283 PJby 2025 was determined for Germany, which corre-sponds to a reduction of the total power demand of3.1 % compared to the reference year 2004.7

Although the relative savings potentials for individ-ual applications are in the order of magnitude of upto 40 % in relation to the original power demand (forexample, 30 % for LED-lighting or 36 % for nanos-tructured heat barrier materials), the absolute effectin relation to the total power demand is to beassessed as rather small. With approx. 0.003 % inrelation to the worldwide emissions, the short-termeffect of nanotechnologies on the avoidance of CO2-emissions is almost negligible, according to evalua-tions by Cientifica.8

These rather pessimistic evaluations are based onthe inclusion of only a few application examples ofnanotechnologies. Considering the broad cross-sec-tional and leverage effect in many industrial fields ofapplication, the energy savings and efficiency poten-tial through nanotechnologies is to be assessed assignificantly higher, at least in the medium to longrun. This applies not only to the use of renewables,for example through nano-optimized photovoltaics,but also to energy savings in conventionalprocesses. The manufacturing of cement, with 2 bil-lion annual tons the quantitatively most manufac-tured industrial product worldwide and responsiblefor 5 % of the global CO2-emissions, is only oneexample.

In the application of cement, savings in raw materi-als of approx. 60 % and in CO2-emissions of approx.40 % would be principally possible through nano-optimized ultra-high performance concrete with 10times the strength of standard concrete, since muchless material is required to fulfill the same mechani-cal demands. A good portion of these potentials,however, will only be tapped in the long run, since inmany fields marketability and market penetration arestill too low. In the short run, nanotechnologies willrather be able to contribute to savings in CO2-emis-sions in conventional energy generation methods,especially through increases in efficiency, as well asthrough more efficient energy usage (e.g. in thefields of lightweight construction, heat insulation,lighting or fuel efficiency).

35

3.1 More Efficient Energy DevelopmentNanotechnologies provide potentials to achieve efficiency increases and cost savings in a number ofapplication fields of energy development, particularly in the generation of renewables, through optimizedmaterials and components.

3 Application Potentials of Nanotechnology

Electron-microscopic

photo (left) and

schematic structure

(right) of a cadmium

telluride thin-layer

solar cell (source:

TU Darmstadt)

Solar Cells

The application of nanotechnologies is regarded asa key factor for photovoltaics to achieve broad eco-nomic acceptance through considerable cost sav-ings and increases in efficiency based on new mate-rials and solar cell types as well as simpler produc-tion processes. With the help of nanostructures, suchas quantum dots, it is possible to optimally adjustband gaps of semiconductors to the incident radia-tion spectrum or to emit several charge carriers perphoton to thus improve conversion efficiencies. Thisapplies also to improved light entrapment, e.g. byavoidance of reflection losses at the front coverthrough nanostructured anti-reflection layers or eventhrough up or down conversion of light wave lengthsthrough special nanostructures, which could enablebetter utilization of the radiated light spectrum. Fur-thermore, new material combinations such as poly-meric semiconductors are used, which provide lowconversion efficiency, but could be produced con-siderably more economically in future, due to cheapmass production methods. The application of nan-otechnological process technology, as for exampleplasma-aided procedures and the design of surfacesand layer structures on the nanolevel, enables theoptimization of cell structures and efficiencies of allsolar cell types.

Thin-Layer Solar Cells

In contrast to the silicon wafer technology, thin-layersolar cells provide potentials for cost reductions inthe manufacturing of solar cells due to material sav-ings, low-temperature processes, integrated cellinsulation and a high automation level in series pro-duction. A further advantage is the fact that flexiblesubstrates are used and thus new application fieldssuch as the integration into textiles are being devel-oped. Apart from silicon, material combinations ofcopper/indium/gallium/sulphur/selenium (CIGS-cells) as well as III-V semiconductors (e.g. galliumarsenide) are applied, which allow efficiencies of upto 20 %. For further optimization, inter alia nanotex-turized transparent conductive oxide layers are ana-lyzed as front electrodes, which shall help optimizelight dispersion in the substrate and minimize reflec-tion losses. Further approaches lie in the improve-ment of the rear reflectors for which usually metallayers (e.g. silver) are used, for example through theapplication of photonic crystals or non-metalnanolayer systems to further increase the light yieldin the substrate.

36

CdS – 150 nm

SnO2 – 30 nm

metallic back contact – 250nm

glass substrate

ITO – 240 nm

Te – 20 nm

CdTe – 8 µm

Prototype of a dye

solar cell module for

decorative applica-

tions in glass facades

(source: FHG ISE)

Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles in Dye Solar Cells

Dye solar cells use titan dioxide nanoparticlesdoped with dye molecules (e.g. different rutheniumcomplexes) for charge separation. The absorption oflight results in the emission of electrons in the dyemolecules, which are absorbed by the titan dioxideparticles and transferred to the electrode via a redoxelectrolyte. The dye molecules are again regener-ated in the electrolyte by an iodide/triiodide redoxcouple. Advantages of dye solar cells are cheapmanufacturing processes through screen printing,application possibilities even at diffuse incidence oflight (e.g. for internal application) as well as thetransparency and color design possibilities of thecells, which open up interesting architectural appli-cation perspectives. What is disadvantageous is that,in case of leakages, the applied chemically-reactiveliquid electrolytes can reach the environment andshow relatively low efficiencies of below 10 %. Firstapplications of prototypes have been implementede.g. by the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Sys-tems.

Fullerene Derivates as Electron Acceptorsin Polymer Solar Cells

Polymer solar cells use organic semiconductors forenergy conversion. Conjugated polymers are usedas light-absorbing electron-donors, while fullerenederivates are used as electron acceptors. Both sub-stances are integrated into the sandwich-like cellstructure between charge-transport layers and elec-trodes (ITO, metals) as 100 to 300 nm thin compos-ite layers. Advantages of such cells are low-costmaterials and manufacturing processes as well astheir mechanical flexibility. Mass production of large-scale modules in a continuous roll-to-roll-printingprocess is aspired. The optimization of materials andcell structure should bring about medium-term effi-ciencies of approx. 10 % and a lifespan of severalyears. New research approaches concern thereplacement of ITO-layers for transparent polymercomposites. Apart from cost savings, this also pro-vides the possibility to increase light trappingthrough imprinting nanostructures. The extensiveperiodical surface structures produced throughholographic exposure processes can be transferredinto the polymer layer of the solar cells in a low-costimprinting process. In Germany, research on poly-mer solar cells is boosted by a research alliance ofthe Federal Government and industry partners, interalia, the company Merck (cf. p. 66).

37

Nanolayers in Stack Cells

The vertical arrangement of two or more materialsystems with different band gaps helps optimize theenergy yield of solar cells. With approx. 40 %, stackcells of III/V-semiconductor systems show the high-est conversion efficiencies of all solar cell types. Suchsolar cells are currently mainly applied in aerospaceindustry, since due to costly manufacturingprocesses the cells are too expensive for terrestrialapplications. Application will become more efficient,when sunlight is concentrated through relativelyinexpensive optics, and the efficiency of the cells isthus increased. Such concentrator modules arealready commercially available, and there areprospects for a reduction of costs through furthersystem optimizations and economies of scales inproduction from currently approx. 6 € per Wp (WattPeak, installed capacity at optimum sun incidence)to approx. 1.5 € per Wp, so that this kind of powergeneration will quite be competitive against gridprices in the long run. Stack cells are also feasible onthe basis of other material systems, such as siliconor polymers.

38

Principle structure

and functional princi-

ple of an organic solar

cell. The photoactive

layer consists of a

composite of semi-

conductive polymers

(red) and fullerenes

(blue) acting as

donor/acceptor pair

for photovoltaic

charge separation

(source: ZAE Bayern).

Solar power plant in

Australia where com-

pound semiconductor

solar cells with optical

concentrators are

used (source:

SolarSystems).

ITO-free, unencapsu-

lated organic solar

cell on flexible sub-

strate (FHG-ISE)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Power density [W/m2µm]

wave length [nm]

Am 1.5 Spectrum GalnP (1.70 eV)GalnAS (1.18 eV) Ge (0.67 eV)

Decreasingband gap

Ge

Ga 0.97In 0.03As

Ga 0.51In 0.49P

39

Quantum Dots for Solar Cells

Quantum dots are nanoscale clusters of semicon-ductor compounds with extraordinary optoelec-tronic properties, which are modifiable due to quan-tum physical effects in dependence of the clustersize. Applications in solar cells are interesting, sinceon the one hand, several electron-hole pairs perphoton can be produced by quantum dots, on theother hand, the absorption bands can be optimallyadjusted to the wavelengths of the irradiating light.

On the laboratory scale, three-dimensional grids ofquantum dots or even other structures likenanowires are possible which would be interestingfor the application in solar cells. With such cells, con-version efficiencies of over 60 % are theoretically fea-sible. However, the current state of research is stillfar from this, and up to now it has not been possibleto experimentally show a functioning model of aquantum dot solar cell.

Stack cells of III/V

semiconductors are

usually operated by

optical concentrators,

which concentrate

light on the solar cell

to increase efficiency

(sources: FHG-ISE).

Absorption spectra of

semiconductor materials

used in stack solar cells

for the optimization of

the quantum yield. Stack

cells consist of a layer

sequence of compound

semiconductors with

different band gaps

(source: FHG-ISE).

40

Nanostructured Antireflection Layers

A relatively low-cost method of increasing energyyields of solar cells and solar collectors is the appli-cation of antireflection layers. Marketable develop-ments are antireflection layers for flat glass based ona nanoporous coating of silicon dioxide. The layersare made on the basis of a sol-gel process with ensu-ing dip coating. The porosity allows the adjustmentof the effective refraction index between glass andambient air, which helps reduce reflection losses ofglass panes of usually 8 % to 2 %. Thus it is possibleto increase the annual heat yield of solar collectorsby up to ten percent.

Wind Energy

The transition to increasingly larger and more pow-erful wind generators observed in the last yearsleads to growing challenges regarding the mechan-ical load capacity of materials and components. Theapplication of nanotechnologies could contributemuch to fundamental solutions, for example throughthe use of composite materials based on carbonnanotubes for lightweight and high-strength rotorblades. Nanostructuring processes could enable theutilization of biomimetic effects borrowed fromnature, which counteract the development of eddiesat rotor vanes and thus reduce the noise level ofwind generators and optimize energy input.

CNT-composites could also contribute to the pro-tection against damages from lightning strikes whichare responsible for more than 10 % of the failures ofwind generators. Not only do they dispose of prom-ising mechanical features, but they also provideexcellent electric conductivity. In the field of polymercomposites, a CNT-content of approx. 1 % is enoughto generate a continuous network of carbon nan-otubes, which ensures high electric conductivity ofthe polymer composite. Such materials provide alsopotentials for the electromagnetic shielding of thecontrol electronics of wind generators. Nanoscalehard coatings are applied for wear protection ofgears and bearings (cf. section CombustionEngines).

Antireflection coating

(source: Fraunhofer ISC)

High-strength and

electrically conductive

CNT-composites

could be applied in

rotor blades of wind

generators (source:

BMS, Siemens)

41

Fossil Fuel Recovery

Nanomaterials play also a role in the recovery of fos-sil fuels. Suspensions of nanoparticular natural sili-cates, for example, are used in oil production for vis-cosity control. Nanoporous and nanoparticular mate-rials enable the separation of contaminations in oildeposits and thus an increase in the productionyield. The optimization of the mechanical wear resist-ance of drill probes for the development of oil andgas deposits in deep earth layers is also possible. Infuture, even unconventional sources like oil shale willhave to be increasingly utilized for the recovery of

crude oil. However, oil extraction from such sourcesrequires improved technologies, just like sensoricsfor the exploration of storage sites, which could ben-efit from nanotechnological innovations. In the USA,the consortium “nano for energy” has recently beenconstituted in cooperation with major oil companieslike BP, Shell, and ConocoPhillips, which will developthe application of nanotechnologies for theimprovement of oil and gas production with anannual budget of several billion dollars.

Nano-Optimized Fuel Cells

Nanotechnologies provide optimization potentialsfor all standard fuel cell systems, namely regardingoptimized electrodes, membranes, electrolytes oreven catalysts in the electrodes as well as for hydro-gen production.

In the field of solids fuel cells of the SOFC-type, forexample, ion-conductivity can be enhanced throughthe application of ceramic nanopowder on the basisof yttrium-stabilized zirconium.

In the case of membrane fuel cells, mainly polymermembranes are concerned, the temperature stabil-ity of which shall be improved, inter alia, through theapplication of inorganic-organic nanocomposites.Here, the functionalized polymers used are modifiedwith inorganic nanoparticles in sol-gel processes.Higher efficiencies are achieved through higheroperating temperatures, and the sensitivity of thecatalysts towards carbon monoxide arising from thereforming process when producing hydrogen frommethanol, can be reduced. Furthermore, the nanos-tructuring of electrode material plays an importantrole to achieve highest possible efficiencies in theelectrochemical hydrogen/oxygen conversion or inhydrogen production through the conversion of nat-ural gas or methanol (in case of direct methanol fuelcells).

Membrane electrode

unit of a polymer

electrolyte membrane

fuel cell. Hydrogen

(H2) is catalytically oxi-

dized at the anode

(left), and the arising

protons (H+) move

through the polymer

membrane (center) to

the cathode (right),

where, together with

oxygen (O2), they are

converted to water

molecules (source:

Institute for Polymer

Research, GKSS).

3.2 Efficient Energy Conversion

42

Moreover, nanostructuring is the key to enhance theactivity of the electrode material and noble metalcatalysts for the electrochemical conversion ofhydrogen. Fullerenes, incorporated in electrodematerials, increase efficiency in material conversionand enable material savings in the precious metalcatalyst. A further interesting development is themicro fuel cell, particularly attractive for mobileapplications. Due to the progress made in microsys-tems technology in the last years, the miniaturizationof low-temperature fuel cells and the related mobilecore components like pumps and fans could be con-tinuously advanced.

Nanomaterials for Thermoelectric EnergyConversion

Nanostructured thermoelectrica are of great inter-est, since the electrical and thermal properties of thematerials can be specifically influenced by the struc-ture sizes. In future, the characterization of the rela-tion of structure, composition and properties on thenanolevel will enable the design of materials withdesired properties. Interesting are, for example,materials suitable for use in the high-temperaturerange of up to 1000 °C, like cobaltates. Nanostruc-tures analyzed in connection with thermoelectricacomprise, inter alia, nanostructured surfaces, quan-tum dots or quantum wires. “Super lattice” of BiTe orSbTe-quantum dots (quantum dot super-lattices) oreven nanoscale substance classes like skutteruditeshave turned out to be high-efficient thermoelectrica.Skutterudites are a comprehensive class of sub-stances based on the cobalt antimonide compound.New processes allow the production of nanoscalepowder from such classes of substances withstrongly increased portions of grain boundaries.Under certain circumstances, such grain boundarieshave a more intense scattering effect on photonsthan on the electric charge carriers. Thus the ratio ofelectrical to thermal conductivity can be increasedand, likewise, the quality of the thermoelectric mate-rial.

Micro fuel cell with

a power density of

1 W/cm³, microstruc-

tured flow field

(source: FHG ISE)

Crystal structure (left)

and transmission elec-

tron microscopic pic-

ture (right) of a tailor-

made perowskit-like

thermoelectrically

active cobaltate, a

compound of lan-

thanum, cobalt and

oxygen (source:

Mikropelt)

With thermoelectric generators, body heat – for example

in the hand – can be converted into electric current

(source: Fraunhofer IIS)

43

Efficient Processes for Hydrogen Production

To pave the way for hydrogen as a future energy car-rier, efficient processes for hydrogen production arerequired. Nanostructuring helps increase efficiencyof precious metal catalysts in the electrolytic decom-position of water. Further optimization potentialsresult from high-temperature electrolysis of water,with electrolysis taking place at about 1000 °C andhigh efficiencies of over 90 % are achieved in con-version. Here, ceramic materials are used as oxygenion-conductive solid electrolytes, the ion conductiv-ity and temperature resistance of which can beenhanced by the application of nanomaterials.

Photoelectrolytic water decomposition provides afurther promising approach. In this case, the absorp-tion of light at photoelectrodes leads to the photo-chemical decomposition of water in the photocell,with oxygen oxidizing at the anode and hydrogenatoms at the cathode being reduced to elementalhydrogen.

Important criteria for the selection of semiconduc-tor materials for photoelectrodes are their stabilityin aqueous solutions as well as the conversion effi-ciency through band gaps optimally adjusted to theredox potentials of water. Stack cells of III/V semi-conductors show promising conversion efficiency,however they are usually unstable in aqueous mediaand expensive in production. Currently, a hopefulalternative seems to be the application of low-costmetal oxides, e.g. of the elements titan, manganese,iron and tin as electrode material. Nanostructuringand the utilization of nanocrystalline substances pro-vide starting points for further optimizations of theconversion efficiency which, at the moment, is stillfar from economical applicability.

Nanocatalysts for the Production ofHydrocarbon-Based Fuels

Nanomaterials like zeolite and nanostructured metaloxides have been applied for a long time on anindustrial scale for the decomposition of long-chainhydrocarbons in crude oil refining. With growingscarcity of global oil reserves the far greater amountof coal will regain importance as a source for liquidfuels and chemical raw materials in future. Up tonow, the known technical methods for coal liquefac-tion failed due to lacking economic efficiency.Improvements of methods, inter alia in the field ofnanostructured catalysts, can help increase the effi-ciency of coal hydrogenation considerably. Interestin coal liquefaction is currently observed especiallyin China, where several pilot plants are going to beinstalled. A long-term development goal is the low-cost production of synthetic Diesel and fuel petrolfrom natural gas or biomass gasification usingnanoptimized catalysts.

Schematic sketch of photoelectrolytic hydrogen production. Electron-hole pairs

in semiconductors are produced through absorption of light energy. If the semi-

conductor is in contact with a metal counter electrode, photo voltage builds up

resulting in the decomposition of the aqueous electrolytes in hydrogen and

oxygen (source: ODB-Tec GmbH)9

h · ν

OxidationH2O + 2h+ p ½ O2 + 2H+

Reduction2H+ + 2e– p H2

n-d

op

edse

mic

ond

ucto

r

Met

alel

ectr

od

e

H2O

O2 H2

9 D. Ostermann :

„Hydrogen production

through solar energy“,

Zeitschrift für Wasser-

stoff und Brennstoff-

zelle 08|06

44

Nanostructured Thermal Barrier Layersfor Gas Turbines

Thermal barrier layers are indispensible for heat pro-tection of turbine blades in gas turbines, since with1500° C the gas temperatures at the turbine inlet aresignificantly above the melting point of the turbinematerial. Essential demands on thermal barrier lay-ers are low heat conductivity and thermal expansionadapted to the substrate to minimize tensions andcrack formation in the material. Complex heat bar-rier systems can be produced through modern mul-tiple-source plasma coating processes consisting ofactive, adhesive and barrier layers with nanoscaleprecision and various material combinations. Thisprovides further optimization potentials, for exam-ple to reduce heat conductivity of layers, to increasedurability of turbine components and thus to enablehigher operating temperatures. Therefore, the effi-ciency of gas turbines could be further improvedand considerable savings in costs and carbon diox-ide emissions would be possible. According to cal-culations of the IFW Darmstadt, approx. 1 m € and1500 g CO2 could be saved each year through anincrease in efficiency of 1 % in 400 MW gas andsteam turbine power plants.

Carbon Dioxide Separation throughNanostructured Membranes

The separation of carbon dioxide from the flue gasstream of coal-fired power plants and its storage insubsoil geological deposits is currently one of thetechnological developments for the realization ofCO2-neutral coal-fired power plants, which is inten-sively boosted.

Nanotechnologies could contribute to the develop-ment of processes for the selective separation of car-bon dioxide though specific membranes.Approaches are provided, for example, by nanos-tructured polymer membranes coated with catalysts,which convert carbon dioxide into hydrogen car-bonate in presence of water. The solid hydrogen car-bonate can then be easily separated from the otherflue gas components. Another possible approachrefers to the development of ceramic nanotubes,which enable a very efficient separation of oxygenfrom air. If this pure oxygen was used for the com-bustion of fossil fuels, the resulting flue gas wouldbe almost exclusively CO2, which could be easilyseparated and utilized.

Structure of thermal

barrier layers pro-

duced by means

of electron beam

generated plasma

decomposition

(IFW Darmstadt)

Right: Nanostructured

membranes play a

key role in selective

gas separation

(source: Research

Center Geesthacht)

Conventional Steam and Turbine Power Plants

EB-PVD

TGO (Thermally Grown Oxide)

Thermal protection layerYttrium stabilized zirconia

Adhesion layer(e. g. MCrAIY)

Turbine material

Left: Gas turbine

(IFW Darmstadt)

45

Antiadhesive Layers for Boilers and HeatExchangers in Coal-Fired Power Plants

A problem in the operation of coal-fired powerplants or refuse incineration plants are cakings ofcombustion residues in the boiler area and in heatexchangers, which require regular and cost-intensivemaintenance. Ceramic antiadhesive layers on thebasis of nanoparticular coating materials can con-siderably help reduce cakings, thus the operatinglife of heat exchanger tubes and maintenance inter-vals will be extended. Potentials for nanobased anti-adhesive layers are also provided in other industrialprocesses, in which the encrustation of heatexchangers and the resulting reduced thermalenergy transport are a problem.

Fuel Savings in Combustion Engines

Fuel consumption of car combustion engines isdetermined by engine friction to approx. 10-15%.The coating of movable engine components likecylinder, piston and valves with nanocrystalline com-posite materials helps reduce friction and wear and,thus, save fuel. Efficiency and precision of Dieselinjectors can be optimized through nanocrystallinepiezomaterials and nano-wear protection layers onthe basis of DLC (diamond-like carbon) (see Auto-motive Nanotechnology, volume 3, series Aktions-linie Hessen-Nanotech).

The company Rewitec from Lahnau developed aninnovative coating technology applied to ceramizethe surface of metal mechanical components inengines, gears etc. and thus to protect them againstwear. Nanoparticles are added during operationand, due to the tribological contact developing athigh pressures and temperatures, react with themetal surfaces forming hard ceramic compounds.Thus, the components are not only protected againstwear, but existing mechanical damages can also beregenerated. Apart from the application in combus-tion engines, this process is also suitable for a num-ber of mechanical components such as gears, bear-ings or pumps, and leads to significant energy sav-ings and longer tool lives.

Another toehold for fuel savings is provided bynanopartiuclar Diesel additives of ceroxide, whichcontribute to more efficient fuel combustion and thereduction of particular emissions. Such nanoparticlesare currently tested in practical field tests, in whichfuel savings of up to 11 % could be verified. To date,however, little is known about possible side-effectscaused by ceroxide particles reaching the environ-ment.

Adherences at the heat

exchanger in power

plants can be avoided

through ceramic

nanocoatings. Top:

uncoated surface; bot-

tom: with nanocoating

(source: ltN Nanovation)

Top: wear damage of

a gearwheel; Left:

surface profile before

and after treatment

with nanoparticles

(source: Rewitec)

46

Lithium-Ion Batteries

The lithium-ion technology is regarded to be apromising variant of energy storage due to high cellvoltage and excellent energy and power density.Nanotechnologies will be able to further enhancethe capacity and safety of lithium-ion batteries, inparticular through optimized electrode materialsand electrolytes. Here, development goals areanodes and cathodes with higher loading/dischargecapacity, for example through nanoporous carbonmaterials (e.g. carbon aerogels, carbon nanotubesetc.). Higher energy densities can also be achievedthrough higher cell voltage, e.g. through cathodesof mixed oxides of the category LiMPO4 with (M =Co, Ni, Mn). The substitution of organic liquid elec-trolytes for polymer electrolytes and the applicationof ceramic films on the basis of nanomaterials asseparators help significantly improve the safety oflithium-ion batteries. Such films, mechanically flexi-ble despite high stability, are being marketed byEvonik under the tradename of ‘Separion’.

The practical suitability of such materials in hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV) was demonstrated by a testcar, which, as the first hybrid car registered in Ger-many, has already covered a distance of 40,000 kmsince 2005. Through the application of carbon-coated nanoparticles for electrode materials, it isalso possible to improve operating life and temper-ature stability of other battery types, such as lead ornickel-hydride accumulators.

Supercapacitors

Supercapacitors are electrochemical double-layercapacitors characterized by high energy and powerdensity. They consist of two electrodes surroundedby an electrolyte and separated by a separator. Sincethe loading capacity depends on the electrode sur-face, a significant performance enhancement ofsupercapacitors will be achieved through nanos-tructuring and the associated surface extension. Car-bon aerogels as nanoporous substances are per-fectly suitable as graphitic electrode materials insupercapacitors due to their extremely high innersurface, adjustable pore distribution and pore diam-eters. Due to these electrode materials, superca-pacitors with power densities of more than 10 kW/kgshould be possible. Application fields are mobileapplications, where high energy amounts have to beprovided or taken up in a short period of time (e.g.in energy recovery when braking electric vehicles)

3.3 Nanooptimized Energy Stores

Flexible ceramic

membranes, enhanc-

ing temperature

stability and thus

safety of lithium-ion

batteries, can be pro-

duced in a low-cost

“roll-to-roll“ process

(source: Evonik).

Electrolyte

Solvated ions

Carbonaerogelelectrode

CarbonCluster

Helmholtzdouble layer

Schematic sketch

of carbon-aerogel-

based supercapaci-

tors. The large sur-

face of the carbon

clusters allows high

charge density of

the capacitors

(source: ZAE).

47

Hydrogen Storage

In the field of hydrogen storage, application possi-bilities of nanotechnologies are mainly found in theoptimization of solid-state storage tanks, whichreversibly bind hydrogen chemically or by adsorp-tion in the storage material and release it again.Here, high-porosity materials seem to be promising,which are able to efficiently bind hydrogen in thepores through adsorption, or complex hydrideswhich store hydrogen chemically reversible in thelattice structure. Complex hydrides are salt-like com-pounds of hydrogen and light metal mixes, e.g.LiBH4, which contain gravimetric hydrogen densitiesof up to 20 %. However, only a part of it can be usedas reversible hydrogen store; moreover, the hightemperatures required for hydrogen release areproblematic. Further approaches are nanoporousmetalorganic compounds, which dispose of veryhigh surface values of approx. 3400 m2/g. About twoand a half gram of this compound corresponds tothe surface of a football pitch. The currently achiev-able storage capacities, however, are quite far awayfrom a possible application as hydrogen stores incars. There are development potentials which seemto be economically tappable at least for the opera-tion of fuel cells in mobile electronic devices. In gen-eral, however, there is great research demand in thedevelopment of solid-state storage tanks.

Electron-microscopic

photo of a nanos-

tructured carbon

material. Right:

nanostructured

carbon films applied

as electrode material

in supercapacitors

(source: ZAE)

In future, hydrogen stores based on organometallic com-

pounds could power micro fuel cells for potable electronics.

The electron microscopic magnification clearly shows the

nanoporous structure of these “nanocubes”. Two and a half

gram of this material has an inner surface corresponding to

the surface of a football pitch (source: BASF).

MOF-5

COOH

COOH

+ ZnO

MOF = Metal Organic Framwork

Low-Loss Power Supply through Nanomaterials

Considerable progress was made in the develop-ment of high-temperature superconductors in thelast years through the production of yttrium-bariumcopper oxide (YBCO) on metallic carriers (so-calledCoated Conductors, CC), which significantlyextended the processability and applicability of thismaterial class. Cable lengths of over 600 m couldalready be realized. Superconductors will play agrowing role in energy technology for low-loss wiredpower supply, in coil windings and bearings of elec-tric engines as well as in residual current circuitbreakers in high-voltage grids. The most importantchallenge is the production of all deposited layers(superconducting and buffer protection layers) bychemical means from low-cost precursor to decreasecosts to an economically attractive value. Nanotech-nologies provide toeholds for the control of themicrostructure in layer formation, for examplethrough specific insertion of nanoparticles in the

form of particle inclusions in the lattice structure.Currently, superconductive nanostructured systemsfrom sol-gel precursors are being developed in aproject supported by the BMBF. In the long run,cables of carbon nanotube composites as high-effi-cient conductors could be an alternative for a low-loss power supply line in high-voltage grids. This,however, would require further significant pro-gresses with regard to more efficient productionmethods and technologies for the production oflong CNT-fibers with uniform structure.

Unit cell of a metallorganic framework

Cu3(BTC)2. This compound shows two differ-

ently sized pore systems (diameter of approx.

0.9 resp. 1.1 nm) and has a very high storage

capacity for gaseous hydrogen

(source: university of Giessen).

3.4 Energy Transport through Low-Loss Power Supplyand Smart Grids

In the research project, NANOSORB, promoted bythe BMBF in cooperation with Merck and the Uni-versity of Giessen, studies on relations of structure-properties for the interaction between gas and sur-face of different nanoporous material classes are car-ried out, among them metallorganic frameworks,organo zeolites and other organically modified sil-ica compounds. With the application of molecular-modeling techniques, insights shall be gained in theoptimization of pore sizes, geometries and topolo-gies as well as the chemical composition of materi-als to be generated in future.

Furthermore, nanostructured materials like aerogelscould also find application in cryo storage of liquidhydrogen due to their excellent thermal insulationeffect. Energy and fuel losses are to be minimizedthrough high-efficient insulation of liquefied gastanks to improve efficiency in transport and storageof liquefied gases like hydrogen or natural gas.

48

Nanocrystalline

blank tape with a

thickness of only

18 µm as basic

material for opti-

mized inductive

components

(source: Hitachi

Metals Europe©)

Nanocrystalline Magnetically Soft Materials inTransformers

Nanocrystalline magnetically soft materials, forexample, produced through quick solidificationprocesses of iron-base alloys, are perfectly suitablefor applications in energy technology, due to prop-erties such as high permeability and temperaturestability. Such materials are applied in low-loss trans-formers, electronic energy meters, residual currentcircuit breakers or also power-electronic compo-nents. The company Magnetec from Langenselbold(Hessen) is a global market leader in the commer-cialization of these nanocrystalline magnetic materi-als in the form of toroidal tape wound cores for var-ious electrotechnical applications.

Nanostructured Insulation Materials forHigh-Voltage Power Lines

Efficiency of power transfer in high-voltage powerlines increases with increasing amperage. In Europe,current is usually conducted at approx. 400 kV, whilein extensive countries like China and India high-volt-age grids with up to 1500 kV are aspired.

Due to increased voltages and the required currentcompaction as a result of the feeding of decentral-ized power generators and the supply of huge met-ropolitan areas, the electrical and mechanical strainson high-voltage power lines are growing. Hence, acentral task of high-voltage technology is the furtherdevelopment of electric insulation systems, forexample through the application of nanomaterials.The material design on the nanoscale enables theoptimization of electric insulation properties likebreakdown voltage, for example, through the appli-cation of nanostructured metal oxide powder invaristors as protection elements against overvolt-ages in power lines. Multifunctional, non-linear andauto-adaptive insulation systems are in develop-ment, the mechanical and electrical properties ofwhich change with field strength, temperature ormechanical stress and adjust optimally to the powerdemand.

49

50

Nanooptimized Power Electronics

The conversion and control of high-power currentsthrough power-electronic components will gain fur-ther importance in future. Power electronics ensureslow-loss power conversion on the way to the enduser, it enables the power yield optimization of windturbines through the adjustment of rotational speedto wind speed and plays a central role in the transferof energy through longer sub-sea cables. Energydecentrally generated through photovoltaics canlikewise only be used after power electronic conver-sion.

The further development of power semiconductorsthrough materials with high bandgap, like silicon-carbide, will trigger an innovative boost and eco-nomically tap high-voltage (power grids or railway)or high temperature (e.g. in controls of car enginecomponents) applications. The development ofpower electronics can benefit from nanotechnolo-gies, for example through the optimization of thelayer design of wide-bandgap semiconductors oreven through the application of carbon nanotubesas cross-connection wires for high current flows atminimized heat development.

Smart Grids

The worldwide increasing liberalization of the elec-tricity market will significantly increase the futuredemand on the flexibility of the power grids. Trans-European power trading requires efficient energydistribution even over long distances, a flexibleadjustment to temporarily strongly fluctuatingdemands and a quick controllability of the powerflow to limit the extent of grid failures and the risk ofextensive blackouts. The existing power distributiongrid encounters limits even regarding the growingdecentral power supply from fluctuating renewablesources. The future power distribution requires gridswhich enable a dynamic load and failure manage-ment as well as a demand-driven energy supply withflexible price mechanisms.

Nanotechnologies could contribute essentially tothe realization of this vision, for example throughnanosensoric and power electronic components,which could cope with the extremely complex con-trol and monitoring of such grids. Here, miniaturizedmagnetoresistive sensors on the basis of magneticnanolayers provide potentials to enable an area-wide online-metering of current and voltage param-eters in the grid.

The transfer of

current requires a

more efficient and

flexible structure

– nano-optimized

components like

e.g. conductive

materials and

insulators provide

solution potentials

(source: RWE)

51

In the short run, nanotechnologies will have thegreatest effect on the avoidance of resource con-sumption and carbon dioxide emissions mainly inthe field efficient energy use. Considerable energysaving potentials through nanotechnologically opti-mized products and production plants are to befound in nearly all branches of industry as well as inthe private sector. A number of application examplesin the respective industries (e.g. automotive, con-struction engineering, optics, production engineer-ing) are provided in the brochure series of theAktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech. Some examplesregarding the most relevant fields of application arebriefly described below.

Lighting Engineering

Nanotechnological applications in the field of light-ing engineering first and foremost concern thedevelopment and use of energy efficient LED on thebasis of inorganic and organic semiconductor mate-rials. Due to the compact design, the variable colorscheme and the high energy yield, the LED-technol-ogy has already tapped great market potentials inthe illumination of displays, buildings and cars. Thestill poorly developed organic light-emitting diodesprovide the potential for extensive lighting surfacesand screens on flexible substrates which allow theintegration into many fields of interior equipment.Nanotechnological approaches arise, for instance,for the further optimization of LED through quantumdots which help improve energy efficiency and lightyield. Furthermore, nanoscale light emitting particlescontribute to the minimization of scattering effectsof LED, and thus to the enhancement of the lightyield. The particles need to be coated in order toincrease particle stability.

The further development of OLED will also dependon nanotechnological innovations, which concern,inter alia, the optimization of the field carrier mate-rials, succession and thickness of layers, applicationof dopants and the purity of the materials used (seepractical example, Merck).

3.5 Energy Saving Potentials through Nanotechnologies

Organic light-emitting

diodes (OLED)

(source: Merck

KGaA,Darmstadt)

52

Thermal Insulation through Nanoporous Materials

The power demand for heating and cooling pur-poses in industrial fields and of private consumershas a considerable share in the total energy con-sumption worldwide. Here, great savings potentialsresult from the energetic reconstruction of old build-ings, which account for approx. 80 % of the totalbuilding stock in Germany and require more thantwice the heating energy allowed according to theapplicable Heat Insulation Ordinance for new build-ings. However, also insulation in technical processes,e.g. in the transport of liquid gases, is of great impor-tance. Due to a pore size in the range of the averagefree path length of the gas molecules, nanoporousmaterials provide potentials for high-efficient insu-lation materials. Examples for such materials areaerogels which consist to 99 % of pore volumes in anetwork of nanoparticles, for instance of silicon diox-ide, and are thus extremely lightweight. Despite rel-atively high manufacturing costs, first pilot projectsare being realized for heat-insulated outside facadesof aerogel materials (cf. volume 7, Uses for Nan-otechnology in Architecture and Civil Engineering).Nanoporous polymer foams provide further devel-opment potential, even though their manufacturingis not yet economically advantageous. The cell size

of these nanocellular foams shall be reduced to suchan extent that they correspond to the average freepath length of a gas molecule. Hence, heatexchange as a consequence of the collision of gasmolecules would cease almost completely. Theresulting foams would show heat insulation proper-ties similar to those of vacuum panels without theapplication of vacuum. In this way, the insulationeffect of foam could be enhanced by more than 50 %and the required material thickness for a given insu-lation capacity could be reduced by more than thehalf. The work on this concept is currently still in astate of basic research. Commercial products willtherefore not be available in the medium run. A solu-tion approach could be the polymerization oforganic monomers with the help of structure-tem-plates, which enable the predetermination of struc-ture and pore size of the foam.

Nanoporous polymer

foams (right, in elec-

tron-microscopic

enlargement) provide

a great potential for

high-efficient heat

barrier materials

(source: BASF).

Carbon aerogels for

high-temperature insu-

lations (up to 3000 °C)

(source: ZAE)

53

Energy Efficiency of Production Processes

Technical processes in industry, in particular in basicchemistry or metal production, often involve highapplication of energy and contribute extensively tothe operating costs. The energy saving potentialthrough the application of nanotechnologies ismainly found in the substitution or optimization ofenergy-intensive reaction steps, for example throughnanostructured catalysts or thermal insulation mate-rials. More than 80 % of all products of the chemicalindustry are made via catalysis. Due to an increasedactive surface area, nanostructured catalysts enablehigher reaction yields or partly even new, energeti-cally more favorable ways of synthesis. Here, theapplication of fullerenes may be mentioned as a cat-alyst in the industrially relevant styrene synthesis,which allows a significant increase in reaction yieldsand a reduction of the process temperature.

In the manufacturing of ceramics, nanoscale pow-ders can help reduce sintering temperatures andthus save energy. Microreaction technology, i.e. thecontrol of chemical processes in miniaturized reac-tors with optimized heat and matter exchange pro-vides further approaches. The highly-parallel appli-cation of microreactors enables the production ofchemicals partly requiring significantly lower energyinput than in large-scale industrial plants.

Lightweight Construction through Nanocomposites

High-stability lightweight construction materials cancontribute to considerable savings, in particular inthe transport sector. Nanomaterials offer variouspotentials to achieve savings in weight and to com-bine different material properties, such as

a extremely high strength-weight ratios,

a increased hardness, viscosity and wearresistance,

a improved thermal capacity and corrosionresistance.

Potentials for lightweight construction measures areprovided, for example, by nanostructured metal-matrix composites (MMC) or even polymericnanocomposites. Due to their temperature stability,strength and low density, metal-matrix composites(MMC), just like fiber-reinforced titan and aluminumalloys, have a high application potential for struc-tures, especially in aerospace industry. Through thenanoscale structure of the MMC, higher strength andresistance against material fatigue can be achievedas well as a better formability compared to conven-tional MMC. Nanobased protection coatings willextend the applicability of magnesium alloys in carmanufacture. In contrast to conventional chromecoatings, more environmentally friendly coatingsbased on silicon dioxide able to be producedthrough plasma or sol-gel processes, provide betterabrasion and corrosion protection for magnesiummaterials. Also polymer composites reinforced withcarbon nanotubes have the potential for ultralighthigh-stability construction materials. For practicalapplication, however, a number of technical prob-lems regarding the orientation and integration intothe polymer matrix have to be solved and furthercost reductions in the material manufacturing haveto be achieved.

Iron-oxide catalyst

enclosed by fulleren-

like carbon layers

(Fe2O3) for the opti-

mization of styrene

synthesis (source:

Fritz-Haber-Institute)

54

Today, gas turbine blades of aircraft and industrialturbines are increasingly coated with ceramic ther-mal barrier coatings, for example, of partly stabilizedzirconium oxide. With the application of thermal bar-rier coating systems in connection with efficientblade cooling, the gas inlet temperature of aircraftand industrial turbines can be raised to a levelimpossible to reach with unprotected turbineblades. Thermal barrier coating systems as a designelement enable therefore, on the one hand, animprovement of efficiency, on the other hand thereduction of environmental stress.

Thermal barrier coating systems consist of basematerial, adhesion promoting layer and thermal bar-rier coating (TBC). Due to start-up and shut-downprocesses as well as capacity changes of gas tur-bines and the related temperature gradients andtransients, the thermal barrier coating system isexposed to thermomechanical alternating stress.The base material of the blade bears the mechanicalstress.

The ceramic thermal barrier coating serves as ther-mal resistance and thus controls the heat flow intothe base material. The adhesion promoting layerserves the connection to the thermal barrier coating,balances the different thermal expansion coefficientsof thermal barrier coating and base material andserves as oxidation protection for the base material.In today’s systems, this occurs through the formationof an Al2O3-rich top layer (TGO, Thermally GrownOxide), which develops to a third layer betweenthermal barrier coating and metal. Here, an alu-minum-rich phase in the adhesion promoting layerserves as aluminum reservoir which helps maintainthe aluminum activity in the layer matrix required for

the top-layer formation over a long operationperiod. While the blade base material allows appli-cation of the metal adhesion promoting layer byLLPS (Low Pressure Plasma Spraying), the thermalbarrier coating is applied through atmosphericplasma spraying (APS-process) or through electronbeam physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD).

The influence of the surface structure of the adhe-sion promoting layer on the lifespan of ceramic ther-mal barrier coatings is the subject of current surveyson crack formation up to delamination, accompa-nied by the development of suitable test methodsand life assessment concepts. The research work isboosted by the Federal Institute for MaterialsResearch and Testing (MPA), Darmstadt, and theInstitute for Materials Technology (IfW) of the TUDarmstadt, which together, form a powerful techni-cal-scientific center with internationally provencapacity in materials testing and research.

4 Practical Examples from Hessen

4.1 Ceramic Thermal Barrier Coating Systems for Turbine Blades

CONTACT

Staatliche Materialprüfungsanstalt MPASubject Field: Materials ResearchTechnische Universität Darmstadt

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christina BergerDr.-Ing. Alfred Scholz

Grafenstrasse 2, D-64283 Darmstadt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6151 16-2151, Fax -6118www.tu-darmstadt.de/mpa-ifw

Electron microscopic

photo of a thermal

barrier coating con-

sisting of a top coat

rich in aluminum oxide

(TGO, Thermally

Grown Oxide) and

a thermal barrier

coating TBC

Turbine material

TGO

TBC

PAIf

Darmstadt

55

The Umicore AG & Co. KG is the worldwide leader inthe manufacturing of automotive exhaust gas cata-lysts and a number of precious metal-containingproducts. In many cases, such products contributedecisively to more environmentally friendlyprocesses or to the reduction of their energy con-sumption. One of the research priorities is the mem-brane fuel cell (PEMFC, Proton Exchange MembraneFuel Cell), which is regarded as an environmentallyfriendly and high-efficient energy conversion tech-nique. Nitrogen oxides or other pollutants, as theyoccur in conventional combustion, do not arise inPEMFC.

The application is planned and has already beensuccessfully demonstrated in cars, domestic energysupply plants and even in portable energy supply(laptop and mobile phones). Umicore and the joint-venture SolviCore develop and produce catalystsand so-called membrane-electrode units as keycomponents for this new technology.

Decisive for the application of the catalysts in mem-brane fuel cells is the nanofine distribution of theprecious metal and a good fixation on the catalystsupport. Thus, a better catalytic effect per gram ofprecious metal is achieved and a contribution ismade to the saving of resources and the reduction ofcosts.

Umicore is an international material technologygroup located in Brussels. The company with aturnover of 9 billion € and 18,000 employees oper-ates in more than 75 countries of the world. Theactivities are focused on the business fields ofAdvanced Materials, Precious Metals Products andCatalysts, Precious Metals Services and Zinc Spe-cialties.

The Group in represented in Hessen by the UmicoreAG & Co. KG in the Hanau-Wolfgang Industrial Park.There, approx. 1,100 persons are employed in thebusiness units Automotive Catalysts, Precious Met-als Chemistry, Precious Metals Services, ElectronicMaterials, Platinum Engineered Materials and Elec-trotechnical Materials

4.2 Nanostructured Catalysts for Efficient Membrane Fuel Cells

CONTACT

Umicore AG & CO KG

Dr. Ralf Zuberralf.zuber@eu.umicore.com

POB 1351, D-63403 Hanau, GermanyPhone:+49 (0)6181 59-2556, Fax -72556www.umicore.de

Left: Platinum

nanoparticles on

carbon black carrier

as electro-catalysts

for fuel cells

Right: Schematic

structure of a

membrane-elec-

trode-unit

56

Solar energy will account for an essential part offuture power supply. Both in the Science-to-Business-Center of Creavis Technologies & Innova-tion and in the Project House of Functional Films &Surfaces, research in the solar field is being carriedout. Creavis is developing new photovoltaic materi-als and related technologies for the application inlow-cost, flexible solar cells. Nanostructured materi-als have different properties than the materials usedso far. This applies, for example, to the light-absorp-tion important for photovoltaics. Moreover, nan-odispersions are printable, which may facilitate themanufacturing of solar cells. If it is managed toreplace silicon wafers required today by thin, print-able photovoltaic layers, the production of mechan-ically flexible solar cells in high-productivity roll-to-roll manufacturing process will be possible. Withnanostructured materials, efficiencies can beincreased from today 20 % to over 50 % in future. Thecost goal for such photovoltaic systems is 1 Euro perinstalled Watt.

The Project House Functional Films & Surfaces isinvolved in various development topics. In the fieldof substrates for high-temperature processes, mate-rials tolerating temperatures beyond 500 degreeCelsius in high vacuum for more than 10 minutesshall be developed. There are hardly any substratematerials today, which are suitable for such applica-tions, except for polyimide and steel film. Evonikintends to offer alternatives to this. Here, the chal-lenge is to outperform the properties of substratesavailable on the market today, such as the polyimidefilm.

Nevertheless, the material has to be available at arealistic price to significantly reduce the manufac-turing costs of flexible solar cells. In the field of bar-rier films, the project-house researchers intend todevelop a barrier film on the basis of already existingEvonik materials, which unites all properties of mate-rials previously consisting of several layers. There areseveral possibilities conceivable to achieve this.From a nanotechnological point of view, the func-tionalization of surfaces is of special importance.Here, Evonik can fall back on known in-house tech-nologies as well as on the results of previous projecthouses. The intelligent combination of processesand materials shall be realized in cooperation withexternal partners.

4.3 New Materials for Photovoltaics

Schematic structure

(graphic) and pro-

totype of a flexible

polymer solar cell

(photo top right)

Schematic depic-

tion of the roll-to-

roll manufacturing

process of thin-film

solar cells

CONTACT

Evonik Industries AGProject House Functional Films & SurfacesCreavis Technologies & Innovation

Dr. Jochen Ackermannjochen.ackermann@evonik.com

Rodenbacher Chaussee 4D-63457 Hanau-Wolfgang, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 59-6375, Fax -2391Mobile phone +49 (0)179 7828333www.evonik.com

Processability of NanomaterialsHigh productivity possible through printing processes

Printing ofn-semiconductor

Antireflective Coating

Printing offront end contact

Nanoparticles

Printing ofp-semiconductor Printing of back

side contact

flexible conductivesubstrate

deposition

flexible substrate roll

backcontact

photovoltaiclayer

frontcontact

flexiblephotovoltaic

cell roll

barrierfilm roll

encapsulation

57

Thermoelectric converters convert heat directly intoelectricity. Examples for thermoelectric energy con-verters are thermogenerators and thermoelectricsensors. Up to now, p- and n-doped semiconductorswith carrier concentrations in the range of 1019/cm3

have been used as materials. The efficiency ofenergy conversion depends to a large extent on thethermoelectric figure of merit z = α2σ / λ of theapplied materials, which is determined by the See-beck coefficient α, their electric conductivity σ andtheir thermal conductivity λ. Currently, the valuesachieved with most efficient thermoelectric bulkmaterials at different temperatures T exceed the“limit” zT = 1 only insignificantly. Thus, efficiency ofthermoelectric generators usually remains below10 %.

Solid-state physical calculations for nanoscale ther-moelectric materials show a significant potential toincrease the thermoelectric figure of merit. In exper-iments, values of zT>2 in multi-quantum-well-structures (MQW) could be verified. These are layerstacks of well layers of only few nanometers inter-leaved with similarly thin barrier layers (right figure).Load and heat transport in such MQW is “concen-trated” (confinement) on the well-layer areas. Stilllarger increases in the thermoelectric figure of meritare to be expected when load and heat transportoccur nearly one-dimensionally in nanowires.

The figure above shows the calculated zT-values forbismuth nanowires as a function of the wire diame-ter and the REM-picture of the Bi-nanowire preparedin a way to enable the experimental determinationof its thermoelectric properties. Nanowires with highzT-values can be used both for energy conversionand the development of extremely sensitive ther-moelectric sensors.

4.4 Nanotechnology for More Efficient ThermoelectricEnergy Conversion

Calculated thermoelectric efficiency

zT for Bi-nanowires (acc. to L.Yu-Ming

et. al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 81 (2002),

2403 and bismuth nanowire

(Manufactured by GSI Darmstadt,

Material Research Division) with elec-

tric contacts for the measuring of

thermoelectric properties (IMtech)

Schematic structure of

von PbTe/PbEuTe multi-

quantum-well-struc-

tures with high thermo-

electric efficiency and

REM-photo of a MQW

structure of thermo-

electric PbTe-well-layers

interleaved with barrier

layers (manufactured

through molecular

beam epitaxy; FhG-IPM

Freiburg)

n-PbTe (dwell = 10 nm)

n-Pb1-xEuxTe (dbarrier = 12 nm)

Substrate

00 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

Diameter of nanowire (nm)

zT

CONTACT

Fachhochschule WiesbadenInstitute for Microtechnologies (IMtech)Prof. Dr. F. Völklein, voelklein@physik.fh-wiesbaden.deAm Brückweg 26, D-65428 Rüsselsheim, Germany

Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung mbH,Darmstadt, Material Research DivisionDr. Th. Cornelius, Th.Cornelius@gsi.dePlanckstrasse 1, D-64291 Darmstadt, Germany

58

In the development and pro-cessing of renewable forms ofenergy, such as in wind andsolar energy engineering,

process efficiency is of utmost importance to enablethe end user to use this precious commodity to thelargest possible extent resp. to achieve optimumfeed-in tariffs. Thus only the most powerful compo-nents are increasingly used in electronic circuits forenergy conversion, since in these fields of applica-tion “investments in high quality” will pay off veryquickly.

The MAGNETEC GmbH has been manufacturinghigh-quality inductive components for industrialapplication for almost 25 years. Approx. 8 years ago,they started the production of toroidal tape woundcores of the new nanocrystal material NANOPERM®.This softmagnetic material, initially available in theform of 20 mm tapes, has an amorphous inner struc-ture and is magnetically neutral. Special magneticproperties, almost unimaginable ten years ago, arepermanently imprinted through a particularlydesigned heat treatment under inert protective gasand with precisely adjustable magnetic fields. Thisenables not only the smaller design of e.g. magneticcores, chokes and transformers, but also the opera-tion at high switching frequencies (typically 100 kHz).

Hence, the efficiency of devices and plants increasessignificantly while dimensions and weight arereduced at the same time. Furthermore, the applica-tion of NANOPERM® is focused on the field of instal-lation engineering (RCD), general electromagneticcompatibility (EMC-filter) and modern electronicenergy meters.

Due to the technical superiority of renewable ener-gies, more and more users decide in favor of thesenew components with nanocrystalline toroidal tapewound cores from MAGNETEC, which meanwhileemploy a staff of more than 400. In spring 2007, thecompany was given the Innovation Award of the “Ini-tiative Mittelstand”. Worldwide, there are less than10 companies producing such components.

4.5 High-Efficiency and Compact Energy Conversion withNanocrystalline Toroidal Tape Wound Cores

CONTACT

MAGNETEC GmbH

Dr. Martin Ferchmferch@magnetec.de

Industriestrasse 7D-63505 Langenselbold, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6184 9202-27, Fax -20www.magnetec.de

Current-compen-

sated radio interfer-

ence suppression

chokes on the basis

of nanocrystalline

NANOPERM®-materi-

als. The components

cushion grid-bound

interferences in

power grids.

Electron microscopic

photo of a nanocrys-

talline softmagnetic

iron alloy

(source: Hitachi

Metals Europe©)

Background right:

Nanocrystalline raw

tape with a thickness

of only 18 μm as base

material for opti-

mized inductive

components

(source: Hitachi

Metals Europe©)

Front right:

NANOPERM®

provides the opti-

mization of a wide

range of inductive

components.

59

Increased energy costs and the need for environ-mental responsibility compel carful and efficienthandling of resources, in particular in energy engi-neering. In electric energy engineering, this futurechallenge is confronted by the application of cryoand low-loss high-temperature superconductors(HTS) in systems like e.g. engines/generators, trans-formers, current limiters, power transmission cablesand energy stores.

The HTS are high-tech materials based on oxideceramic which is processed to achieve technicallyapplicable conductors. HTS show the macroscopicquantum effect of “superconduction” through theutilization and control of the material on the nano-scale.

Different methods are used for the manufacturing ofHTS, ranging from flat wire manufacturing of a tubefilled with powder up to thin-layer coating tech-niques. Both chemical and physical methods areapplied. All processes have in common that the gen-eration of nanoscale structures is required, whichguarantees homogeneity over a length scale of kilo-meters.

At the beginning of the wire manufacturing frompipes, the ceramics are present in the form of pow-der. This powder consists of both “coarser” particles(grain sizes approx. > 2µm) and a portion of nano-sized particles of approx. 10 percent (Fig. top left).The nano-portion is the key to quality and capacity ofthe material, since in sintering, it joins the coarsegrains in such a manner that their ampacity turns intoa macroscopically usable property.

Thus, the correlation on the atomic level is decisivefor the quality and ampacity of the material. Theampacity of the HTS is increased in particularthrough the fact that nanoscale trapping centers pre-vent areas filled with magnetic flux (quantized vor-tices) from moving (Fig. bottom right). Otherwise,the movement of this area would require energyloss. Depending on the chosen manufacturing meth-ods, e.g. precipitations or twin domains (see Fig. topright) are used for the generation of trapping cen-ters or twin domains to prevent the lossy movementof the quantized vortices. Thus, so-called nanodots,i.e. foreign phases like yttrium oxide (Y2O3)on the nanometer scale (approx. 35 nmgenerated or added in fine-disper-sive form) can retain the quantizedvortices and contribute to a capac-ity enhancement of the HTS.

4.6 Nanostructured High-Temperature Superconductorsfor Low-Loss Power Transmission

Schematic depiction

of a quantized vortex

Particle size distribution of a ceramic base powder

Twin domain bound-

aries with characteristi-

cally deformed twin

lamellae. Densely

distributed Y2O3-inclu-

sions of 5 nm are to

be recognized.

< 15 nm

CONTACT

European High TemperatureSuperconductors GmbH & Co. KG

Reinhard Dietrichinfo@bruker-ehts.com

Ehrichstrasse 10, D-63450 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 4384-4062, Fax -4453www.bruker-ehts.com

60

Efforts made to avoid or reduce CO2-emissions on the one hand, and thesharp price increase in fossil fuels onthe other hand promise high growthrates for the application of resource-saving heating devices in future. Due tothis market development, Viessmann isdeveloping a gas-driven zeolite heatingdevice as an innovative contribution toan increase in energy conversion effi-ciency and emission reduction for theheating of detached and semi-detached houses. Here, it is a combina-tion of a zeolite-water adsorption heatpump and a gas condensing boiler. Thegoal of the adsorption heat pump is thesupply of useful heat at a higher tem-perature level by adding low-tempera-ture heat to the work process. The workprocess is based on the fact that, at a

given temperature, the vapor pressure of the coolantreduces with increasing concentration of the adsor-bent. This enables the coolant to evaporate, e.g.through the supply of ambient heat, at a low tem-perature level and to be adsorbed at the tempera-ture at which the useful heat shall be supplied.

A multicomponent mixture is used as working sub-stance, which, in the Viessmann development, con-sists of a two-substance system in which water actsas the volatile coolant and zeolite as the solid sor-bent. Zeolites are crystalline, hydrated alumosilicateswith nanoporous framework structure. The adsorp-tion properties of zeolites are based on the largeinner surface of 800 to 1100 m²/g as well as on thehigh electrostatic adsorption forces releasing a highdegree of adsorption heat, especially in case ofpolar molecules such as water or ammonia. There-fore, zeolites exhibit a great potential for energy con-version processes with clearly higher efficiency.

In principle, an adsorption heat pump consists of asorber heat exchanger equipped with two non-return valves working as desorber or adsorber,depending on the operating phase. It includes theconventional components of a heat pump, i.e. con-denser, throttle and evaporator. In the desorptionphase (Fig. e), heat of a gas burner is used to drythe zeolite. The water bound to the zeolite is beingexpelled. This causes the pressure in the desorber

chamber to rise, which results in the closing of thenon-return valve towards the evaporator and itsopening towards the condenser. The expelled watervapor flows into the condenser and emits liquefac-tion energy as useful energy to the heating grid. Thissub-process continuous until the zeolite has reachedits maximum process temperature.

At the end of the desorption phase, the sorber heatexchanger is hydraulically changed to enable theheat transfer medium of the heating grid to flowthrough. Thus pressure and temperature in the sor-ber chamber decrease, which results in the closingof the upper non-return valve. As soon as the pres-sure in the sorber chamber has fallen below thepressure of the evaporator chamber, the lower valvewill open and connect the evaporator chamber withthe sorber chamber (Fig. r). The pressure of thecoolant liquefied in the condenser is decreased inthe throttle so that the coolant evaporates in theevaporator under the absorption of ambient heat.The coolant vapor then flows in the sober heatexchanger, now acting as adsorber, and is therebound by the zeolite. The adsorption heat releasedhere (total of condensation and latent heat of thewater vapor in the zeolite structures) is dissipated tothe heating circuit in the form of useful heat. Due tothe additional supply of ambient heat to the process,efficiencies of up to 135 % referring to the heatingvalue can be achieved, which clearly outperformconventional condensing boilers with a maximumefficiency of 111 %. This corresponds to a reductionin CO2-emission of 20 % compared to the state-of-the-art in gas heating of detached and semi-detached houses.

4.7 High-Efficiency Heating Devices for Heat Supply of BuildingsBased on Nanoporous Materials

Principle depiction of a

periodically working

adsorption heat pump

condenser

throttle desorber

evaporator

burnerheat

useful heat

non-return valve

non-return valve

condenser

throttle adsorber

evaporator

non-return valve

useful heat

ambient

heat

non-return valve

CONTACT

Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co. KG

Dr.-Ing. Belal DawoudDrDaw@viessmann.com

Viessmann Strasse 1D-35107 Allendorf / Eder, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6452 70-3410, Fax -6410

e

r

61

The company REWITEC from Lahnau deals withwear-protection layers and tribological properties ofmetal components. REWITEC has succeeded indeveloping a nanocoating, which reconditions metalsurfaces worn during operation and provides lastingprotection against wear and abrasion. Thesenanocoatings offer protection for combustionengines, gear boxes, compressors and bearings ofall kinds, even under extreme conditions. TheREWITEC coating technology is based on the mod-ification of the surface structure of grinding metalparts and the generation of a new nanosmoothmetal silicate layer with a surface roughness in therange of few nanometers.

The active components of the REWITEC active ingre-dient consist of a mixture of different synthetisizedsilicate compounds. They react with the metal sur-faces due to the high temperatures and pressuresdeveloping in the friction area. Thus a metal-sili-cate/metal-silicate friction pair with improved tribo-logical properties develops from the original metal-metal friction pair. In practice, the REWITEC activeingredient is added to the original lubricant whichtransfers it to the friction areas. After a few operat-ing hours it is completely converted without influ-encing or changing the properties of the lubricant.

The grain size of the particles contained in theREWITEC active ingredient is ranging from fewnanometers to some micrometers. However, withregard to the formulation of ready-to-use lubricants,REWITEC is increasingly dealing with the applicationof pure nanoparticles. At granting the InnovationAward for the German Economy 2008, REWITEC gotthe final for their innovative nanocoatings for tribo-logical systems.

Application Fields

The REWITEC nanocoating is applied in tribologicalsystems consisting of grinding metal surfaces. Itextends service life and increases efficiency and reli-ability of machines and appliances. Due to the sig-nificant reduction of the CO-HC- and NOX-emissionand Diesel exhaust particulates in combustionengines, it contributes much to environmental pro-tection. REWITEC nanocoating has already beensuccessfully used in the following applications:

4.8 Nanocoatings for the Sealing of Metal Surfaces

The picture shows the

wear-protection coating of

a camshaft. The strongest

coating occurs in the area

exposed to the highest

pressure at the highest

point of the cam.

62

a Industrial facilities (gear boxes of all kinds, gen-erators and combined heat and power plants,combustion engines, compressors, ball bearingsand slide bearing, hydraulic systems, pressesand die cutters, tool and printing machines,chain conveyors, gear rods and bevel wheels)

a Ships (main motors (2-stroke, 4-stroke), auxiliarydiesel, main gearbox, winch transmission, craneand helm gearbox, separators, compressors,ball bearings and slide bearings)

a Commercial vehicles, passenger cars and trains(gasoline and Diesel driven engines, gearboxes,rear axles and differentials, hinges and hingeshafts, compressors, ball bearings and slidebearings) wind power plants (gear boxes, ballbearings and slide bearings)

CONTACT

REWITEC GmbH

Felix Altenheimerf.altenheimer@rewitec.com

Dr.-Hans-Wilhelmi-Weg 1D-35633 Lahnau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6441 44599-0, Fax -25Mobile phone +49 (0)173 6848570www.rewitec.com

Wheel treads of ball bearing inner rings after 50 hours of continu-

ous operation in the fatigue area. The left ball bearing has been

operated with a special bearing lubricant. Wear is noticed. The

wheel tread clearly shows pitting formation. The right ball bearing

has been operated with the same special bearing lubricant added

with REWITEC. There is no wear visible. A wear protection layer

has developed on the wheel tread.

The pictures show two worm gears after dry-running operation.

After continuous operation for 15 minutes, the surface of the

left untreated gearwheel shows very strong scoring damage.

The gearwheel previously treated with REWITEC does not show

any signs of wear.

Schematic depiction of the REWITEC

coating process:

1. Frictions in engines and gear boxes

cause the development of high sur-

face temperatures which trigger the

chemical reaction process of the

REWITEC concentrate.

2. The soft silicate particles do not only

clean the grinding metal surfaces,

they gradually form a wear-resistant

metal silicate surface.

3. This new surface significantly

enhances the original metal with

regard to wear and abrasion.

63

The roots of the Merck KGaA trace back to the year1668. Hence, it is the oldest pharmaceutical-chemi-cal company in the world.

In the last years, Merck invested a lot in OLED-tech-nology which is treated as the next display genera-tion. OLED means “Organic Light Emitting Diode”and describes the phenomenon that thin layers ofsemiconducting organic materials are capable ofemitting light under application of an electric field(electro luminescence). The chemical structure of theemitter determines the color, while the size of theluminous surfaces varies over several orders of mag-nitude. These novel displays convince by theirextraordinary color brilliance in connection withshort circuit times and therefore find high accept-ance among the viewers.

The application of OLED in products with high-reso-lution displays has already been repeatedly realized.Merck belongs to the global leaders in research,manufacturing and development of high-puritymaterials for the application in organic light-emittingdiodes. In recent time, the possibility of using theultra-flat OLED-components for lighting purposes,apart from their use in OLED-displays, has attractedincreasing interest. For the first time, the OLED-tech-nology allows the manufacturing of a high-efficiencyflat luminous source with continuously adjustablebrightness, which offers any possible shade of colorand which can be less than 1 mm thick. However, inaddition to the mere performance data of the OLED,other component characteristics play a decisive roleespecially for the designers. The diffuse and thusglare-free light emission of the lighting surfaceallows the realization of new kinds of illuminationconcepts. The shining roof interior in the car and theilluminated wall at home are only two examples forit. During the last two years, prototypes of ambientlighting, which delighted visitors at several fairs withits charm, were developed in cooperation with thedesigners Hannes Wettstein and Ingo Maurer. Apartfrom a table lamp, a glass table top equipped withilluminated tiles and a flexible ceiling lighting werepresented.

The OLED-structure is generallycharacterized by layers with inclu-sions of nanometer-thin filmsbetween two electrodes, whichinduce the emission of light due toimpressed voltage. Brightness iseasily adjustable by adjusting thevoltage in the range of 3 to 8 Volts.Depending on the component man-ufacturer, so-called “small mole-cules” are used as materials in thethin layers, which are evaporated inhigh vacuum, or long-chain mole-cules (polymers) which allow theuse of solvent-based applicationfrom the liquid phase.

The potential of OLED-technologyfirmly in sight, science and industryagree that, here, a revolutionarytechnology is ripening.

The pronounced goal of MerckKGaA is keeping the developmentand production of innovative OLED-materials in Germany, analogous tothe liquid crystal business, thusestablishing a future core business.Organic semiconductors also play akey role in organic photovoltaics.Merck use their know-how in the research initiativeOrganic Photovoltaics launched by the FederalGovernment and German industrial enterprises.

CONTACT

Merck KGaAD-64271 Darmstadt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6151 72-0www.merck4displays.com

4.9 OLED-Materials from Darmstadt Illuminate the World

OLED-lighting fixtures

(source: Merck KGaA,

Darmstadt)

Schematic structure

of an OLED

(source: Merck)

electroninjection layerrecombination layer 100 to

200 nmhole transportation layerhole transportation layer

cathode

substratetransparent anode

U–U+

light emission

64

A sustained and eco-nomically competi-tive energy manage-ment is based on achanging energy mixof various energysources with “classicenergy technolo-gies” of constantlyincreasing efficiencyand integrated

“Renewable Energy Technologies”. The aim of theEnergy Center of the Technical University of Darm-stadt is the establishment of a scientific basis for thecontinuous transition from carbon-based non-renewable energy sources dominant today, torenewable and environmentally friendly energy car-riers on all technology levels (primary energysources, energy converters, energy stores and trans-port), both interdisciplinarily and transdisciplinarily.For this purpose, the acknowledged, however unco-ordinated research and expertise in the different fac-ulties of the TU Darmstadt are collated to contributeto the development of sustained energy technolo-gies through training, research, chance assessmentand service. The institutionalized cooperation of uni-versities, industry, government and public is an inte-gral part of the concept to come up to the variousinterrelations between energy and environmentalmatters, but also to the technological, economicaland social implications of a sustainable energy future.

Many innovative energy systems rely on nanotech-nology. Examples of research topics of the TUD, inwhich new materials and material combinations onthe nanometer scale are used for the developmentof novel energy systems, are:

a Optimization of thin film solar cells for a low-cost direct power generation from sunlight.With inorganic absorber materials, the efficiencyis determined by the structure and the elec-tronic properties of homogeneous and hetero-geneous phase limits in subnanolayers – up tothe micrometer range. In two-dimensional andthree-dimensional hybrid and composite mate-rials of organic / inorganic semiconductors thetransport of the charge carriers has to be con-trolled in the nanometer range.

a Enhanced energy stores like Li-ion-batteries areproduced through percolation structures fromelectronically conductive carbon nanotubeswith active lithium storing and dischargingnanocrystallites.

a Novel gas stores arise from nanometer-porescontaining metalorganic networks.

a Catalysts for the conversion of biomass or elec-trocatalysts for fuel cells consist of metalnanoparticles on porous or graphitic substrates.

a Ceramic nanometer-thick protection layersserve the enhancement of temperature stabilityof turbine materials and thus their efficiencyincrease. Due to various regenerationprocesses, the respective desired functionproperties, based on synthesis and processingmethods to be developed, have to beresearched, characterized and optimized beforethe desired components and systems for appli-cation can be specifically developed.

The required research and development chainsrange from atomistic natural-scientific fundamentalsup to the engineering-based realization includingsocial-scientific implications. The TU DarmstadtEnergy Center pursues this holistic approach.

CONTACT

TU Darmstadt Energy CenterMaterial Research

Prof. Dr. Wolfram Jaegermannjaegerw@surface.tu-darmstadt.deFB Material- und Geowissenschaften

Petersenstrasse 23D-64287 Darmstadt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6151 16-6304, Fax -6308www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/ms/fg/ofl/index.tudwww.energycenter.tu-darmstadt.de

Task profile of the

Energy Center of the

TU Darmstadt

4.10 Nanotechnology in Energy Research– TUD Energy Center

chair/board

assessment,risk/benefit

analysis

students,experts,professionals

researchinstitutes at TUD

public, industries, decision makers,households, consumers

training,education

energy demands, development,needs, ecologic and economic issues

research,developement,

engineering

TUD ENERGY CENTER

service,public relation,demonstration

65

5 Research Programs, Financing andFunding Possibilities

5.1 European Research Projects and Networks Relatingto the Subject of Nanotechnologies and Energy

Demonstration of SOFC stack technologyfor operation at 600°C

Coordination: CENTRE NATIONAL DE LA

RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE (F)

EU FP6: Integrated Project, Duration until 2/2010

Non-noble catalysts for proton exchangemembrane fuel cell anodes

Coordination: TU Munich (D)

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 1/2010

Advanced Thin Film Technologies forCost Effective Photovoltaics

Coordination: Hahn-Meitner-Institute (D)

EU FP6: Integrated Project, Duration until 1/2010

Ionic liquid based Lithium batteries

Coordination: TU Graz (A)

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 12/2009

New Materials for Extreme Environments

Coordination: MPI IPP Munich (D)

EU FP6: Integrated Project, Duration until 11/2009

Nanotechnology for advanced rechargeablepolymer lithium batteries

Coordination: VARTA EU

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 9/2009

Nano engineered Titania thin films foradvanced materials applications

Coordination: University of Cambridge (UK)

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 9/2009

Processes and materials to synthesize knowl-edge-based ultra-performance nanostructuredPVD thin films on gamma titanium aluminides

Coordination: DLR (D)

EU FP6: Integrated Project, Duration until 4/2009

Advanced lithium energy storage systems basedon the use of nano-powders and nano-compositeelectrodes / electrolytes

Coordination: CENTRE NATIONAL DE LA

RECHERCHE SCIENTIFIQUE (F)

EU FP6: Network of Excellence, Duration until 12/2008

A new wave making more efficient use ofthe solar spectrum (Full Spectrum)

Coordination: University of Madrid (E)

EU FP6: Integrated Project, Duration until 11/2008

Roll-to-roll technology for the productionof high-efficiency low cost thin-film siliconphotovoltaic modules

Coordination: University of Neuchatel (CH)

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 10/2008

Proton Exchange Membrane-basedElectrochemical Hygrogen Generator

Coordination: UNIVERSITE PARIS-SUD

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 9/2008

Nanocrystalline silicon films for photovoltaicand optoelectronic applications

Coordination: University of Milan (I)

EU FP6: Specific Targeted Research Project, Duration until 5/2008

Design of highly conductive solid thin filmelectrolyte for stack integration within opticaland energy storage applications

Coordination: HEF (F)

EU FP6: Network of Excellence, Duration until 3/2008

Selection of current or recentlycompleted EU-research projects(more detailed information in the internethttp://cordis.europa.eu/fp6/projects.htm).

66

Calls and Initiatives Regarding BMBF-FundingPrograms

Research Initiative “Organic Photovoltaics“Joint technology initiative of the BMBF and BASF, Bosch,

Merck and Schott, BMBF-funding volume approx. 60 m €

(www.bmbf.de/de/10413.php)

High-performance materials for more energyefficiency and CO2-savings: Performance leapsin energetic conversion processes(www.bmbf.de/foerderungen/10484.php)

Next generation solar energy technologyWithin the scope of the funding program “Basic Research

Energy 2020+“, Main focus on thin-layer solar cells, photo-

induced hydrogen production

(www.bmbf.de/foerderungen/10458.php)

Alliance for Innovation Li-ion battery “LIB 2015“for stationary and automotive applicationsFunding volume approx. 60 m €

(www.bmbf.de/foerderungen/11799.php)

BMBF-Projects

Development of new conjugated semiconductormaterials for organic photovoltaicsBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Merck KGaA

Nanoporous hybrid materials for mobile gasstorage NanoSorbBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Merck KGaA

Resource-saving active materials for lithium-ionhybrid vehicle batteries (REALIBATT)BMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen

Research (ZSW)

Concept and development of durablehigh-performance electrodes for fuel cellsBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: DaimlerChrysler AG

SiBNC-materials for manufacturing, energy andtransport engineering (SIPEVe)BMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Schunk Kohlenstofftechnik GmbH

Nanovolt – Optical nanostructuresBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg

Nanotechnology in insulation system forinnovative electric applications – NanolsoBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: Siemens

Higher efficiencies of solar cells through opti-mized silicon processing – SolarFocus ProjectBMBF-integrated project

Coordination: KoSolCo GmbH, Berlin

www.solarfocus.org

5.2 National Research Projects and Networks Relatingto the Subject of Nanotechnologies and Energies

Selection of current or recently completed BMBF-research initiatives and projects(more detailed information in the internet: http://oas2.ip.kp.dlr.de/foekat/foekat).

67

BMBF-Projects

Nanostructured metal-based ceramicmembranes for gas-separation in fossil powerplants (METPORE)BMBF-Integrated project

Coordination: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH

LiBaMobil – New lithium-ion batteries for auto-motive applications with enhanced capacity andsafety through nanotechnologyBMBF-Integrated project

Coordination: Evonik Degussa GmbH

SupraNanoSol – Superconductive nanostructuredlayer-systems from sol-gel precursorsBMBF-Integrated project

Coordination: Nexans Superconductors GmbH

NanoCap – Advanced Supercaps for automotiveapplication based on nanostructured materials;Subproject BMW “Technology-driven develop-ment and technical integration”BMBF-Integrated project

Coordination: Fraunhofer-Institute for silicate research

Charge carrier transport in silicon-basedquantum structures for future high-performancesolar cellsBMBF-Integrated project

Coordination: RWTH Aachen, Chair in and Institute for

Semiconductor Technology

Further Research Initiatives at Federal Level

DFG-Project Group “Efficient Energy Conversion,Storage and Utilization“Coordination: DFG, Bonn

DFG-Research Initiative Lithium High-Performance BatteriesCoordination: TU Graz

Information: www.dfg.de

BMWi programs on energy research(partly relevant for the nanotechnology field)

Funding Focuses

- Modern Power Plant Technology

- Combined Heat and Power, District Heat

- Fuel Cell, Hydrogen

- Efficient Power Usage, Stores

- Energy-Optimized Construction

- Economic Energy Utilization in Industry, Business,

Trade and Services

Information: http://lexikon.bmwi.de/BMWi/Navigation/Energie/Energieforschung/foerderschwerpunkte.html

BMU programs on energy research(partly relevant for the nanotechnology field)

Funding Focuses:

- Photovoltaics

- Low-Temperature Solarthermy

- Solar-Thermal Power Plants

- Wind Power

- Geothermy

- Water Power and Marine energy

- Grid Intergration and Optimization of Energy-Supply

Systems

Information:

http://www.erneuerbare-energien.de/inhalt/4595

5.3 Funding Possibilities and Networks in Hessen

CONTACTwww.hessen-nanotech.de

a Hessisches Ministerium für Wirtschaft,Verkehr und LandesentwicklungSebastian HummelKaiser-Friedrich-Ring 75D-65185 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)611 815-2471, Fax -2225sebastian.hummel@hmwvl.hessen.de

a HA Hessen Agentur GmbHAlexander Bracht(Project Manager Hessen-Nanotech)Markus LämmerAbraham-Lincoln-Strasse 38–42D-65189 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)611 774-8664, Fax -8620markus.laemmer@hessen-agentur.dewww.hessen-agentur.de

CONTACTwww.energieland.hessen.de

a Hessisches Ministerium für Wirtschaft,Verkehr und LandesentwicklungEnergy Efficiency DivisionHead of Division Gabriele PurperKaiser-Friedrich-Ring 75D-65185 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)611 815-2604, Fax -492604gabriele.purper@hmwvl.hessen.de

Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech

In 2005, the Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport,Urban and Regional Development launched theAktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech. The Aktionslinie Hes-sen concentrates and coordinates economy andtechnology-related activities in nanotechnologiesand the material-based technologies throughoutHessen. Goal of the Aktionslinie is the national andinternational presentation of the Hessian compe-tences in nanotechnologies and adjacent fields oftechnology like material and surface technology,microsystem technology and optical technologies.The international competitiveness and innovativestrength of Hessian science and economy shall beboosted through technology and location market-ing as well as through the support of networking.The Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech supports, in par-ticular, the network of technology suppliers andusers. Here the special focus is on the strongly devel-oped application fields of automotive, chemistry,pharmaceutics, biotechnology and medical tech-nology, construction, environment and energy aswell as on the information and communication tech-nology. At the interfaces to nanosciences, theAktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech cooperates with theNanoNetzwerkHessen. The project managing organ-ization of the Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech is theHessen Agentur.

Energy Location Hessen

Energy efficiency and the application of innovativeenergy technologies as well as the related resourcesaving are further core subjects of the Hessian Fed-eral State Government, which have been embeddedin the Hessian Ministry of Economy, Transport, Urbanand Regional Development since April 2003. TheHessian Ministry of Economy is responsible for thefields of energy management, energy law, energyengineering and the support programs in the fieldof energy, except for the support of the energeticusage of biomass from agriculture and forestry,which is under the responsibility of the Hessian Min-istry for Environment, Rural Development and Con-sumer Protection.Priority is placed on the support of the field ofrational energy use – i.e. energy saving. Apart fromthis, the Hessian Ministry of Economy also furthersthe market preparation of new, innovative technolo-gies and processes, e.g. through project funding,which allow a significant increase in efficiency ofenergy conversion plants. A multitude of individualprojects and networks unites different actors frompolitics, economy and research.Activities to initiate projects, concentrate differentinterest groups and measures for qualification andinformation contribute much to the creation andpreservation of work places. Information on the dif-ferent fields, such as energy efficiency, renewableenergies, funding projects in the energy sector andenergy law are to be found on the website of the Min-istry of Economy under www.energieland.hessen.de.

68

Hessisches Ministerium für Wirtschaft, Verkehr undLandesentwicklung

CONTACTwww.ttn-hessen.de

a HA Hessen Agentur GmbHDr. Gerrit Stratmann (Project Coordination)Abraham-Lincoln-Strasse 38–42D-65189 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)611 774-8691, Fax -58691gerrit.stratmann@hessen-agentur.dewww.hessen-agentur.de

CONTACTwww.nanonetzwerkhessen.de

a Dr. Beatrix Kohnke(Head of Branch Office)Mönchebergstrasse 19D-34109 Kassel, GermanyPhone +49 (0)561 804-2219, Fax -2226management@nanonetzwerkhessen.de

NanoNetzwerkHessen

In March 2004, the NanoNetzwerkHessen, sup-ported by the Hessian Federal State Government,was established by Hessen’s five universities and thefive academies of applied sciences, to start a closeinnovation-oriented cooperation in the field ofnanosciences based on a cooperation agreement.The initiative NNH is targeted at the concentrationof existing competences at Hessian universities, theinitiation of cooperations and the further develop-ment of Hessen as nanotechnology-location. TheNanoNetzwerkHessen is coordinated by the Univer-sity of Kassel. Researchers from the disciplines ofphysics, chemistry, biology, pharmaceutics, medi-cine, material sciences and the different subjects ofengineering sciences or even humanities are work-ing at Hessian universities in fields of nanosciences.This penetration of classic disciplines, in particular,considerably enhances the innovation potential ofthis science and provides Hessen with excellentstarting conditions for cooperations.Technologies nowadays represented at universitiesare diversified and range from nanoscale and nanos-tructured materials, nanosystem technology overnanomedicine, nanomaterial chemistry, nanobiologyto nanoanalytics. The work on research and devel-opment tasks in these fields, already at a precom-petitive stage, together with scientists, developersand users, and thus the bringing together of actors,resources and activities, not only allows the networkpartners to develop complementary resources, butmore than ever connects science to economic appli-cation, which contributes to the quicker implemen-tation of nanotechnological knowledge in products,production processes and services.

TechnologieTransferNetzwerk Hessen

Since 2001, Hessian universities and the leadingtrade associations have united to become the Tech-nologieTransferNetzwerk Hessen (TTN-Hessen), tolink the offer of support of knowledge with technol-ogy transfers and to facilitate the access to the sci-entific and technological potential at universities andresearch facilities for medium-sized companies. Inorder to be able to achieve this goal, in particular inthe field of nanotechnologies, the TTN-Hessen worksin close cooperation with its network-partners as wellas with the Aktionsline Hessen-Nanotech. Typicalexamples for this cooperation are company surveyscarried out jointly, and technology-oriented events.The CCI-innovation consulting Hessen in Darmstadt,Gießen, Fulda, Kassel and Offenbach have set upregional information centers for technology transfer.Their task is to actively contact companies and offersupport for the access to the application-orientedknow-how of the universities.

In addition a joint platform for the marketing ofcooperation offers of universities is to be foundunder www.ttn-hessen.de. Under the patronage of theTTN-Hessen, the Hessian universities have united tothe joint Intellectual Property Offensive H-IP-O. Con-tact partners are the agencies for the utilization ofpatents GINo, INNOVECTIS and TransMIT. Theyassist inventors in filing patent applications and uti-lization contracts even in the field of nanotechnolo-gies. The TTN-Hessen is supported and co-financedby the Hessian Ministry of Economy and Science, theHA Hessen Agentur GmbH (branch office), the asso-ciation of Hessian CCI and the European Social Fund(ESF).

69

CONTACTwww.itb-hessen.de

a IHK-Innovationsberatung HessenDetlev Osterloh (Head)Phone +49 (0)69 2197-1219d.osterloh@frankfurt-main.ihk.de

Head Office Frankfurt:c/o Industrie- und HandelskammerFrankfurt am MainBörsenplatz 4D-60313 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyPhone +49 (0)69 2197-1427, Fax -1484itb@frankfurt-main.ihk.de

The Hessian CCI

Since the beginning of the 1980s, the Hessian CCIoffer a special cost-free service to support enter-prises in their innovation efforts: the CCI InnovationConsulting Hessen. In times when changes in tech-nology and markets determine increasingly shorterinnovation cycles, the competence center provides,in particular, small and medium-sized enterpriseswith business-related and practical services. The CCIInnovation Consulting is a neutral information bro-ker, which actively accompanies the networking andcluster formation of technology-oriented companiesand research. Apart from direct innovation aid, as forexample, individual consulting and publications, theHessian CCI supports the intensive exchangebetween representatives of economy, science andpolitics through technology and industry-orientedevents. Since 2004, a special focus has been set onnanotechnologies and their potential for the econ-omy. Thus, together with the regional informationcenters of the TechnologieTransferNetzwerk Hessenand the Ministry of Economy, a series of events waslaunched in which the possibilities for applicationand use of nanotechnologies in different branchesof industry are examined more closely. The topicsrange from “Nanotechnologies in Cars of Tomorrow”and “Nanotechnologies in Medical Engineering” to“Nano-Electronics” and “Nano-Surface Technology”.

70

6 Institutions, Associations and ResearchAssociations on the Topic of NanoEnergy

CONTACTwww.iset.uni-kassel.de

a Institut für SolareEnergieversorgungstechnik (ISET) e.V.Prof. Dr. Jürgen SchmidKönigstor 59, D-34119 Kassel, GermanyPhone +49 (0)561 7294-345, Fax -300jschmid@iset.uni-kassel.de

6.1 ISETSince 1988, the ISET in Kassel and Hanau, with todaymore than 80 employees, has been dealing withapplication-oriented research and development forelectrical engineering and systems technology forthe use of renewable energies. With the latestresearch results and important technological and sci-entific guidance in the field of Renewable Energiesand energy efficiency, ISET contributes to the futureenergy politics as the central element of climate pol-itics.

Currently more than 60 % of the global greenhousegas emissions are attributable to the energy sector.Renewable Energies provide the potential to ensurethe total global energy supply. In the short run,energy savings have the highest potential for thereduction of greenhouse gas emissions. Very highefficiency potentials are mainly to be found in thefields of buildings, transport and the processingindustry. In a time horizon of already 20 years, windenergy and the energetic use of biomass togetherwith the existing utilization of hydro power couldprovide two thirds of global electricity. In the longerrun (after 2030), above all the direct use of solarenergy with its almost unlimited resources will be ofdecisive importance for meeting the growing energydemand. Apart from the implementation of climateprotection aims as well as further sustainabilityrequirements, supply security and maintenance ofcompetitiveness are the most important basic con-ditions for the further development of the energysector.

There are versatile technological approaches for theutilization of nanotechnologies. Important fields ofapplication with regard to energy efficiency areenergy stores, fuel cells, high-efficiency lighting sys-tems, high-selective catalysts, high-strength, light-weight materials for applications in the transport sec-tor and in the field of heat insulation as well as inrenewable energies in solar cells, bioenergy tech-nologies etc.

The applications suggested for the energy sectorallow the enhancement of certain properties (e.g.optical, mechanical, electric) of components or sys-tems for the conversion or storage of energy. Inaddition, enhanced material properties can result inmaterial and energy savings in the productionprocess.

Qualitative and quantitative assessments of the costreduction potential of nanotechnologies in theenergy sector are still not available. Aspects regard-ing environmental effects on humans and naturehave to be considered for the evaluation of the sus-tainability of new energy technologies.

Nanotechnologies, however, have the unique poten-tial to become an innovation driver for climate pro-tection and energy efficiency. In June 2007, theAktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech, in cooperation withthe ISET, organized the kick-off event NanoEnergy.In lectures and workshops, innovative nano andmaterial technologies for the solution of currentchallenges in the energy sector were presented anddiscussed (cf. p. 82).

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6.2 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Initiative Hessen

CONTACTwww.h2bz-hessen.de

a Wasserstoff- undBrennstoffzellen-Initiative HessenDipl.-Ing. Alfred J. Stein (Managing Director)Abraham-Lincoln-Strasse 38–42D-65189 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)611 774-8648alfred.stein@h2bz-hessen.de

InitiativeHessen

As one of the leading networks in this field, theHydrogen and Fuel Cell Initiative Hessen (H2BZ-Ini-tiative) is a member of the competence networksGermany. The H2BZ-Initiative was established whenindustry, the State of Hessen and the universities hadrecognized the great innovation and economic-polit-ical potential of “hydrogen” as an energy source andthe “fuel cell” as an energy converter. The main goalof the H2BZ-Initiative is to support their members inresearch, development and demonstration projects,to further the development of competences and toorganize technical exchange as well as the mutualinformation and technology transfer. The H2BZ-Ini-tiative

provides a network of experts in hydrogen and fuelcell technology which, apart from the already men-tioned networking of relevant Hessian actors, areactive in location and technology marketing for theState of Hessen. Hessen disposes of an excellententrepreneurial infrastructure with companies likeUmicore, Infraserv, BASF, Schunk or Linde and uni-versities, like the Academy of Applied Sciences ofWiesbaden, with outstanding competences in thefield of hydrogen and fuel cell technology. The H2BZ-Initiative regards nanotechnology as a typical inter-disciplinary technology, which was not only able toreveal spectacular phenomena from physical, chem-ical and biological approaches, but which opens upnumerous possibilities for fuel cells and hydrogentechnology, e. g. in the field of porous resp. catalyticmaterials or solid-storage materials such as metalhydrides. Such crystalline powders have a hugeinner surface and are able to bind enormousamounts of hydrogen in small volumes – and dis-charge them again – thus smoothing out one of theproblems in hydrogen storage.

But also in the sector of intelligent functional mate-rials, nanotechnology has a number of things tooffer: Porous nanostructures can be used in fuel cellmembranes and electrodes; large surfaces, strictlyspeaking surface-volume ratios enhance the behav-ior of gas distribution layers; thin membranes couldretain disturbing gases consisting of larger mole-cules.

Nanotechnology is expected to pave the way for fur-ther milestones with regard to a more sustainableenergy use and production, and also improves theconditions for a broad market launch of hydrogenand fuel cell technologies. Viewed in this light, it isthe H2BZ-Initiative’s task to concentrate, apart fromother topics, on energy converting or energy stor-age-related nanotechnology processes or materials.Therefore, the H2BZ-Initiative cultivates cooperationsbetween its members and nanotechnology expertslike the Nano-Netzwerk Hessen.

The H2BZ-Initiative explicitly appreciates that theHessian Ministry of Economy links the strategicallyimportant technology fields of Nano and Energythrough regular events and publications, like thisbrochure.

Further information under www.h2bz-hessen.de.

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6.3 VCI – Chemistry in the 21st Century:Energy Research and Nanomaterials

The VCI (Association of the German Chemical Industry)(www.vci.de) represents the politico-economic interests of1,600 German chemical companies and German subsidiariesof foreign enterprises in contacts with politics, public author-ities, other fields of industry, the world of science and media.The VCI stands for over 90 percent of the entire Germanchemical industry. In 2006, this branch of industry realizedsales revenues of approx. 162 billion Euros and employs astaff of more than 436,000. VCI is domiciled in Frankfurt/Mainand provides eight regional associations. In addition, numer-ous member companies are organized in altogether 30 sec-tor groups and sector associations, which are corporate mem-bers of VCI.

The development of new energy sources and the partial reor-ganization of our energy system from fossil sources to a newbasis is one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century, ifnot even the greatest. It is to be expected that our futureenergy supply will be even “more chemical” and withoutchemistry, the adaptation of our energy system to future chal-lenges will be impossible. Chemistry will be the solution forthe challenge to go into the tiniest structures, the nanocos-mos, which would remain concealed without modern micro-scopes. Nanotechnology is already an important tool in chem-istry and in the disciplines of materials technology, optics,electronics, biosciences and medicine, where nanomaterialsare applied.

Nanomaterials also play an increasingly important role inenergy production, energy conversion and energy storage.As catalysts in industry, nanomaterials help produce approx.80 % of all chemical products with reduced consumption ofraw materials and energy. Nanomaterials have become a“sine qua non” for the production of integrated circuits, formore precise and smaller structures or for the manufacturingof lithography lenses in the electronic industry. Thin layers ofonly a few nanometers have been used for data storage inour computers and electronic devices (hard disks and readingheads) for a long time. Without nanomaterials, the manufac-turing of wafers and thus of today’s computers, laptops, cam-eras, mobile phones and I-pods is unimaginable.

Solar cells are an environmentally friendly and elegant alter-native or supplement to energy production from fossil fuels.For this reason, research activities regarding new materialdevelopments are of great energy-strategic importance in thisfield. Energy efficient solar cells with increased lifetime areonly possible through nanolayers. Thus the future design ofsolar cells will be based on nanometer-thin layer systems.The steadily growing demand for high-capacity, mobileenergy supply systems will require batteries with enhancedperformance.

Apart from the typical field of application for mobile elec-tronic equipment, powerful energy storage systems are anessential precondition for the widespread implementation ofdecentralized energy converters (photovoltaics, wind-powerturbines), but also in the transport sector (electro-hybridvehicles).

On the “surface” of future electronics, flexible displays of liq-uid crystals (LED) and organic polymers will increasinglyenhance the efficiency and the application field of flexiblesolar cells. OLED (Organic Light-Emitting Diodes) arenanolayers – flat, thin, luminescent components of organicsemiconducting materials. Apart from their improved per-formance, their energy consumption is a great advantagecompared to conventional technologies. This applies also tonew lighting systems, such as light tiles as transparent lightsources or torch lights in bank card format.

With its numerous chemistry locations, Hessen will make animportant contribution to the development of nanotechnolo-gies, especially in the application field of energy engineer-ing. Already today, Hessian enterprises belong to the world’sleading companies in research of functional nanocoatings.The strong network of economy and excellent scientific facil-ities in the immediate vicinity lays the foundation for the“Innovation Drive Chemistry” in Hessen. Thus the VCI appre-ciates the initiative of the Hessian Federal State Governmentfor the support of nanotechnology in Hessen. Here, the devel-opment of regional networks has to be emphasized, whichbridge the gaps between universitary science, enterprisesand research institutes. From the VCI’s point of view, suchactivities contribute decisively to the enhancement of the effi-ciency of both basic research at universities and independ-ent research facilities in the field of chemistry and of thechemical industrial enterprises in Hessen in the internationalcompetition.

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CONTACTwww.vci.de

a VERBAND DER CHEMISCHEN INDUSTRIE e.V.Wissenschaft, Technik und UmweltBereich Wissenschaft und ForschungDr. Martin ReuterMainzer Landstrasse 55D-60329 Frankfurt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)69 2556-1584, Fax-1620reuter@vci.de

6.4 Dechema – Nanotechnology for Sustainable Energy Supply

CONTACTwww.dechema.de

a DECHEMADr. Peter Krüger, Chief Executive Officerof ProcessNet Nanotechnology Divisionc/o DECHEMA e.V.Theodor-Heuss-Allee 25D-60486 Frankfurt am Main, Germany

The DECHEMA is a non-profit scientific and technicalsociety for chemical engineering and biotechnologylocated in Frankfurt/Main. With its expert panels andevents, it provides more than 5000 members as wellas the community of experts from industry and uni-versities with the possibility to get informed on thelatest novelties of research and science. The Process-Net expert group ‘Nanotechnology’ is a group withcurrently 500 members dedicated to the support ofnanotechnology through networking and junior staffdevelopment. Against the background that rawmaterial reserves become scarcer and in view of theprobable climate change, the ensuring of a reliableand environmentally compatible energy supply willbecome a central issue in the next decades.

Besides energy conversion from renewable energieslike solar energy or wind and water power, the moreefficient conversion from fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)will (transitionally) have to be in the focus of theresearch and development work of all partiesinvolved (institutes and industry). Furthermore, sig-nificant energy savings and new efficient methodsof energy storage to reduce CO2-emissions, one ofthe most important causes for the climate change,will be in the center of the efforts. On the one hand,improved materials like nanocomposites on thebasis of carbon nanotubes may enable the manu-facturing of bigger and more rugged rotors toincrease the efficiency of wind power plants, whenwind power is converted into electricity. On theother hand, new nanocomposites provide weightsavings and thus energy savings in lightweight con-struction in the field of automotive engineering andaircraft construction. Furthermore, optimizednanocomposites exhibit the potential for energy andresource saving processes in manufacturing or pro-cessing.

Nanostructures in fuel cells and in photovoltaics(organic, hybrid systems, thin-layer technology)could contribute to a sustainable energy supply fromrenewable energy sources, while minimizing CO2-emissions. Nanostructures with high yield could alsobe used for light generation, as for example inOrganic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs), i.e. for effi-cient energy conversion, and thus enable new con-cepts e.g. wide area lighting. Conductive nano-objects as well as the application of new methods ofprinted electronics, allow the manufacturing of eco-nomic and resource-saving circuits (e.g. RFID), which

furthermore provide energy-efficient functions. Opti-mized nanostructured insulation materials, likenanofoams, with pore sizes and pore wall thick-nesses in the nano-range, enable more efficient insu-lation of buildings and a reduction of the energyconsumption. Nanomaterials in electric energystores, such as the coming generations of thelithium-ion batteries, will help store large energyamounts in a minimum of space losing hardly anyenergy even after longer storage times. Moreover,nanostructured materials (metal hybrids, metal-organic frameworks) could be utilized for non-elec-tric energy storage, e.g. of hydrogen. Suitablenanostructured catalysts generally support processoptimization and thus the reduction of energy con-sumption in production processes due to their highefficient specific surfaces.

Future customized high-efficient nanoscale catalystscould furthermore help reduce CO2-emissions, ifCO2 itself is applied as a component in the chemi-cal synthesis of new materials and can therefore nolonger contribute to the greenhouse effect.

The expert group Nanotechnology supports theassociation in all these projects and contributes tothe responsible use of nanotechnology. The partici-pation of interested experts is welcome!

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6.5 Federal Association Solar Economy

CONTACTwww.bsw-solar.de

a Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V.EnergieforumStralauer Platz 34, D-10243 Berlin, GermanyPhone +49 (0)30 29777-8835, Fax -8899harnisch@bsw-solar.de

Nanotechnologies for the Optimization ofSolar Energy Conversion in Photovoltaics

Thinner, more efficient, cheaper: Technologies forsolar energy production made sharp progress in thelast years. Innovative production systems and theapplication of new materials increase the efficiencyof solar plants and contribute to the continuousreduction of production costs. Solar plants are pro-duced for the application in the mass market, andthe solar economy continuous to expand. The Euro-pean umbrella association of the photovoltaic indus-try, EPIA, expects a doubling of the world marketwithin the next three years and a world market of 5.6gigawatts in 2010.

The application fields of nanotechnologies in thesolar industry are more and more in the focus ofinterest: e.g. for nanotexturing of cells for the reduc-tion of reflections or for organic solar cells. However,according to experts, basic knowledge of the varietyof application possibilities of nanotechnologyresearch for renewable energy technologies is stilllacking. Dye solar cells and polymer solar cells imi-tating the natural photosynthesis of plants are still ina research phase.

Research is carried out for the production of thin,homogenous layers which, with about 100 nanome-ters, are approx. three hundred times thinner than ahuman hair. Organic solar cells enable the furtherexpansion of the application range of solar energyproduction. While the classic silicon cells are ratherused like a high-performance stationary PC, organicphotovoltaic may be applied, like in the laptop, inmobile and flexible applications.

In 2007, the Federal Ministry of Education andResearch (BMBF) launched the support program“Organic Photovoltaics”, which is aimed at the accel-eration of the introduction of organic photovoltaictechnologies up to the broad industrial applicationthrough a combination of basic research, applica-tion-oriented material research and development aswell as the related process engineering.

The BSW-Solar regards the organic photovoltaic asa promising approach contributing to the techno-logical variety of solar energy production. However,it will take some years until it is possible to expandthe market offer through an industrial-scale produc-tion of organic solar cells. The Federal AssociationSolar Economy supports the technological furtherdevelopment of photovoltaics.

The BSW-Solar regards the targeted commitmenttowards more investment security as well as theestablishment of suitable market incentive pro-grammes and a cross-party and cross-society con-sensus in view of the development of solar energyas the central task of the association’s work.

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6.6 Federal Association of Energy and Water Management BDEW

CONTACTwww.bdew.de

a BDEW Bundesverband derEnergie- und Wasserwirtschaft e.V.Robert-Koch-Platz 4D-10115 Berlin, GermanyPhone +49 (0)30 726148-100, Fax -200konstantin.staschus@bdew.de

Energie. Wasser. Leben.

Possible Fields of Application of Nanotechnologiesin Power Transmission

Energy supply in general and the power transmis-sion in particular are facing a number of great chal-lenges now and in the next decades. The liberaliza-tion of the European energy markets changed thewide-area power flow decisively and resulted inclearly increased stress on the transmission grids.The conversion to increasingly CO2-poor power gen-eration leads to completely different production foci– e.g. offshore wind energy – and thus to demandson the construction of new supply lines and balanceenergy, which can hardly be met by today’s technol-ogy and approval processes. This calls for politicaland regulatory action, if German power supply shallcontinue to be the most reliable in Europe. Moderntechnology can also help solve such problems, inorder that new equipment becomes safer, more effi-cient and – hopefully – even more economic andallows for a better control of the whole system ofpower generation, transmission grids and devices atthe customer’s location. Nanotechnology sets in ear-lier and opens up new future prospects mainlythrough further enhanced equipment like stores,supply lines, transformers or power electronics.Although it will be rather the equipment manufac-turers than the network operators who are mainlyinterested in this technology, the network operatorsalso observe it with interest – just like other tech-nologies, e.g. in the information and communicationtechnology – since they may help solve these greatchallenges.

Promising fields of application for nanotechnology inpower transmission and distribution are, for example:

a Low-loss power lines through nanomaterials(e.g. power lines on the basis of optimizedsuperconductors or carbon nanotubes)

a Nano-optimized power electronics (inter alia,nanostructured compound semiconductors forapplication at high voltages or high tempera-tures)

a Smart Grids (intelligent power grid manage-ment, inter alia, through nanobased sensorsand power-electronic components)

The BDEW Federal Association of Energy and WaterManagement is the first joint representation of inter-ests of the industrial branches of electricity, districtheat, gas, water and waste water in Germany. Theassociation successfully represents the interests ofthe member companies in political debates onnational and international level. As the voice of therepresented branches, the BDEW is the central con-tact for decision makers in politics, media andadministration as well as for economy, science andsociety.

The association was founded in 2007 through amerger of the associations VDEW, BGW, VDN andVRE, now comprising 1,800 member companies.With 14 billion Euros annually, these companiestogether are the biggest investor in German indus-try. The whole value added chain – from generationand production to distribution and sales – is repre-sented by the BDEW. The spectrum of member com-panies ranges from local and communal companiesto regional and national suppliers.

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6.7 Fraunhofer Energy Alliance

CONTACTwww.energie.fraunhofer.de

a Fraunhofer-Allianz EnergieHeidenhofstrasse 2D-79110 Freiburg, GermanyPhone +49 (0)761 4588-5473, Fax -9473info@energie.fraunhofer.de

η

AllianzEnergie

21 Fraunhofer Institutes have united to form theFraunhofer Energy Allicance to provide customerswith the competences of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft in the energy sector through one singleportal. Simpler access to the expertise of the Fraun-hofer Institutes is offered, in particular to small andmedium-sized companies, but also to politics andthe energy business.

The institutes provide the complete range of R&Dservices, from material research to macroeconomicsystem analysis with the focus set on the technologydevelopment, process engineering and productdevelopment. The particular fortes are found in thefields of renewable energies, efficiency technolo-gies, building and components, smart energy grids,energy storage technologies, micro-energy systemsas well as hydrogen and fuel cell technology. Withregard to complex research and development tasks,the institutes work hand in hand to develop innova-tive and economically attractive solutions for theircustomers.

This young and versatile discipline of nanotechnol-ogy can contribute essentially to the restructuring ofour energy supply system towards sustainability, reli-ability and higher efficiency along the value addedchain of the energy sector. Carbon nanotubes, CNT,for example, help maximize the surface of porousmedia, thus opening up a wide range of energy-rel-evant applications: the enhancement of electrodesfor electric stores or fuel cells significantly increasesenergy and power densities; organic solar cells canachieve higher efficiencies through self-organizingabsorbers, and absorption refrigerating machinesconvert heat into cold even more efficiently. But alsohigh mechanical strength and electric conductivityof CNT provide the possibility to make existing prod-ucts like wind power plants more reliable and morepowerful.

Nanoscale treatment may render surfaces moreresistant to mechanical stress and high tempera-tures, which can result in higher efficiencies andlonger operating times of turbines, motors or ther-mal absorbers. But also optical properties of com-ponents can be precisely adjusted through nan-otechnologies, which helps improve solar cells orlight emitting diodes (LED), for example. Their effi-ciency can be literally increased in quantum leaps byso-called quantum dots.

There are already concrete concepts for the realiza-tion of the application possibilities of nanotech-nologies described in this brochure as well as for anumber of other applications. In order to exploit thewhole potential of nanotechnologies research effortsneed to be intensified. The resulting innovativeproducts could contribute to a sustainable, reliableand economical energy supply with higher comfort.

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7 Annex

7.1 Selected Companies in Hessen in the Nanoenergy Area

Akzo Nobel High Purity Metalorganics GmbH

Emil-von-Behring-Strasse 76D-35041 Marburg, Germanywww.akzonobel-hpmo.com

Products: Speciality chemicals for semiconductorcoatings

BASF Fuel Cells

Industriepark Höchst, G 864D-65926 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyPhone +49 (0)69 305-4292, Fax -26600www.pemeas.com, www.basf.com/fuelcell

Products: High temperature polymer membranefuel cells

Clariant Produkte GmbH

Industrie Park Hoechst Building G 834D-65926 Frankfurt am Main, GermanyPhone +49 (0)69 305-13791, Fax -331749www.nano.zeolite.clariant.com

Products: Nano-zeolites as substrate e. g.for new dye solar cells

Evonik Degussa GmbH

Building 1042/118Rodenbacher Chaussee 4D-63457 Hanau-Wolfgang, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 59-6375, Fax -2391www.evonik.com

Products: Separators and systems for lithium ionbatteries for electro and hybrid carsas well as stationary ernergy stores,nanomaterials for photovoltaics

Heraeus Holding GmbH

Heraeusstrasse 12D-63450 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 35-5706, Fax -3550www.heraeus.de

Products: Sputter targets for thin film solar cellsand functional layers for heat insulationglazings

Hollingsworth & Vose GmbH & Co. KG

Berleburger Strasse 71D-35116 Hatzfeld (Eder), GermanyPhone +49 (0)6467 801-0, Fax -4202www.hollingsworth-vose.com

Products: Nanostructured fibers and separatorsfor batteries

European Advanced Superconductors GmbH & Co. KG

Ehrichstrasse 10D-63450 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 4384-4100, Fax -4400www.advancedsupercon.com

Products: High temperature superconductersbased on nanomaterials

MAGNETEC GmbH

Industriestrasse 7D-63505 Langenselbold, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6184 9202-10, Fax -20www.magnetec.de

Products: Magnetic nanomaterials for electricalengineering

Merck KgaA

Frankfurter Strasse 250D-64293 Darmstadt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6151 72-0, Fax -2000www.merck.de

Products: Nanoporous materials for hydrogenstorage, organic semiconductors forphotovoltaics

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Merck KGaA OLED Materials

Industrial Park Hoechst, F821D-65926 Frankfurt, GermanyPhone +49 (0)69 305-13705, Fax -21592www.merck-oled.de

Products: Organic semiconductors for OLED

Rewitec GmbH

Dr.-Hans-Wilhelmi-Weg 1D-35633 Lahnau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6441 44599-0, Fax -25www.rewitec.com

Products: Nanocoating technology for wearprotection of metallic components

Schunk Kohlenstofftechnik GmbH

Rodheimer Strasse 59D-35452 Heuchelheim, GermanyPhone +49 (0)641 608-1460, Fax -1436www.schunk-group.com

Products: Nanostructured carbon materialsfor electrodes in batteries, SiBNC-composites for electrical engineering

SolviCore GmbH & Co. KG

Rodenbacher Chaussee 4D-63457 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 59-5432, Fax -4240Internet: www.solvicore.de

Products: Nanostructured catalysts for fuel cells

SGL Carbon AG

Rheingaustrasse 182D-65203 Wiesbaden, GermanyPhone +49 (0)8271 83-2458, Fax -2419www.sglcarbon.de

Products: Nanostructured carbon materials forelectrical engineering

Umicore AG & Co. KG

Rodenbacher Chaussee 4D-63403 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 59-6627, Fax -76227www.umicore.de

Products: Electro-/Fuel-processing catalysts(fuel cells, catalysts)

VACUUMSCHMELZE GmbH & Co. KG

Grüner Weg 37D-63450 Hanau, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6181 38-0, Fax --2645www.vacuumschmelze.de

Products: Nanostructured magnetic materials e.g.for electrical engineering applications

Viessmann Werke GmbH & Co. KG

Viessmann Strasse 1D-35107 Allendorf/Eder, GermanyPhone +49 (0)6452 70-3410, Fax -6410www.viessmann.de

Products: Nanoporous materials for high efficientheaters for buildings

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7.2 Selected Research Institutions in Hessen in the Nanoenergy Area

TU Darmstadt

Institute for Nanostructuring and AnalyticsGrafenstrasse 2, D-64283 Darmstadt, GermanyProf. Dr.-Ing. Christina BergerDr.-Ing. Alfred ScholzPhone +49 (0)6151 16-2451, Fax -5659Mobil +49 (0)178 2846345scholz@ifw.tu-darmstadt.dewww.tu-darmstadt.de/mpa-ifw

Research topics: Nanocoatings for turbines

Energy Center – Institute of Materials SciencePetersenstrasse 23, D-64287 Darmstadt, GermanyProf. Dr. Wolfram JaegermannSurface Science DivisionPhone +49 (0)6151 16-6304, Fax -6308www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/ms/fg/ofl/index.tud

Research topics: Thinfilm solar cells, batteries

Department of Material Sciences,Section Renewable EnergiesDr. Christina RothPhone +49 (0)6151 16-5498, Fax -6377c_roth@tu-darmstadt.dewww.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/ms/fg/ee

Research topics: fuel cells, characterization ofnanoscale catalysts

Department of Electrical Engineering,Section Renewable EnergiesProf. Dr.-Ing. Thomas HartkopfPhone +49 (0)6151 16-2563, Fax -6074thomas.hartkopf@re.tu-darmstadt.dewww.ees.tu-darmstadt.de

Research topics: Fuel cells, nanostructuredcarbon electrodes, nanoparticlesfor catalysts

Fachhochschule Wiesbaden

Division RüsselsheimProf. Dr. Birgit ScheppatPhone +49 (0)6142 898-512, Fax -528scheppat@physik.fh-wiesbaden.dewww.physik.fh-wiesbaden.de

Research topics: Fuel cells hydrogen stores

Department Physical Technology,Microsystem Technology, Thin FilmsAm Brückweg 26, D-65428 Rüsselsheim, GermanyProf. Dr. Friedemann VölkleinPhone +49 (0)6142 898-521, Fax -528voelklein@physik.fh-wiesbaden.de

Research topics: Nanostructured thermoelectrics

Universität Kassel

Institute for Nanostructuring and AnalyticsProf. Dr. H. HillmerPhone +49 (0)561 804-4485, Fax -4488hillmer@ina.uni-kassel.dewww.uni-kassel.de/fb16/te/start.shtml

Research topics: Innovative light guiding systemsSection Renewable Energies

Institute for Solar Energy TechnologyProf. Dr.-Ing. Jürgen SchmidPhone +49 (0)561-7294-304jschmid@iset.uni-kassel.dewww.iset.uni-kassel.de

Research topics: Photovoltaics, smart grids,power electronics, fuel cells

Department of Material SciencesUniv. Prof. Dr.-Ing. G. KnollMönchebergstrasse 3, D-34125 Kassel, GermanyPhone +49 (0)561 804-2830, Fax –3727gunter.knoll@imk.uni-kassel.de

Research topics: Tribological nano-coatings,wear resistant coatings

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Justus-Liebig-Universität Gießen

Physical-Chemical InstituteSolid State Physics / ElectrochemistryProf. Dr. Jürgen JanekHeinrich-Buff-Ring 58, D-35392 Giessen, GermanyPhone +49 (0)641 99-34500 or -34501, Fax -34509juergen.janek@phys.chemie.uni-giessen.dewww.chemie.uni-giessen.de/home/janek

Research topics: Nanostructured hydrogenstorage

Institute for Applied PhysicsProf. Dr. Derck SchlettweinHeinrich-Buff-Ring 16, D-35392 Giessen, GermanyPhone +49 (0)641 99-33401, Fax -33409schlettwein@uni-giessen.de

Research topics: Dye solar cells

Philipps-Universität Marburg

Scientific Centre for Material SciencesDr. habil. Wolfgang StolzHans-Meerwein-StrasseD-35032 Marburg, GermanyPhone +49 (0)641 99-25696, Fax -28935Wolfgang.Stolz@Physik.Uni-Marburg.de

Research topics: Gas-phase epitaxy for com-pound semiconductor solar cells

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a Balzer, G. et al. „Elektrische Energietechnik:Schlüsseltechnologie der Zukunft“, Forschung2/2007 TU Darmstadt

a Becker, M., Schneller, T. „Neue Wege zuHochtemperaturleitern“, Nachrichten aus derChemie, 55, December 2007

a BMWi, BMU „Bericht zur Umsetzung der in derKabinettsklausur am 23. / 24.8.2007 in Mesebergbeschlossenen Eckpunkte für ein IntegriertesEnergie- und Klimaprogramm“, Berlin, 5.12.2007

a Cientifica „Nanotechnologies and Energy“,whitepaper, Cientifica, London, 2/2007,www.cientifica.eu

a CLSA „Solar Power Sector outlook“, July 2004,www.clsa.com

a Dechema et al. „Energieversorgung der Zukunft– der Beitrag der Chemie“, Positionspapier derDECHEMA, DBG, DGMK, GDCh, VDI-GVC, VCI,March 2007

a EPIA, Greenpeace „Solar Generation IV – 2007“,Bericht der European Photovoltaics IndustryAssociation und Greenpeace International, 2007

a European Molecular Biology Organization„Short-circuiting our fossil fuel habits“, EMBOreports VOL 6, No 3, 2005

a Forschungsverbund Sonnenenergie„Themenheft Photovoltaik – Neue Horizonte“2003, www.fv-sonnenenergie.de

a Forschungsverbund Sonnenenergie„Gemeinsam forschen für die Energie derZukunft”, Fall 2007

a GDCh „Potenziale der Chemie für mehrEnergieeffizienz“, Nachrichten aus der GDCh-Energieinitiative, April 2007

a Lux Research „Nanotech’s Impact on Energyand Environmental Technologies“,Lux Research 2007, www.luxresearchinc.com

a Schott „Solar – Energie für die Zukunft“,Broschüre, Schott AG Mainz, April 2006

a Schüth, F., Felderhoff, M., Bogdanovic, B.„Komplexe Hydride als Materialien für dieWasserstoffspeicherung“, TätigkeitsberichtMax-Planck-Gesellschaft, 2006

a Sommerlatte, J., Nielsch, K., Böttner, H.„Thermoelektrische Multitalente“,Physik Journal 6 Nr. 5, Wiley-VCH Verlag, 2007

a Technology Review „Energiespeicher“,S. 59–73, August 2007

7.4 Events

a Impulsveranstaltung Nano EnergieHanau-Wolfgang, 28.6.2007,www.nanotech-hessen.de/Veranstaltungen/rueckblick/impulsveranstaltung-nano-energie

a Konferenz Nano Energie –„Nano- und Materialtechnologien fürdie Energieversorgung der Zukunft“Hanau-Wolfgang, 11.9.2008,www.hessen-nanotech.de/nanoenergie

7.3 Further literature

Brochure Seriesof the Aktionslinie Hessen-Nanotech of theHessian Ministry of Economy, Transport, Urbanand Regional Development

Volume 1 Uses of Nanotechnology in Envi-ronmental Technology in HessenInnovation potentials for companies

Volume 2 NanoMedicineInnovation potentials in Hessen formedical technology and the pharma-ceutical industry

Volume 3 Automotive NanotechnologyInnovation potentials in Hessen forthe automotive industry and its sub-contractors

Volume 4 NanoCommunicationGuide to the communication of chancesand risks for small and medium-sizednanotech companies in Hessen

Supplement to the main threadNanoCommunication

Volume 5 NanoOpticsNanotechnologies for the opticalindustry – A basis for future innovationsin Hessen

Volume 6 NanoProductionNanotechnology in the productionprocess as a potential innovation sourcefor companies in Hessen

Volume 7 Uses for Nanotechnologies inArchitecture and Civil Engineering

Volume 8 NanoStandardisationStandardisation in the nanotechnologyfield as an opportunity for companiesin Hessen

Volume 9 Nanotechnology Applicationsin the Energy Sector

Information / Download / Order:www.hessen-nanotech.de

project executing organisation of the AktionslinieHessen-Nanotech of the Hessian Ministry of Economy,Transport, Urban and Regional Development

www.hessen-nanotech.deNanotechHessen