World War One 1914-1918

Long-term Causes of the War

Long-term Causes of the War Nationalism

Militarism and an arms race

Economic rivalry and “the scramble for colonies”

The Alliance system

A series of international crises threatening the balance of power

This map was drawn by an Anglo-Russian artist, John Henry Amschewitz and printed in 1914 by Geographia Ltd of London., The artist employed a number of international symbols for the Great Powers: John Bull, the Russian bear, the German eagle, Marianne and the French cockerel, etc. The title is “European revue: killing the eagle”. This emphasis on Germany being attacked appealed to the Germans. It was reproduced by the German printer, W. Nölting of Hamburg. The wording was translated into German and at the bottom of the map it said: “reproduced by a German printer without the kind permission of our English cousin.”

An image taken from the Facebook page of Archeofuturism.

NATIONALISM: The American and French Revolutions spread the ideas of popular sovereignty and national self determination. These events encouraged nationalist aspirations in the German and Italian states which, for a time, were encouraged by Napoleon who created a Kingdom of Italy and reduced the number of small independent German states. However, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 restored most of Europe to its pre-revolutionary status quo. Although the 1848 revolutions which occurred in most of Europe failed to secure constitutional democracy and the unification of Italy and Germany the drive for independence was becoming irreversible under the leadership of Cavour in the Italian peninsula and Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia. Strong nationalist movements also emerged amongst the peoples in the Balkans who were either subject to Austro-Hungarian or Ottoman rule, amongst Poles under Russian control and amongst the Irish under British rule. Nationalist ideologies were also gaining support within the Great Powers as military and economic competition grew between them. The overall effect was a more de-stabilised Europe.

“It shoots further than he dreams”.

Drawn by American cartoonist John F. Knott, a C19th immigrant originally from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The cartoon, depicting the Kaiser firing a cannon labelled “Militarism”, was first published and syndicated across the United States in March 1918.

MILITARISM: The late C19th had seen a rapid increase in the standing armies of all of the Great Powers. As one country increased its armed forces so all the others responded by increasing theirs. German militarism had its roots in Prussia’s defeat by Napoleon in 1806. The army, as it was significantly increased, came to influence the Prussian government and soon the militarist interests of army and nation had become identical. Militarist attitudes also became widespread amongst the colonial powers, particularly Britain, France and Russia.

MILITARISM: The late C19th had seen a rapid increase in the standing armies of all of the great Powers. As one country increased its armed forces so all the others responded by increasing theirs. German militarism had its roots in Prussia’s defeat by Napoleon in 1806. The army, as it was significantly increased, came to influence the Prussian government and soon the militarist interests of army and nation had become identical. Militarist attitudes also became widespread amongst the colonial powers, particularly Britain, France and Russia.

By 1914 the armed forces of the Great Powers stood at:

Countries Soldiers Warships

Austria-Hungary 810.000 28

France 1.125.000 62

Germany 2.200.000 97

Great Britain 711.000 185

Italy 750.000 36

Russia 1.200.000 30

Cartoon by Joseph Keppler in the American satirical magazine, Puck. It depicts the eight Nation Alliance who sent military forces to intervene in China during the Boxer rebellion. The stated purpose was to protect the international legations. But as this cartoon suggests, they were also squabbling over their own economic and political interests in China. Its title: “The trouble will come after the wake”.

ECONOMIC RIVALRY AND THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES: By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents; France controlled large areas of Africa and Indo-China; Belgium held the Congo in Africa and had important economic contracts for developing railways and communication systems in China; the Dutch held colonies in the East Indies and the Caribbean; Germany came late to colonialism but acquired colonies in east, west and south west Africa as well as New Guinea and some smaller islands in the Pacific; Italy joined the scramble for colonies in Africa, particularly East Africa and invaded provinces of the Ottoman Empire in 1911 to form what came to be known as Libya; Portugal, having lost its American and Asian colonies also acquired Angola, Mozambique and several smaller colonies in West Africa; Spain had lost its global Empire but acquired territories in North Africa in the C19th, including Morocco and the Canary Islands and in West Africa around the Gulf of Guinea. From the reign of Catherine the Great onwards Russia had begun its expansion westwards into Poland, most of Belarus and Ukraine, further south into the Crimea, south east into the Caucasus and further east to the Pacific. Also the United States, whilst critical of the imperialism of the European powers was busy acquiring Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines and other Pacific islands as well as extending its economic and political influence to the south.

A world map of the territories controlled by the European powers and the United States by 1914.

In 1879 Austria-Hungary had forged a Dual Alliance which became the Triple Alliance (also known as the Central Powers) when Italy joined in 1882. Eventually, in response to this France made an alliance with Russia in 1894 and ten years later Britain agreed an informal alliance with France (the Entente Cordiale). In 1907 Britain, France and Russia formed the triple Entente. In theory these alliances were meant to act as a deterrence to war. In practice they tied the allies to each other so that if one was faced by the prospect of war the others would be obliged to support them, as the above cartoon indicates.

Cartoon published in the US newspaper, The Brooklyn Eagle, in July 1914 just days before war was declared.

By the beginning of the 20th century the two rival power groups, the Triple Entente (Britain, France and Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Austria, Germany and Italy), were beginning to clash over their interests in Europe and elsewhere in the world. Four international crises brought Europe to the brink of war:

Moroccan Crisis of 1905-06 with Germany clashing with France, Britain and the USA over the independence of Morocco.

Bosnian Crisis of 1908-09. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary outraged Serbia and Croatia. War threatened when Russia offered it support to fellow Slavs but backed down when Germany offered support to Austria and England and France were unwilling to intervene on behalf of Russia.

Young Turks Revolution in 1908 served to highlight the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire and encouraged rebellion in her European territories.

Agadir Crisis 1911. France still wanted control of Morocco and in 1908 installed a pro-French Sultan. In May 1911 the French occupied Morocco to suppress a rebellion against the sultan. Germany sent a gunboat to Agadir. Britain supported France and Germany backed down. Balkan Wars 1912-1913. Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro, seeking to exploit the chaos in the Ottoman Empire declared war and one a series of battles against Ottoman troops. The Great Powers imposed a settlement. But in 1913 Bulgaria, seeking control of Macedonia, fought against Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, Greece and the Ottoman Empire but lost.

Cartoon which appeared in the British magazine Punch in October 1912

THE OUTBREAK OF WAR IN 1914

The map shows the two major alliances, Russia’s allies in the Balkans and the neutral countries in July 1914 .

On 28 June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Duchess Sophie arrived by train at Sarajevo .

To the railway station

To the town hall

SARAJEVO

At 10.10, after inspecting the barracks, they drove in a motorcade along Appel Quay to the town hall.

To the railway station

To the town hall

At Cumurja Bridge, Nedeljko Cabrinovic, one of 6 Bosnian Serb assassins, threw a bomb at the Royal car.

To the railway station

To the town hall

Nedeljko Cabrinovic throws a bomb but fails to kill the royal couple.

20 people were wounded. The bombed car was left and the motorcade sped off to the town hall.

To the railway station

To the town hall

After expressing his anger about the assassination attempt, the Archduke gave his planned speech.

To the railway station

To the town hall

At 10.45 the royal motorcade went back along Appel Quay to visit the wounded in hospital .

To the railway station

To the town hall

The royal driver, not having been informed of the change of plan, turned right at Latin bridge.

To the railway station

To the town hall

When told of the new plan, he stopped outside Schiller’s delicatessen and began to reverse. He stalled.

To the railway station

To the town hall

At this point another member of the assassination team, Gavrilo Princip, was leaving Schiller’s.

To the railway station

To the town hall

Princip took out a semi-automatic pistol and fired 2 shots at point blank range at the royal couple .

To the railway station

To the town hall

At 10.50 Gavrilo Princip shoots the royal couple outside Schiller’s.

Taken to the governor’s residence, Sophie was dead on arrival and the Archduke died 10 minutes later.

To the railway station

To the town hall

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Austria blames the Serbs for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie and declares war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.

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Russia, as an ally of Serbia, mobilises for war and calls on France to do the same.

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Germany as an ally of Austria declares war on Russia on 1 August 1914.

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Germany declares war on Russia ‘s ally France on 3 August 1914. German troops advance into Belgium following the Schlieffen Plan

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On 3 August Britain demands that German troops withdraw from neutral Belgium. Germany does not withdraw its troops and Britain declares war on Germany

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On 5 August 1914 Montenegro declares war on Austria and 3 days later on Germany.

The dominions of the British Empire also declare war on Germany and Austria on 4 August 1914

13 August 1914 Japan declares war on Germany because of her alliance with Britain which had been signed in 1902

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Turkey enters the war on the side of the Central Powers on 29 October 1914

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Russia declares war on Turkey on 2 November 1914

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Britain and France declare war on Turkey on 5 November 1914

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23 May 1915: Italy enters the war on the side of the Triple Entente. San Marino declared war on Austria on 3 June 1915.

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Bulgaria declares war on Serbia on 14 October 1915

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Portugal enters the war against the Central Powers on 15 March 1916

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Romania declares war on Austria on 27 May 1916

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Bulgaria declares war on Romania on 1 September 1916

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Greece declares war on the Central Powers on 27 June 1917

USA declares war on Germany on 6 April 1917

and on Austria on 7 Dec.

Panama declares war on Germany on 7 April 1817 and on Austria on 10 Dec.

Cuba declares war on Germany on 7 April

Siam declares war on Germany and Austria on 22 July 1917

China declares war on the Central Powers on 14 August 1917

Brazil declares war on Germany on 26 October 1917

Guatemala declates war on the Central Powers on 23 April 1918

Nicaragua declares war on the Central Powers on 8 May 1918

Costa Rica declares war on the Central Powers on 23 May 1918

Haiti declares war on the Central Powers on 12 July 1918

THE WORLD AT WAR