ninth edition - pearson...dreyer, june teufel, 1939– china’s political system : modernization...

Ninth Edition

China’s Political System

Modernization and Tradition

June Teufel Dreyer

University of Miami

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DedicationTo the memory of my parents,

Anna Elizabeth WaldhauerPaul Albert Teufel

Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on page 372.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dreyer, June Teufel, 1939– China’s political system : modernization and tradition / June Teufel Dreyer, University of Miami.

— Ninth Edition. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-205-98181-6 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-205-98181-X (alk. paper) 1. China—Politics and government—1949– I. Title. JQ1510.D74 2014 320.451—dc23

201400068910 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 10: 0-205-98181-XISBN 13: 978-0-205-98181-6

A01_DREY1816_09_SE_FM.indd 2 25/02/14 2:32 PM

iii

1 Introduction 1

2 The Chinese Tradition 25

3 Reformers, Warlords, and Communists 47

4 The Communist Road to Power 66

5 PRC Politics Under Mao: 1949–1976 85

6 PRC Politics in the Post-Mao Era: 1976–2013 113

7 The Politics of the Economy 148

8 Crime and Punishment: The Legal System of the PRC 179

9 The Role of the Military 204

10 Education 229

11 Quality-of-Life Issues: Health, Demography, and the Environment 252

12 Conformity and Dissent: The Arts, the Media, and Social Control 275

13 Ethnic Minorities and National Integration 297

14 Foreign Policy 329

15 Conclusions 358

Brief Contents


iv

Preface x

1 Introduction 1

Modernization and Chinese Civilization 1

Theories of Analysis of Chinese Politics 8Theoretical Analysis in the Early Years of the PRC 10Theories Engendered by the Cultural Revolution 15Post-Mao Theories of Analysis 21

Conclusions 23 • Suggestions for Further Reading 24

2 The Chinese Tradition 25

Basic Characteristics 25

The Governmental Structure of Traditional China 31

The Examination System 35

Literature and Art 36

The Role of Law in Traditional China 36

The Military 38

The Barbarian Problem 39

Interpretations of Chinese History 39

Implications for Industrialization 42Conclusions 45 • Suggestions for Further Reading 46

3 Reformers, Warlords, and Communists 47

The New Invasion 47

The Self-Strengthening Movement 49

Reform and Revolution 53The Reformers 54The Reactionaries 55The Revolutionaries 56

The Kuomintang 61Suggestions for Further Reading 65

DetaileD Contents


Detailed Contents v

4 The Communist Road to Power 66

The Early Years: 1919–1923 66

The Period of Soviet Control: 1923–1931 68

The Jiangxi Soviet: 1931–1934 70

The Long March: 1934–1935 72

The Xi’an Incident: 1936 75

The Second United Front: 1936–1941 77

Civil War and Victory: 1941–1949 82Suggestions for Further Reading 84

5 PRC Politics Under Mao: 1949–1976 85

Consolidation of Power: 1949–1955 85

Establishing the Organs of Power 89

The Hundred Flowers Period: 1956–1957 94

The Great Leap Forward and Its Aftermath: 1958–1961 97

The Socialist Education Movement: 1962–1966 102

The Cultural Revolution: 1966–1976 104Reconstruction: 1970–1976 109

Suggestions for Further Reading 112

6 PRC Politics in the Post-Mao Era: 1976–2013 113

Interregnum: 1976–1978 113

Deng Ascendant 116

The Legacy of Mao 119

Political Realignment and Policy Readjustment 119The Tiananmen Demonstrations, 1989 128

The Third Generation: China Under Jiang Zemin 133The Three Represents 134Civic Organizations 135Changing Central–Local Relationships 136

The Fourth Generation in Power 139

The Fifth Generation Moves to Center Stage 142Conclusions 144 • Suggestions for Further Reading 147


vi Detailed Contents

7 The Politics of the Economy 148

Introduction 148

The Early Years: 1949–1950 149

The Socialist Transformation of Agriculture: 1949–1978 150

Industrial Policy in the Maoist Era 154

Maoist Economic Policies Assessed 156

Economic Policy Under Deng Xiaoping 157Agricultural Reforms 158The Private Sector 160More Responsibility for State Enterprises 161Reforming the Price System 162Reforming the Reforms 164

New Problems for Deng’s Successors 168Future Concerns 173


8 Crime and Punishment: The Legal System of the PRC 179

Less-than-Peaceful Coexistence of the Societal and Jural Models: 1949–1953 180

The Jural Model in Ascendance: 1954–1957 181

Resurgence of the Societal Model: 1957–1965 183

The Societal Model Rampant: 1966–1976 184

Law and Justice in the Post-Mao Era: Return to the Jural Model 186The New Legal System 186Legal Developments 189The Trial Process 189

Mediation 191

Petitions 193

Reform Through Labor (RTL) 194

The Penal System 194Conclusions 202 • Suggestions for Further Reading 203

9 The Role of the Military 204

Party and Army 204

Assessing the Maoist Model 207


Detailed Contents vii

The Influence of the Korean War on the PLA 208

The Revolt Against Professionalism 210

Professionalism Returns 215

The Effect of the June Fourth Incident on the PLA 220

The Military in the Post-Deng Era 221Conclusions 227 • Suggestions for Further Reading 228

10 Education 229

Devising a System 229

The Drive for Egalitarianism and Return to Expertise 232

Redness Revisited: The Cultural Revolution 233

Egalitarians versus Experts: The Search for a Synthesis 236

The Search for Academic Excellence 237Conclusions 249 • Suggestions for Further Reading 251

11 Quality-of-Life Issues: Health, Demography, and the Environment 252

Health 252

Demography 259

The Environment 268Conclusions 273 • Suggestions for Further Reading 274

12 Conformity and Dissent: The Arts, the Media, and Social Control 275

Artist and Society in China 275

The Party, Art, and Social Protest 276

Post-1949 Control Mechanisms 277

Repression and Reaction 279

Culture and the Cultural Revolution 281

The Arts Under Deng Xiaoping 283Restrained Dissent 283Protest Gains Momentum 284Experimenting with Capitalism in the Arts 286The Campaign Against Spiritual Pollution 286Looming Confrontation 287The Tiananmen Demonstrations and Their Aftermath 288


viii Detailed Contents

Expression, Repression, and Social Control 289Conclusions 295 • Suggestions for Further Reading 296

13 Ethnic Minorities and National Integration 297

China’s Minority Peoples 297

Ethnicity in Communist Ideology 304

Minorities Policy in Practice 304The Early Years: 1949–1957 304The Great Leap Forward and Its Aftermath: 1959–1965 310The Cultural Revolution: 1966–1971 312Return to Pluralism: 1971–1977 314Post-Mao Minorities’ Policy 314Reform Produces Problems 315External Factors 318Repression Increases 318Genuine Autonomy as a Possible Solution 324

Ending the Current System as a Solution 326Conclusions 327 • Suggestions for Further Reading 328

14 Foreign Policy 329

Determinants 329Tradition 329Ideology 331Capabilities 332

Goals 333The Formulation of Foreign Policy 333

Chinese Foreign Relations: An Overview 336The “Lean to One Side” Policy: 1949–1954 336The Bandung Spirit: 1954–1957 338Resurgent Nationalism and Isolation: 1957–1969 340Global Power Politics: 1969–Present 344


15 Conclusions 358

Suggestions for Further Reading 370

Useful Websites 371

Credits 372

Index 374

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ix

FIGURES

Figure 2.1 High-Level Equilibrium Trap 45

Figure 5.1 Organization of the Chinese Communist Party 90

Figure 5.2 Organization of the Government of the People’s Republic of China 91

Figure 7.1 Tax Revenue as a Percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 168

Figure 7.2 Growth of China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 169

Figure 7.3 China’s Trade Surpluses, 1997–2013 170

Figure 7.4 The Widening Urban–Rural Income Gap 171

Figure 7.5 Composition of China’s GDP 172

Figure 8.1 Organizational System of the People’s Courts of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) 189

Figure 9.1 Recent Chinese Defense Budgets and Inflation 223

Figure 9.2 Military System of the People’s Republic of China 225

Figure 10.1 Selected Characters, Simplified Forms, and Pinyin Pronunciations 231

Figure 10.2 Spending on Education as a Percentage of GDP 2002–2012 251

Figure 11.1 Increasing Urbanization, 1990–2012 (in millions) 52.6 as of 2012 263

Figure 11.2 Proportion of Recorded Male to Female Birth 266

Figure 11.3 Total Population and Natural Birth Rate 267

Figure 13.1 The Administration of Minorities Work in China 307

Figure 14.1 Organization of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs 335

MAPS

Political Map of China xiv

Map 2.1 (A) Bronze Age China during the Shang Dynasty (ca. 1523–1028 b.c.) 26

(B) Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) 27

Map 3.1 The Northern Expedition of the Kuomintang 63

Map 4.1 Routes of the Long March 75

Map 13.1 China’s Minority Nationalities 303

TABLES

Table 2.1 The Chinese Dynasties 29

Table 6.1 Size of Politburos and Politburo Standing Committees, 12th–18th Party Congresses 140

Table 6.2 Politburo Standing Committee CCP 18th Party Congress (in rank order) 144

Table 13.1 Population of China According to Ethnic Group in Censuses 1953–2010 298

illustrations


x

As the People’s Republic of China approached the midpoint of its seventh decade, its economy continued to thrive and the country was unequivocally accepted as one of the world’s preeminent powers. At the same time, major problems loomed with the potential to undermine these successes. Domestically, communism was moribund as an ideology, and the Chinese Communist Party had lost its legitimacy in the eyes of many of the PRC’s citizens. Corruption was endemic in the economic and political systems. Rapid economic growth had been accompanied by a widening of income inequality and increasing so-cial instability. Pollution filled the air of many urban areas and poisoned the waterways. Although most people appeared content to enjoy the benefits of in-creasing prosperity, vocal minorities of farmers, workers, and ethnic minorities voiced their dissatisfaction with the status quo. Harsh punishments were meted out to dissidents, not infrequently in trials that seemed to violate the provi-sions of the country’s constitution. Better laws were passed but not always en-forced. A party, which had come to power on behalf of the rights of the workers and the peasants seemed to have turned its back on them. Although the slogan “serve the people” remained, party and government leaders seemed now to fear the people.

Externally, foreign nations worried that their economies might be swal-lowed by the Chinese juggernaut, and complained that Beijing was manipulat-ing the country’s currency to create trade imbalances in China’s favor. They also voiced concern about the motives behind rapidly rising defense budgets when the PRC faced no external threat and protested cyberspying that was shown to have originated in China. Foreign analysts began to question their initial assumption that economic pluralism would lead inexorably to political plu-ralism and an evolution toward liberal democracy. In some areas, the Chinese system had become more rather than less oppressive. Moreover, the state also reinforced its role in the economy to some degree.

Whether the genuine achievements of the past sixty-plus years can be con-tinued is a question much debated by scholars of China both domestic and for-eign. The present problems could represent no more than the growing pains of a greater and more powerful state. At the other extreme, they could portend the collapse of the current system. Or the country could be caught in a middle-income trap.

The genesis of the first edition of China’s Political System grew out of my own efforts to understand how the communist government of China, having only recently, in the long sweep of Chinese history, come to power, could trans-form an impressive, ancient civilization into an industrialized, socialist state.

My aim has been to describe and analyze China’s political system, taking as leitmotif the efforts of successive leaderships to harmonize elements of the country’s unique indigenous culture with formulas for industrialization and

PrefaCe


Preface xi

modernization that originally evolved in the West. The nineteenth-century para-digm “Chinese learning for the essence; Western learning for practical use” reso-nates with Mao Zedong’s injunction to “walk on two legs”—the modern and the traditional—as does Deng Xiaoping’s search for “socialism with Chinese char-acteristics.” Over the past half century, other and related themes have become prominent in Chinese politics. As the leadership of the People’s Republic shifted emphasis from revolutionary ideals to the more mundane but perhaps even more challenging business of governing, and from a socialist, planned economy to a market-based system, the question of how much of its communist heritage it should retain has had to be addressed as well. Elements of retraditionalization coexist with trends toward modernization and globalization.

The intended audience for China’s Political System is upper-level under-graduates specializing in political science and history or simply interested per-sons who want to learn more about China. The author hopes that this will be an enjoyable experience: Academic jargon has been minimized.

New to This EditionThe ninth edition has been updated to include:

• significant political developments through early 2014;• policy changes since the Eighteenth Party Congress and the Twelfth

National People’s Congress;• recent legal and economic developments and statistics based on the latest

(2013) edition of the China Statistical Handbook;• expanded coverage of changing relationships among central, provincial,

and local governments;• the impact of enhanced citizen participation in the political process;• effects of the decelerating economic growth rate.

FeaturesA summary of the different ways in which Chinese politics and history have been analyzed is followed by brief overviews of the traditional Chinese sys-tem, its breakdown, and the rise of communism, followed by a more detailed treatment of the characteristics and major events of the communist era. Because politics has permeated virtually every sphere of Chinese society since 1949, an analysis of how politics has impinged on these different spheres forms the ma-jor building blocks of the text—economics; the legal system; the military; litera-ture, art, and journalism; and so forth. Although the list of topics that might be considered is long, the academic semester is limited, and hence the number of chapters has been set at fifteen—approximately one for each week of the aver-age semester. Resisting the urge to be encyclopedic has meant not providing separate chapters for topics that some might prefer, such as ideology, human rights, and the role of women, which are treated as subthemes in other chapters. A concluding chapter integrates these different areas, assesses the successes and


xii Preface

failures of the Chinese communist system, and sketches out possible scenarios for the future. Suggestions for additional reading—limited to five titles, on the advice of my editor—appear at the end of each chapter.

This text is available in a variety of formats—digital and print. To learn more about Pearson programs, pricing, and customization options, visit www.pearsonhighered.com.

AcknowledgmentsThe author very much appreciates the advice of many people. In addition to Evelyn Fazio, who suggested the first edition, these include Eric Stano, Vikram Mukhija, Melissa Mashburn, Maggie Brobeck, Courtney Turcotte of Pearson; Doug Bell and Murugesh Rajkumar Namasivayam of PremediaGlobal, and fellow China-watchers Jerome Cohen, the late Edward Dreyer, Jane Duckett, Ed Friedman, Bruce Gilley, Tom Gold, Baogang Guo, Bill Heaton, Cheng Li, Perry Link, Jim Nafziger, Stan Rosen, Jim Seymour, and Suisheng Zhao. Special thanks to the University of Miami Senior Vice-Provost William Scott Green for having his camera ready when I saw the perfect photo to illustrate the subtitle of this book: Shanghai’s Confucius temple in the foreground with dilapidated Mao-era housing behind and new modern skyscrapers at the back. I have also greatly profited from the collective discussions of several e-mail groups. Thanks also to those of you who responded to my call for suggestions for future editions. Please continue to send them: my e-mail address remains [email protected].

June Teufel Dreyer

Coral Gables, Florida


aBout the authorJune Teufel Dreyer is professor of political science at the University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, a past commissioner of the congressionally established U.S.–China Economic and Security Review Commission, and a fellow of the Foreign Policy Research Institute. She is the author of China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China (Harvard University Press), editor of Chinese Defense and Foreign Policy (Paragon House) and Asian-Pacific Regional Defense (Paragon House), and co-editor of U.S.–China Relations in the 21st Century (Lexington) and Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, and Society in a Disputed Region (M.E. Sharpe).

xiii


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ninth edition - pearson...dreyer, june teufel, 1939– china’s political system : modernization...

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