first world war, 1914-1918

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

1/16

HISTORY 142AMERICAN HISTORY

The First World War,1914-1918

Michael D. Berdine, Ph.D.

Pima Community College

Tucson, Arizona

European BackgroundA Powder Keg

Ever since the defeat of Napoleon, Britain had

dominated the world without serious challenge. The unification of most of Germany was realized

under the Iron Chancellor,Prince Otto vonBismarck, after the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.

Under his guidance a new imperial power was createdthat was strong enough to challenge Britains positionin international politics and commerce.

Prince Otto von BismarckEuropean Background

A Powder Keg

Soon after 1900, most European nations, and afew others, began to polarize, according to theinterpretation of their particular nationalinterests, around these two powers.

Leading theCentral Powers in theTripleAlliancewere Germany and Austro-Hungary.

TheTriple Entente, included Britain, France,and Russia.

European BackgroundA Powder Keg

Each camp engaged in an armaments race; incidentafter incident threatened to throw off a spark thatwould ignite the war.

Ultimately, the match that lit the powder keg came inJune 1914 with the assassination of Austrias CrownPrince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

The numerous alliances caused most of Europe to bedrawn into the war that began when Austro-Hungarythreatened to attack Serbia.

Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

2/16

Serbia

Austro-Hungary

America Before Entry into WWIAmerican Neutrality

As in theWar of 1812, thedirectostensible

cause of Americas entry into the war arosefrom efforts to uphold its rights at sea as aneutral.

With the outbreak of war in Europe, PresidentWilson proclaimed American neutrality.

He asked the nation to be neutral in fact aswell as in name.

Pres. Woodrow WilsonAmerica Before Entry into WWI

American Neutrality

The government soon became involved inefforts to uphold Americas rights at seaagainst the two sea powers, Britain andGermany.

These two opposing powers in the war wereseeking to destroy each others foreign trade.

Britain immediately sought to enforce ablockade against Germany according to itsown interpretation of international law.

World War I AlliancesAmerica Before Entry into WWI

Americas Relations with Britain

Wilson asked all nations to respect the rulesdrawn up with theDeclaration of L ondon(1909), which Britain had refused to sign.

Britain instead enlarged the rights of abelligerent in certain practices offensive to theUnited States.

1) It enlarged the list of contraband of war toinclude foodstuffs and other goods not previouslyaccepted as contraband.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

3/16

America Before Entry into WWIAmericas Relations with Britain

2) Britain invoked the doctrine of continuousvoyage to stop American goods being shipped toneutral countries bordering Germany;

3) Britain enforced its blockade against neutralshipping to Germany, not along the Germancoastline, but by inspecting ships all over theworld;

4) Britain limited American commerce withGermanys neutral neighbors to what had existedbefore the war broke out to prevent goods beingtransshipped to Germany.

America Before Entry into WWIAmericas Relations with Britain

5) Britain set up a blacklist of American firmstrading with Germany.

Wilson sent notes of protest to the British forthese violations of international law but didnothing to apply sanctions.

Americans soon learned to live with the Britishregulations and government officials privatelyagreed that a British victory was in Americasinterest.

America Before Entry into WWIGerman War Operations and America

Besides, America found a profitable marketwith the Allies for all it could produce.

Germany, lacking equality of surface navalcraft with Britain, employed a new weapon,the submarine.

It did so to enforce strangulation of the BritishIsles and to break the British blockade.

German U-Boats

America Before Entry into WWIGerman War Operations and America

In Feb. 1915, Germany declared that all enemyships in waters around the British Isles wouldbe sunk on sight and warned neutral vessels to

avoid these waters. Germany also warned citizens of neutral

countries not to travel on Allied ships.

The U.S. asserted that Germany must observethe rule of visit-and-search before sinkingvessels.

America Before Entry into WWISinking of the Lusitania

This rule made Germanys new weapon toovulnerable to destruction from armed merchant ships.

Germany protested that it would abandon unrestricted

submarine warfare if the U.S. would, among otherdemands, force the British to observe the Declarationof London.

The British shipLusitaniawas sunk by a torpedonear Ireland in Feb. 1915, with the loss of over 100American lives.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

4/16

R.M.S. LusitaniaAmerica Before Entry into WWI

Sinking of the Lusitania

Wilson sent successive notes to Germany to

persuade it to abandon unrestricted submarinewarfare.

Sec. of State Bryan resigned because hebelieved Wilsons policies would lead to war,and Robert Lansing replaced him.

After the sinking of still another British ship,theArabic, in Aug. 1915, Wilson protestedmore strongly.

America Before Entry into WWISussex Pledge

This time Germany agreed to abandon suchsinkings unless provisions were made toprotect the lives of noncombatants.

When the French ship Sussexwas sunk inMarch 1916, with the loss of two Americanlives, Wilson sent Germany an ultimatum.

In it he demanded safety for the lives ofpassengers.

America Before Entry into WWISussex Pledge

In May 1916, to avoid war with America,Germany made theSussex Pledgenot to sinkmerchant ships without saving the lives ofthose aboard.

Public opinion was divided in sympathy forthe belligerents.

Since there was no likelihood of Americarestraining the British, German-Americanshoped for neutrality and peace.

America Before Entry into WWIPublic Reaction to the War

Other organizations and individuals, likeTheodoreRoosevelt andGen. Leonard Wood, campaigned formilitary preparedness.

Wilson, after a time, abandoned his opposition tostrong preparedness and in 1916 asked Congress topass several defense measures.

In 1916, Congress passed theNational Defense Actto increase the size of the army and bring the statemilitia under the federal government.

America Before Entry into WWIDefense Legislation

In Aug. 1916, Congress appropriated moneyfor the construction of battleships and othernaval fighting vessels.

In Sept., the U.S. Shipping Board was createdand received money to buy and build merchantvessels to be operated under its management.

A Council of National Defensewas createdby Wilson to make plans to mobilize thematerial resources of the nation in case of war.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

5/16

America Before Entry into WWIDefense Legislation

In 1916, Wilson sent Col. House to Europe as

his personal agent to propose terms for peace. England, France, and Germany showed no

willingness to negotiate a peace.

Col. House goes to Europe

America Before Entry into WWIElection of 1916

The possibility of Americas entry in the warin Europe made this the leading issue in theelection.

The Democrats renominated Wilson andendorsed his domestic reform legislation.

The Democratic slogan, He kept us out ofwar, gave an implied promise that neutralitywould be maintained.

America Before Entry into WWIElection of 1916

The Republicans nominated the Supreme CourtJusticeCharles Evans Hughesand the Progressivesrenominated Theodore Roosevelt.

Roosevelt refused the nomination and asked hissupporters to rejoin the Republican Party, but theysupported Wilson as the more progressive.

Hughes avoided the war issue, since the Republicanswere divided between pacifists and interventionists.

Charles Evans Hughes America Before Entry into WWIElection of 1916

Wilson won by a narrow margin in both thepopular vote and electoral college.

The outcome hinged on the vote in California,which, to everyones surprise, swung over toWilson the day after the election.

Hughes lost in California because he failed toseek the support of the ProgressiveGov.Hiram J ohnsonwhile campaigning there.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

6/16

Gov. Hiram J ohnsonAmerica Before Entry into WWI

Wilsons Peace Proposals

Wilson won the states of the South and West.

After the election, Wilson asked thebelligerents to state the terms by which theywould conclude the war.

Again, the terms of both sides wereirreconcilable.

America Before Entry into WWIWilsons Peace Proposals

Wilson stated his own conditions for a justpeace without victory.

These terms foreshadowed the first provisionsof theFourteen Pointsbut nothing came ofthis effort.

America Before Entry into WWIImmediate Causes of U.S. Entry into the War

Unrestricted German submarine warfare wasthe most important immediate cause ofAmericas entry in the war.

In Jan. 1917, Germany announced resumptionof a sink-on-sightsubmarine campaignagainst all ships around the British Isles.

Wilson immediately broke of diplomaticrelations with Germany upon this abandonmentof the Sussex Pledge.


When he asked Congress for authority to armmerchant vessels a long filibuster in the Senate underRobert M. La Follettedefeated his request.

Wilson used instead a statute dating to the War of1812 to arm merchant ships.

After eight American ships had been sunk, Wilson,on April 2, called a special session of Congress andasked for a declaration of war; the war resolutionpassed on April 6.

Robert M. La Follette

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

7/16


TheZimmerman Telegram(Note) was interceptedby the British and released by the State Dept. onMarch 1, influenced public opinion against Germany.

This message from Germany to Mexico promisedMexico the return of Texas, New Mexico, andArizona, if Mexico would enter the war against theU.S. and invite Japan to do the same.

TheRussian Revolution, which resulted in theoverthrow of the Russian Czar in March 1917, madeit easier for the U.S. to join the Allies in the cause ofdemocracy.

America Before Entry into WWIBackground Causes of American Entry

Now, the Wilson administration would not have to

apologize for its alignment with the Russianautocracy.

The events immediately preceding the declaration ofwar do fully explain Americas taking up the Alliedcause.

Basically, the English background of the influentialmajority of the American people caused them toidentify themselves with the British cause.


This background included language, literature,law, and other aspects of a common culture.

American credits with Britain from the sale ofmunitions and other supplies were stressed atone time as a cause of pro-British sentiment.

It was said that the repayment of theobligations gave influential financial interestsa heavy stake in a British victory.


This factor is probably greatly exaggerated sincethese same interests stood to lose profits and payheavier taxes in case of war.

The British flood of sensational propaganda made agreat psychological appeal as contrasted with theGermans logical and legalistic presentation of theircase.

Furthermore, the British controlled the cables andother communications by which war news reachedAmerica; news had to be favorably slanted before

newsmen could transmit it to America.


British propaganda created stories of atrocities,especially in connection with the German invasion ofBelgium in disregard of Belgiums neutrality.

Germanys manifest militarism in creating andboasting of its powerful armaments, as well as itsentry in the world race for colonies, alarmed theAmericans.

It was felt that German victory represented a threat toAmerican interests and institutions.

America in World War IMobilization for War

Soon after declaring war the United Statesgovernment became aware of the seriousnessof the difficult situation of the Allies.

The Allies desperately needed large numbersof men, ships, munitions, and foodstuffs.

Speedy mobilization of material resources wasneeded.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

8/16


The greatest and most pressing need was

manpower for the military services. In May 1917, Congress passed aSelective

Service Act that required all men of certainages to register for military service.

The total armed forces of the U.S., includingboth volunteers and draftees, reached about 4million.


Half of these were shipped overseas and about

a third saw active service there. TheWar Industries Board, headed byBernard M. Baruch, was created to controlthe manufacture of war matriel.

TheWar Shipping Board was created tobuild the ships need to transport men andsupplies and replace losses from submarinesinkings.

Bernard M . Baruch War Industries Board


A vast program of ship constructionimmediately got underway.

A Railroad Administrationassumed

government control of the railroads after theyproved incapable of avoiding confusion inmoving the vast shipments of goods needed.

A Fuel Administration exerted its efforts toconserve coal and oil and increase theirproductivity.


Daylight Savings Timewas instituted toconserve electricity.

A Food Administrationwas created andplaced underHerbert Hoover.

Meat and wheat were conserved for shipmentoverseas, and farmers were paid higher pricesto encourage production, which rose by 25%.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

9/16

Herbert HooverAmerica in World War I

Control of Public Opinion

The administration showed much interest in

winning public support for the war effort andsuppressing dissention.

Congress established immediately theCommittee on Public Informationunderjournalist and politicianGeorge Creel.

This agency printed books, wrote editorials,made motion pictures, published a dailyOfficial Bulletin, and made striking posters.

George CreelAmerica in World War I

Control of Public Opinion

The war was soldas a holy crusade; it wasa war to end war and a war to make theworld safe for democracy.

Most Americans were loyal, but someSocialists regarded it as a capitalistwar.

The tone of wartime propaganda aroused ahysteria against all things German; Wilsonaccepted this unnecessary persecution as amatter of course.

America in World War IControl of Public Opinion

Congress passed theEspionage Act (1917)and theSedition Act (1918) to prevent anypossible obstruction of the war effort.

America in World War IFinancing the War

One of the most important contributions to victorywas made in the form of loans and supplies to theAllies.

More money was raised by bond sales than by taxes. Liberty BondsandVictory Bondswere sold in

high-pressure campaigns; many poor were compelledto borrow money at prevailing high interest rates tobuy bonds to prove their loyalty.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

10/16

America in World War IFinancing the War

Tax money was raised by increasing rates in

the individual and corporation income levies. A corporation excess profits tax was passed.

Excise taxes increased in king and in amount.

The cost of the war amounted to about $35billion; almost $10 billion went to the Allies asloans.

America in World War IThe Army and the War

Gen. J ohn J . Black J ack Pershingwasplaced at the head of theAmericanExpeditionary Force (AEF) sent to France.

It was seven months after the declaration ofwar before the army saw action in battle.

The Germans had hoped to win the war beforethe American Doughboys could get intoaction.

Gen. Pershing arrives in France

DoughboyAmerica in World War I

The Army and the War

The defeat of the Italians and the surrender ofthe Russians permitted Germany to rush moretroops to the Western Front in France.

In May 1918, the Germans approached within40 miles of Paris.

At Pershings insistence, the American armyassumed responsibility for the defense of adefinite sector of the battlefront, rather thanbeing absorbed into British and French units.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

11/16


At theBattle of Chateau-Thierry, the

Americans helped halt the German advance. In June, the Germans were driven out of

Belleau Wood.

TheSecond Battle of the Marnesaw thebeginning of German retreat.


TheSt.-Mihiel andMeuse-Argonne

offensives involved over 1 million Americantroops.

The Germans kept falling back from theseattacks.

America in World War IThe Wilson Peace Offensive

In Jan. 1918, Wilson announced hisFourteenPoints to Congress as a basis for a just peacein Europe.

The first provisions called for

1) the abolition of secret diplomacy;

2) freedom of the seas for all;

3) freedom of trade among nations;

4) armament reduction;


Fourteen Points (cont.)

5) the disposal of colonies of the defeated powersin the interest of the colonials; and,

6) theLeague of Nations.

Other provisions related to the nationalaspirations of particular nations and boundaryadjustments.


The Germans were showered with printedcirculars announcing the Fourteen Points as abasis of peace.

The terms seemed so reasonable that thepeople, tired of war, rebelled, forced theGerman Kaiser to flee to Holland and set up aparliamentary government.

The Fourteen Points, in conjunction withAllied offensives, hastened German surrender.


Marshall Ferdinand Foch, supremecommander of the Allied forces, negotiated theArmistice, and the war ended Nov. 11, 1918.

This was before Allied forces had been able toinvade German territory.

A total of 130,000 Americans died in the war,well over half being from disease.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

12/16

Gen. Pershing and Marshal FochAmerica in World War I

The Wilson Peace Offensive

A wartime epidemic of influenza in 1918 took

the lives of many civilians as well as causing aheavy death toll among military personnel.

Difficulties of Making PeaceWilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking

Resentment against the Germans because of thehorrific losses and sacrifices of the war in bothAmerica and Europe was extremely high.

Thus, it made it difficult for Pres. Wilson to realize ajust and idealistic peace.

By electing Republican majorities in both houses ofCongress, the American people repudiated the Wilsonadministration in the congressional elections in Nov.1918, even before the war was over.

Difficulties of Making PeaceWilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking

This was the first repudiation of a wartimeadministration in American history.

The people were tired of the war and thesacrifices it required.

In spite of his defeat at the polls, Wilsonpresumed to speak for the nation by going tothe Paris Peace Conference with his plans forpeace.

Wilson off to Paris Difficulties of Making PeaceWilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking

He did this without taking with him effectiveRepublican advisors in close touch with theirparty; nor did he take with him any members

of the Senate. Wilsons promises in the Fourteen Points had

been made in opposition to secret treatiescommitted to a division of spoils of war amongthe Allies e.g., theSykes-Picot Agreement,and theBalfour Declaration.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

13/16

Sykes-Picot Agreement Difficulties of Making PeaceWilsons Frustrations in Peacemaking

Wilson hoped to overcome these commitments

at the negotiations. The British and French leaders were pledged

to take vengeance on the Germans, who wereheld responsible for having caused the war.

The Allies expected to dictate unusually harshterms against the defeated Axis Powers.

Opening Session of the Paris Peace Conference Difficulties of Making PeaceThe Treaty of Versailles

The danger of the spread of Communism overEurope forced Wilson to accept compromisesto restore peace quickly.

The Peace Conference was dominated by theBig Four: Wilson, David Lloyd GeorgeofBritain, Georges Clemenceauof France, andVittorio Orlandoof Italy.

The Big Four

L-R: Or lando, Lloyd George, Clemenceau, and Wilson

Difficulties of Making PeaceThe Treaty of Versailles

Wilson hoped to modify the harsh termsdemanded by the Allies and secure acceptanceof the Fourteen Points.

Facing stiff opposition from these politicians,Wilson had to compromise many of the pointshe had hoped to write into the peace treaty.

The terms of theTreaty of Versailles(1919)were harsh indeed.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

14/16


Treaty of Versailles Terms (cont.)

1) Germany was stripped of all its colonies; 2) Germany surrendered Alsace-Lorraine and other

border areas to Poland, Belgium and Denmark;

3) Germany was forced to accept the war-guiltclause, requiring it to make full reparations for thecost and damage of the war;



4) Germanys assessment was to be determinedlater by theReparations Commission;

5) Germany was to be completely disarmed andthe Allies were committed to work towarddisarmament among themselves;

Difficulties of Making PeaceThe League of Nations


6) Finally, Wilson induced the Allies to accept theLeague of Nations, which, he hoped, wouldpeacefully settle friction resulting from injusticesin the treaty.

The terms of theCovenant of the League ofNationsestablished the organization.

Difficulties of Making PeaceThe League of Nations

Covenant of the League of Nations (cont.)

1) Council of Nine, made up of the five leadingpowers (U.S., Britain, France, Italy and Japan) andfour others elected by the Assembly;

2) Assembly made up of delegates from allmember nations;

3) Permanent Secretariatat Geneva to handle theroutine business of the League.

League of Nations in GenevaDifficulties of Making Peace

The League of Nations

Purpose of the League:

1) to respect and preserve the territory andindependence of its members;

2) to consider disputes likely to lead to war; 3) to apply military and economic sanctions

against nations guilty of aggression;

4) to plan armament reduction; and,

5) to establish aPermanent Court ofInternational J ustice.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

15/16

Difficulties of Making PeaceAmerican Opposition to the Treaty

Members of the Republican majority in the

Senate were determined to defeat the treaty. Their leader, Henry Cabot Lodge, intensely

disliked Wilson personally.

Other members of the Senate objected toWilsons failure to consult that body indrafting the terms of the treaty.

Senator Henry Cabot L odge


Some members of the Senate opposed theconcessions made to the selfishness of theAllies.

And, many opposed American membership inthe League of Nations.

American minorities of various nationalorigins opposed the treatment accorded theirhomelands.


Many Americans suffered disillusionmentfrom the initial idealism of the war and nowfelt that the U.S. ought to withdraw from thefutile attempt to remake Europe.

Others objected that the country would becomeinvolved in another European war.

Republicans wished to capitalize on thedissatisfaction for political advantage.


Two groups sought to defeat the treaty: theIrreconcilables including Hiram Johnson,William E. Borah, and La Follette wished to

reject it completely. Cabot Lodge used the strategy of modifying the

treaty so much with Fourteen ReservationsWilson himself would oppose it.

This last group succeeded.


Wilson was so dissatisfied with thereservations introduced into the treaty in theSenate that he advised his own followers to

vote against it. He tried to take his battle to the nation, but

broke down from exhaustion and neverrecovered.

A separate peace was made with Germany byjoint resolution passed under Harding in 1921.

7/29/2019 First World War, 1914-1918

16/16


TheUnited States negotiated separate peace

treaties with Austria and Hungary, which theRepublican Senate ratified promptly in 1921.

first world war, 1914-1918

Documents