cis 465 - computer-mediated communications 1 communication concepts * computer-mediated...
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CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 1
Communication Concepts*
Computer-Mediated Communications
*GroupWare
Communication Concepts*
Computer-Mediated Communications
*GroupWare
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 2
CommunicationCommunication
Communication is an interpersonal process of sending and receiving symbols with messages attached to them.
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 3
General Model of a Communication SystemGeneral Model of a Communication System
Source Transmitterencoder Channel
ReceiverDecoder Destination
Noiseand
Distortion
Feedback
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 4
Basic Communication ConceptsBasic Communication Concepts
Social Context Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous
Communication Time, Place, and Direction of Communication
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 5
Social ContextSocial Context
The situation and relationships within which communication takes place.
– Social presence
– Organizational position
– Relationships
– Cultural Norms
– Age
– Gender
– The topic being discussed
Nonverbal communication Media Richness Theory
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Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous Communication
Personal, Impersonal, and Anonymous Communication
Personal - the relationship between sender and receiver matters. It affects form and content.
Impersonal - The sender and receiver’s relationship does not matter. Both serve as agents of the organization.
Anonymous - The sender’s identity is hidden from the recipient.
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Time, Place, and Direction of CommunicationTime, Place, and Direction of Communication
Synchronous - The sender and Receiver are available simultaneously
Asynchronous - The sender and receiver are not available simultaneously.
Place Involves Physical Presence Direction: One-way vs. Two Way
communication.
Common Communications Classified By Time and
Place
Common Communications Classified By Time and
Place
SAMEPLACE
DIFFERENTPLACE
SAME TIME DIFFERENT TIME
Presentation SystemsCopyboardsPC ProjectorsFacilitation ServicesPolling SystemsGroup Decision Rooms
Transaction databasesShared FilesElectronic MailVoice Mail
Shift Work Communications
Typical TelephoneVideo Telephone Video ConferencingLive Radio TV Broadcast
EDIElectronic MailComputer ConferencingVoice MailFax
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Approaches for Improving CommunicationApproaches for Improving Communication
Presentation Technologies Eliminate Unnecessary Person to Person
Communication Make Communications more systematic Combine and Extend Electronic
Communications
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Making Face to Face More EffectiveMaking Face to Face More Effective
Presentation Technologies:– Blackboard
– Prepared Paper Handouts
– Overhead projector or slide projector with color transparencies
– Electronic Blackboard
– Computer LCD Display panels
– Computer for “What-If” Scenarios
– Computer-controlled Multi-media
– Computer controlled multi-media with interactive control.
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Eliminate Unnecessary Person to Person CommunicationEliminate Unnecessary Person to Person Communication
Substitute on-line Access to data– Example: Supplier/Customer Relationships
ATM access Automated Telephone Attendants Danger of becoming too impersonal
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Making Communication SystematicMaking Communication Systematic
Contrast communication between people vs. communication between machines.
The business Memo Header:– To:
– From:
– Date:
– Re:
Having structure reduces the effort required to figure out what the communication means.
Even with communication between groups of people, repetitive aspects of communication are systematized.
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Combine and Extend Electronic Communication Functions
Combine and Extend Electronic Communication Functions
Early communication technologies have been combined and extended to create more powerful communication technologies.
Example: Telegraph, Telephone, Radio Broadcast
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Collaborative WorkCollaborative Work
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Supporting Collaborative WorkSupporting Collaborative Work
The term group, or work group refers to two or more individuals who act as one unit to perform a task.
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Benefits of Working in A GroupBenefits of Working in A Group
Groups are better than individuals at understanding problems.
People are accountable for decisions in which they participate.
Groups are better than individuals in catching errors.
A group has more information (Knowledge) than any one member, and, as a result, more alternatives are generated for problem solving.
Synergy may develop so that the effectiveness of the group is greater than what could have been produced individually.
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Benefits of Working in A Group - 2Benefits of Working in A Group - 2
Working in a group may stimulate the process and the individuals.
Group members have their own egos imbedded in the decision they make, so they will be committed to the implementation.
The participation of the members means less likelihood of their resisting implementation.
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Dysfunctions of GroupsDysfunctions of Groups
Social Pressures of Conformity (groupthink) may eliminate superior ideas.
Time-consuming, slow process (e.g. tendency to repeat what was already said).
Lack of coordination of the work done by the group.
Inappropriate influence of group dynamics (domination by some, fear to speak by others).
Tendency of group members to rely on others (“free ride”)
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Dysfunctions of Groups -2Dysfunctions of Groups -2
Tendency toward compromised solutions of poor quality.
Inability to complete a Task Large non-productive time . Larger cost of making decisions (many hours
of participation, travel time, etc.). Incomplete or inappropriate use of
information.
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Improving the Work of GroupsImproving the Work of Groups
Nominal Group Technique Delphi Methods Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
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Nominal Group TechniqueNominal Group Technique Typical group dynamic method. Includes a sequence of activities:
– 1. silent generation of ideas in writing
– 2. round-robin listing of ideas on flip chart
– 3. serial discussion of ideas
– 4. silent listing and ranking of priorities
– 5. discussion or priorities
– 6. silent re-ranking and rating of priorities
Based on social-psychological research which indicates procedure is clearly superior to conventional discussion groups for generating higher quality decisions, greater quantity of ideas, and improved distribution of information on fact-finding tasks.
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Nominal Group Technique - 2Nominal Group Technique - 2
The success of the NGT technique and similar methods depends considerably on the quality of the facilitator and on the training given to participants.
The approach does not solve several of the dysfunctions of groups such as fear to speak, slow process, poor planning and organization of the meeting, compromises, and lack of appropriate analysis.
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Delphi MethodsDelphi Methods
Originally designed by RAND Corp. as a technological forecasting technique for a group of experts.
Designed to eliminate undesirable effects of interaction among group members.
The experts do not meet face-to-face, and they do not know who the other experts are.
Each group member provides individual ideas, opinions, etc. with supporting arguments, assumptions, rankings, etc.
A facilitator edits, clarifies, and summarizes the data.
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Delphi Methods - 2Delphi Methods - 2
Results are provided as anonymous feedback to group members along with second round of questions.
Questions and feedback continue anonymously for several rounds becoming increasingly more specific until consensus is reached or their is no more movement of group members on their individual positions.
Through anonymity, negative effects associated with face to face solutions are avoided (e.g. dominant behavior, groupthink, and stubbornness to change one’s mind).
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Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)Computer-Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW)
The electronic workplace - an organization wide system that integrates information processing and communication activities.
The study of such activities is part of a multi-disciplinary field called computer-supported cooperative work.
CSCW looks at how groups work together and seeks to discover how technology can help them work.
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What’s In A Name?What’s In A Name?
Very often the following terms are used interchangeably;
– computer-supported cooperative work (CSCW)
– Electronic meeting systems (EMS)
– Computer-mediated Communications (CMC)
– Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)
– GroupWare
– Coordination Systems
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GroupWareGroupWare
Commercial CSCW products (The Coordinator, Lotus Notes) are often referred to as examples of GroupWare.
It is often used synonymously with CSCW technology.
Others may look at GroupWare as the class of applications arising from the merging of computers are large information databases, and communication technology.
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GroupWare OriginsGroupWare Origins
Most software systems originally supported only the interaction between a user and the system.
Whether preparing a document, querying a database, or playing a game, the user only interacted with the system.
However, this is not the way most people work in daily life.
The term personal computer is becoming an oxymoron.
Three key ideas in group interaction: communication, collaboration, and coordination.
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Communication Communication
Computer-based or computer-mediated communication is not fully integrated with other forms of communication.
Asynchronous text-based e-mail and bulletin boards vs. synchronous telephone and face to face conversation.
One can not transfer a document between two phone numbers, and can not originate a voice conversation between two workstations.
Telecommunications technologies and computer processing technologies will still grow closer together.
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CollaborationCollaboration Collaboration is the cornerstone of group activity.
Effective collaboration demands people share information.
Current database systems insulate users from one another.
CAD system designers: Seldom are they able to simultaneously modify different parts of the same object.
Many tasks require a finer granularity of sharing. Needed: Shared environments that unobtrusively
offer up to date group context and explicit notification of user's actions.
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CoordinationCoordination
The effectiveness of communication and collaboration can be enhanced if a group’s activities are coordinated.
Without coordination, a group may engage in conflicting or repetitive actions.
Coordination is an activity itself - necessary overhead when several parties are performing a task.
Although most databases provide multiple accesses to shared objects, most tools accomplish this from a single-user perspective.
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GroupWare: Formal DefinitionGroupWare: Formal Definition
GroupWare: computer-based systems that support groups of people engaged in a common task (or goal) and that provide an interface to a shared environment.
Timesharing would not generally be considered GroupWare.
The activity need not be simultaneous. Johnson-Lenz’ definition of GroupWare:
computer-based systems plus social group processes.
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GroupWare SpectrumGroupWare Spectrum
Common Task Dimension
LOWTimesharing
System
HIGHSoftware System
Review or CollaborativeWriting
Shared Environment Dimension
LOWElectronic
HIGHVirtual
Classroom
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Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Time-Space Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Time-Space
SAME TIME DIFFERENT TIME
SAMEPLACE
DIFFERENTPLACES
Face to Faceinteraction
AsynchronousInteraction
SynchronousDistributedInteraction
AsynchronousDistributed Interaction
AnyTimeAny
Place
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Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Application-Level
Taxonomy of GroupWare Systems: Application-Level
Message Systems Screen Sharing GDSS and Electronic Meeting Rooms (EMS) Computer Conferencing Intelligent Agents Coordination Systems Workflow Systems
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Message SystemsMessage Systems
Asynchronous exchange of textual and non-textual messages between groups of users.
Concept of attachments Danger of Information Overload Filtering and Filing functionality Attachment of scripts
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Screen-SharingScreen-Sharing In collaborative work, members are often in
different locations. As an example, special software allows groups to
jointly compose and edit a document, spreadsheet, or other entity.
Synchronous and asynchronous use. Concurrent read access to entire document, but
only one writer updates a segment at a time. Locking as in database management with
versioning is important. Explicit notification of other user actions. Another example: electronic whiteboards.
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GDSS and EMSGDSS and EMS
GDSS provide computer-based facilities for exploration of unstructured problems.
Goal is to improve the productivity of decision-making meetings, by speeding up the process or improve the quality of the resulting decisions.
Many GDSS’s are implemented at EMS’s. Arizona’s Groupsystems).
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Computer ConferencingComputer Conferencing
Real-time computer conferencing teleconferencing (voice and video) asynchronous computer conferencing
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Intelligent AgentsIntelligent Agents
Not all participants in electronic meetings are people.
In general, intelligent agents are responsible for a specific set of tasks, and the user interface makes their actions resemble those of other users.
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Coordination SystemsCoordination Systems
The coordination problem is the integration and harmonious adjustment of individual work efforts.
Typically such systems allow individuals to view their actions, and those of others, within the context of the overall goal.
Systems may trigger user actions. Four types of Models: form, procedure,
conversation, or communication-structure oriented.
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The CoordinatorThe Coordinator
The Coordinator is a commercial GroupWare product for messaging.
It is based on a set of speech acts (i.e. requests promises, etc.) and contains a model of legal conversation modes (e.g. a request has to be issued before a promise can be made).
As users make conversational moves, typically through e-mail, the system tracks their requests and commitments
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Workflow SystemsWorkflow Systems
Perhaps a special case of coordination systems.
Business process automation tools that place system controls in the hands of user departments.
Highly flexible and can be designed to automate almost any information processing task.
Primary purpose is to provide users with tracking, routing, document imaging, and other capabilities designed to improve business processes.
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Assumptions and Goals of various
forms of Computer-Mediated Communication
Assumptions and Goals of various
forms of Computer-Mediated Communication
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Assumptions and GoalsAssumptions and Goals
for the group to exhibit collective intelligence support communications 24 hours per day, 7 days
per week, both synchronously and asynchronously.
tailorability of communication structure for groups’ needs
Appropriate communication structures are extremely sensitive to group norms and organizational culture.
Individuals have a great deal of leeway as to what mode of communication they will use. You can nor force users to use electronic means.
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Assumptions and Goals - 2Assumptions and Goals - 2
Individual and group problem solving requirements imply that one must integrate computing and data resources as part of the communication process.
Individuals and groups must be able to exercise a high degree of tailorability to the communication environment and interface.
Privacy and security of human communication are essential to the acceptance of the system.
Human roles, and computer support of human roles are key factors in the success of group activities.
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AsynchronousGroup OperationsAsynchronousGroup Operations
Fallacy: The best way to automate something is the way it was originally done manually.
Although it may sound easy to sell a system that way, it may be the worst way to design a system for increased benefits.
Example: Asynchronous Communication should not necessarily be thought of as problem because it is not the sequential process used in face-to-face mode.
Issue should be to exploit the opportunity of asynchronous communication to make a group process better than face to face communication.
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AsynchronousGroup Operations - 2AsynchronousGroup Operations - 2
The potential for real improvement in group processes lies in the fact that individuals can deal with that part of the problem they can contribute to at a given time, regardless of where the other individuals are in the process.
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What’s In a name? (again)...What’s In a name? (again)...
Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS) Electronic Meeting Systems (EMS) Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
(CSCW) Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC)
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Designing GroupwareDesigning Groupware What would some of the “entities” or “objects of
discourse” be in a Group Decision Support System (GDSS)?
– PROBLEMS, ISSUES, QUESTIONS
– GOALS, OBJECTIVES, PLANS
– STRATEGIES, POLICIES, AGENDAS
– CONCERNS, CRITERIA ARGUMENTS
– ASSUMPTIONS, VIEWPOINTS
– OPINIONS, VALUES, INTERESTS
– CONSEQUENCES, SCENARIOS, IMPACTS
– TRADEOFFS, COMPROMISE, PROPOSALS
– SOLUTIONS, DECISIONS, PROJECTS
– TASKS, ALLOCATIONS, POSSIBILITIES
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Designing Groupware - 2Designing Groupware - 2
What are some desirable features in a GDSS?
– ALTERNATIVE GENERATION
– STANDARD SETTING
– GOAL AND OBJECTIVE SETTING
– PROJECT FORMULATION
– PROJECT STATUS TRACKING
– PROBLEM EXAMINATION
– RISK DETERMINATION
– MODEL BUILDING
– COLLABORATIVE WRITING
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Designing Groupware - 3Designing Groupware - 3
Some GDSS “Tools”:– VOTING SCALES
RANK ORDERING COMPARATIVE ORDERING INTERVAL & RATIO SCALING
– DECISION TREES
– INFLUENCE MATRICES
– RISK ANALYSIS
– DECISION TABLES
– STAKEHOLDER ROLES
– GAMING
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COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS (CMC)COMPUTER MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONS (CMC)
OBJECTIVES
– FACILITATION OF GROUP ACTIVITIES
– TAILORING COMMUNICATION STRUCTURES AND PROTOCOLS AROUND THE APPLICATION AND THE GROUP
– COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE CAN THE GROUP PERFORM BETTER
THAN THE BEST MEMBER ACTING ALONE (SPEED AND QUALITY)
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COLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCECOLLECTIVE INTELLIGENCE
CAPTURING INDIVIDUAL KNOWLEDGE FORMING A GROUP SYNTHESIS FEEDBACK TO GROUP EVALUATION BY THE GROUP EVOLUTION AND ADOPTION BY GROUP USE BY THE GROUP FOR THE GROUP AND
THIS GDSS SHALL NOT PERISH INTEGRATION OF COMPUTER RESOURCES POWER TO THE GROUP
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Theoretical Foundationsfor Electronic Meeting Systems
Theoretical Foundationsfor Electronic Meeting Systems
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 56
Remember...Remember...
What’s in a Name?– Group Decision Support System
– Electronic Meeting System
– Computer Mediated Communication Systems
Theoretical Foundations for Electronic Meeting
Systems
Theoretical Foundations for Electronic Meeting
Systems
Group
Task
Context
Technology
Process Outcome
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Theoretical FoundationsTheoretical Foundations
Meeting outcomes (e.g. efficiency, effectiveness, satisfaction, etc.) depend on the interaction within the meeting process of four things:
– the group members
– working on a task at hand
– context factors – with the technology of the electronic
meeting system and the components of the technology the group uses (e.g. anonymity).
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Theoretical Foundations: Group CharacteristicsTheoretical Foundations: Group Characteristics
Group Size Group Proximity Group Composition (peers or hierarchical) Group Cohesiveness, etc.
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Foundations: Task CharacteristicsFoundations: Task Characteristics
Activities to accomplish the task (idea generation, decision choice, etc)
Task complexity, equivocality, structure, analyzability, importance, etc.
Task Type:
– Creativity
– Intellective
– Preference
– Planning
– Cognitive Conflict
– Mixed Motive
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Foundations: Context CharacteristicsFoundations: Context Characteristics
Environment:– competition,
– uncertainty,
– time pressure,
– evaluative tone (critical vs. supportive)
Organizational:– information system
– age
– culture
– reward structure (none vs. individual vs. group)
– power structure
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Foundations: Technology CharacteristicsFoundations: Technology Characteristics
The Technology used– (the computer-mediated communication system,
– The GDSS
– The EMS
– How it was designed, its structures, its features etc).
In other words, the design of the technology is important.
Example: Try comparing 2 simple e-mail systems,
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 63
Group ProcessesGroup Processes
Certain processes improve outcomes while others impair outcomes
Meeting outcomes depend on the processes losses and gains
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 64
Group Processes GainsGroup Processes Gains
More information - group as a whole has more information than any one member
Synergy - A member uses information in a way that the original holder did not, because that member has different information or skills.
Stimulation - working as a group may stimulate and encourage individuals to perform better.
Learning - Members may learn and imitate more skilled members to improve performance.
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Group Process LossesGroup Process Losses
Air time Fragmentation - The group must partition available speaking time among members.
Attenuation Blocking - members who can not contribute comments as they occur to the member, forget or suppress them later in the meeting because they seem less relevant.
Concentration Blocking - Fewer comments are contributed since members concentrate on these until they can be contributed.
Attention Blocking - New comments are not contributed since members must constantly listen to others.
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Group Process Losses - 2Group Process Losses - 2
Failure to Remember - Members lack focus on communication, missing or forgetting the contributions of others.
Conformance Pressure - members are reluctant to criticize the comments of others due to politeness or fear of reprisal.
Evaluation apprehension - fear of negative evaluation causes members to withhold ideas
Free Riding - Members rely on others to accomplish goals, due to cognitive loafing.
Cognitive Inertia - Discussion moves along one train of thought without deviating..
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Group Processes Losses - 3Group Processes Losses - 3
Domination - Some group members exercise undue influence or monopolize group time.
Socializing - Non-task discussion Information Overload - Information is presented
faster than it can be processed. Coordination problems - Difficulty coordinating
member’s contributions. Incomplete Use of Information - Incomplete access
to and use of information necessary for successful task completion.
Incomplete Task analysis - groups engaging in superficial discussions might face this problem
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EMS EffectsEMS Effects
EMS can affect this balance of gains and losses through four mechanisms
– process support
– process structure
– task structure
– task support
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 69
Process SupportProcess Support
Communication infrastructure (i.e. media, channels, devices, etc. electronic or otherwise) that facilitates communication among the group members.
Example: electronic communication channel, blackboard.
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Process StructureProcess Structure
Refers to the techniques or rules concerning the timing, content, pattern, etc. of communication
Example: agenda or process methodology such as the Nominal Group Technique
Example: Robert’s Rules of Order provides a process structure.
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Task SupportTask Support
refers to the information and computation infrastructure for task-related activities.
Example: external databases, calculators, etc.
Example: Suppose the group has some data but they would like to have some descriptive statistics to better understand the data.
Example: Access to public information on the Web.
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 72
Task StructureTask Structure
Refers to the rules, techniques, models to help analyze task relation information to gain new insight
Example: models used in a DSS
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Electronic Meeting SystemsElectronic Meeting Systems
EMS can be looked as a convenient means by which to deliver process support, process structure, task support and task structure
Nunamaker et al. from University of Arizona emphasize process support
The important to note is that the four mechanisms (Process Support, Process Structure, Task Support, Task Structure) change the process losses and gains
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 74
Process SupportProcess Support
This can be provided by the EMS in three ways
– parallel communication
– group memory
– anonymity
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 75
Parallel communicationParallel communication
each member has a workstation with an electronic channel enabling everyone to communicate
Reduces following losses– air time fragmentation
– attenuation blocking
– concentration blocking
– domination, etc.
Process gains enhanced– synergy
– use of more information
– increased interaction
– stimulate and promote learning
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 76
Group memoryGroup memory
EMS can record all electronic comments Reduce following losses
– failure to remember
– attention blocking
– incomplete use of information may promote synergy and reduce information
overload Support for automatic indexing, keywords,
filtering, etc. can make “recall” even easier.
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AnonymityAnonymity
EMS may provide some degree of anonymity This may reduce the pressure to conform and
evaluation apprehension Might increase free riding since it becomes
more difficult to find out who contributes and who does not.
Might provide a low threat environment and increase contributions.
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 78
Media EffectsMedia Effects
Media speed (typing slower than talking) media richness (less richer media than face-
to-face) depersonalization (separation of individuals
from comments) deindividuation (loss of self or group
awareness) Loss of global view of task Flaming, etc
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 79
Typical EMS Tools for Process Support
Typical EMS Tools for Process Support
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 80
Activity: Idea GenerationActivity: Idea Generation
Brainstorming - anonymous generation of new ideas.
Topic Commentator - A set of electronic index cards for simultaneous entry of information on multiple topics.
Group Outliner - Organization of Ideas according to a structured outline form,
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 81
Activity: Idea OrganizationActivity: Idea Organization
Idea Organizer - Organization of comments received from idea generation.
Issue Analyzer - Identification and consolidation of comments from idea generation into major issues.
Group writer - Joint authoring of a document by meeting participants.
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Activity:| PrioritizingActivity:| Prioritizing
Vote Selection -Choice of voting method (e.g. yes/no, multiple choice, ranking), voting, and vote results presentation.
Alternative evaluation - ranking of alternatives (using multiple criteria).
Questionnaire - electronic questionnaire form. Group matrix - ratings of ideas on a two
dimensional matrix.
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 83
Activity: Policy DevelopmentActivity: Policy Development
Policy Formulation - Structured support for reaching consensus on policy statements.
Stakeholder identifier - structured stakeholder identification
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 84
Activity: Knowledge Accumulation & Representation
Activity: Knowledge Accumulation & Representation
Another name for Knowledge Accumulation is Organizational Memory.
Enterprise Analyzer - Organizing and analyzing group information.
Graphical browser - Identify and zero in on nodes of enterprise analyzer.
Group Dictionary - development and storage of formal definition of terms used by participants.
Brief case - immediate read-only access to any stored information
CIS 465 - Computer-Mediated Communications 85
SummarySummary
Each of these activities:
– Idea Generation
– Idea Organization
– Prioritizing
– Policy Development
– Knowledge accumulation and representation
is a form of Process Support Note the resemblance to Simon’s stages of
Decision Making.