PRACTICAL: - 1

AIM: - Introduction to basic concepts used in Project Managment.

A Project is a series of activities leading to defined goals achieved in a specific timeframe. A

project always has a specific start date and end date. These activities (tasks) have to be

accomplished in a distinct order by the means of a allocated resources (manpower, machines,

materials, costs) so that the framework of time, cost and deliverables is met. Generally

speaking a project should have the following characteristics:-

a) Time Limitation: - Both a start point and an endpoint must be defined for a project.

Initially it is common for just a start date to be specified and resultant project plan will

determine the end date.

b) Clear Objective: - The objective to be achieved by the project must be clearly

defined.

c) Process Structure: - The project must split up into clearly defined tasks. It should not

represent a singular process from beginning to end, but broken down into distinct

stages.

d) Organizational Structure: - The projects often require an established organizational

structure with unique skills sets to be effective, but this does depend somewhat on the

scale of project.

The Project Management is the planning and control of a project. It allows the user to

resolve conflicts in a a continusoly changing environment and is necessary to continusoly

drive towards the achievements of the baseline project goals. Because project management

should ideally result in the fulfilment of all set targets, a significant part of the project

managers work is dealing with conflicts arising from unforeseen resource and task

variations. Due to absence of planned staff, the project cannot be completed within the

allotted time (schedule variance). The increase of working capacity through overtime would

cause additional costs (cost variance) or a possible reduction of scope would change the

project deliverables (scope variance). The certain terminology is used in project management

so it would be useful to familiarize with some of these phrase now.

Tasks: - The partial activities from which the overall project is composed are called

tasks. They are the smallest units/steps in a project.

Duration: - The period between the start time and the finish time of tasks.

Predecessors: - A task must be processed before a future dependent tasks can be

started.

Successors: - A tasks that can only be started if a previous dependent tasks has been

processed.

Milestones: - The milestones are important intermediate objectives. They often define

a phase transitions, critical project stages or intermediate results. They are usually

represented as tasks that have no durations.

Summary Tasks: - Each chunk of a project with multiple tasks should be headed by

parent task which is known as summary tasks. The summary tasks usually terminates

with a milestones and have a fixed result (output). The summary tasks have a duration

assigned automatically from their subtasks duration and dependencies.

Slack: - Free slack is how much a task can delay without impacting the other tasks.

The total slack is how much tasks can delay without impacting on the end dates of

project.

Critical Paths: - The shortest path from beginning to end of the project. Only tasks

without slack exists on this path (critical path) and are called critical tasks. The

project end date is automatically extended if a task on the critical path slips or has an

extended duration.

Resources: - The resources refer to all people, time, production, and materials

required to deliver the project. A mapping of required resources can be performed for

each task. The reliable cost planning is the only possible when real resources and

costs are mapped to tasks.

Forward Schedule: - This is where a start date is set for the project and the end date

is automatically calculated from the duration of operations and the tasks

dependencies.

Backward Schedule:- This is where a deadline is set for the project and the latest

possible project start is automatically calculated from the duration of operations and

the task dependencies.

Fixed Duration Tasks: - The duration of tasks is set, regardless of how many

resources are assigned to it.

Effort driven Tasks: - The duration of task is dependent on how many resources of

the same type assigned to it. For e.g. a deliverables is produced in less time with three

employees than with one.

PRACTICAL: - 2

AIM: - Introduction to OpenProj Software.

OpenProj is a free, open-source project management solution. OpenProj is ideal for desktop

project management and supports opening Microsoft or Primavera files. OpenProj 1.4 is an

open source desktop project management application.This application is an alternative to

Microsoft Project. OpenProj provides control, tracking and management of projects. To

create a new project the only field required is the Project Name on the Create New Project

window and the start date of the project can be change it if you dont want to start the day

that youre creating your project. You can add tasks in the Gantt diagram providing the start

and end dates of each task; also you can add information to each task such the predecessors

and successors tasks, resources, notes, etc. One great feature is that provides the Work

Breakdown Structure (WBS) to order and control the tasks of the project for people who

manages projects this is a very important tool. Another great feature is the Resources

Breakdown Structure (RBS) to define the structure of the resources, teams, providers, etc.

Task Usage and Resource Usage are features to control your project and provide a good track

on it. The Report tool provides information about the current status of your project.

OpenProj provides tools to open at the bottom of the window and provide different views of

the project at the same time; Histogram, Chart, Task Usage and Resource Usage are the tools

that you can open at the bottom of the window to have a better perspective of the advance or

delay on you r projects.

Any company may benefit from the use of OpenProj. Customers from Fortune 500

companies to small businesses have used the software to improve business processes and

efficiency. Examples of companies that have used the product include: AT&T, Tyson, ADP,

Nokia, UBS, Lockheed Martin, Thomson Reuters, Johnson & Johnson, Pfizer, Virgin, GE

Medical and Panasonic. Each company has benefitted from this free open source software

and over 100 more have used the software as well. This project management software

provides the tools needed to keep a good project management.

The GUI is friendly and easy to use, very intuitive if you are get use to work managing

projects. The installation process is very easy to perform and it requires Java 5 minimum or

Java 6 recommended.OpenProj works on Linux, Unix, Mac or Windows platforms, and it's

free.

The features of OpenProj are as follows:-

Gantt chart:- A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart, developed by Henry Gantt in the

1910s, that illustrates a project schedule. Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish

dates of the terminal elements and summary elements of a project. Terminal elements

and summary elements comprise the work breakdown structure of the project. Modern

Gantt charts also show the dependency (i.e. precedence network) relationships

between activities.

PERT graph:- The Program (or Project) Evaluation and Review Technique,

commonly abbreviated PERT, is a statistical tool, used in project management, that is

designed to analyze and represent the tasks involved in completing a given project.

First developed by the United States Navy in the 1950s, it is commonly used in

conjunction with the critical path method (CPM).

Resource Breakdown Structure (RBS) chart:- In project management, the resource

breakdown structure (RBS) is a hierarchical list of resources related by function and

resource type that is used to facilitate planning and controlling of project work.[1]

The

Resource Breakdown Structure includes, at a minimum, the personnel resources

needed for successful completion of a project, and preferably contains all resources on

which project funds will be spent, including personnel, tools, machinery, materials,

equipment and fees and licenses. Money is not considered a resource in the RBS; only

those resources that will cost money are included. Assignable resources, such as

personnel, are typically defined from a functional point of view: "who" is doing the

work is identified based on their role within the project, rather than their department

or role within the parent companies. In some cases, a geographic division may be

preferred. Each descending (lower) level represents an increasingly detailed

description of the resource until small enough to be used in conjunction with the work

breakdown structure (WBS) to allow the work to be planned, monitored and

controlled.

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) chart: - A work breakdown structure (WBS),

in project management and systems engineering, is a deliverable oriented

decomposition of a project into smaller components.A work breakdown structure

element may be a product, data, service, or any combination thereof. A WBS also

provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and control along with

providing guidance for schedule development and control.

PRACTICAL:-3

AIM:- To create projects in OpenProj Software.

1. Having downloaded and installed the OpenProj software; start OpenProj from the start

menu of Windows or via the icon on your desktop. After the license agreement, OpenProj

starts with a choice of creating a new project or opening an existing one. Choose Create

Project

2. Enter a name for the project, the project managers name and a start date (which can also

be modified later if required). Provide a description in the Notes section as you see fit.

3. The application window will be displayed consisting of following main components:-

Indicator Column:- In this column, symbols are displayed to show the status

of the corresponding tasks (see right).

Task Number Column:- Task numbers are assigned by OpenProj

automatically when data is entered. The user does not enter information into

this box.

Time Scale. In many views, OpenProj shows a timeline whose scale can be

changed via the + and - magnifying glass icon on the menu above.

Information View Type:- The area along the left side of the window lists a

number of buttons representing the available views. Gantt, Network,

Resources, WBS (work breakdown structure), RBS (resource breakdown

structure), Reports, Task Usage and Resource Usage.

The lower view buttons open a split-screen where resource mapping tables and resource

utilization as a graphic can be displayed. You can toggle views on and off by clicking the

same button repeatedly.

PRACTICAL :-4

AIM:- To adjust the calendar while creating project in OpenProj Software.

For accurate tracking of your project it is essential to first set up the OpenProj calendar to

reflect the working hours in your organization. OpenProj offers three default calendars:

Standard Calendar (Mon-Fri, 08:00 to 17:00 with 1hr lunch break at noon)

Night Shift (Mon-Sat 23:00 to 08:00 with a 1hr break from 03:00 to 04:00)

24-Hour Calendar (24/7 schedule)

You can assign any one of these to be your project calendar; however none of the default

calendars contain public holidays so it is often necessary to create your own custom calendar

to reflect your companys general working hours.

1. Open the Calendar with the menu tool Tools Change Working Calendar .

Standard Calendar

24 Hours Calendar

Night Shift Calendar

2. Click on New to create a new calendar.

3. Enter a name for your new calendar and click OK.

4. Mark the days for which you want to change the working time (e.g. for all Fridays

you can click the column header F, or you can hold ctrl and click to select

individual days). To make a global selection you would hold ctrl and click

S,M,T,W,F,S in turn.

5. Click Non-default working time on the left and change the working hours

within the fields below.

6. To mark company or public holidays, select the relevant days as above and click

Non-working time.

7. Edited calendar entries will appear in red.

8. Click Options at the bottom to set the corresponding working hours per day,

hours per week and days per month. If you do not do this, OpenProj will not

schedule the tasks correctly.

9. Confirm changes by clicking OK.

10. You must now assign your custom Project calendar to your project. To do this,

click Project Project Information from the top menu and set the Base

Calendar to your new custom base calendar name. This is also the screen where

you enter the Project Start Date. Click close when done.

OpenProj can also associate calendars to individuals and to specific tasks. In this way you can

designate individual vacation periods or you can specify a task to follow a different schedule

to the one in your base calendar. So, in fact you can use three different types of calendars

within your project:

1. Project calendar (your base calendar for the project as defined above)

2. Resource calendar (for individuals working time and vacation days)

3. Task calendar (for tasks that do not follow the regular working hours, e.g. a task cannot

start on a Friday because it would be interrupted by the weekend or maybe a task that runs

continuously for 24hrs).

The calendar is stored with the particular project file, so if you start another project it is

necessary to create the user defined calendar again.

PRACTICAL: - 5

AIM:- To create Gantt Charts and Network charts in OpenProj Software.

When you create a new project, OpenProj by default opens the Gantt chart view on the right

pane and the task input table on the left pane. You can drag the vertical line dividing the two

panes to fit your monitor as you desire. To enter a task:

1. Click in the Name column in the first row.

2. Enter a name for the task.

3. Confirm the input by clicking the mouse or pressing the tab button which takes you to

the duration entry field.

4. If you do not know the duration at this stage you do not have to input it. OpenProj

enters a default value of 1day? which you can alter at a later stage.

5. If you have an estimate of the duration, then feel free to enter it into the cell.

OpenProj automatically converts the duration to days. For example, enter 1w (1 week)

and OpenProj will set the duration to 5 days. The input of 1 month would result in a

display of 20 days and 1 hour would be displayed as 0.125 days (or 1/8th of a day).

6. Confirm the input by pressing Enter or clicking on the next row.

7. It is important that you enter only task names and durations at this stage. Do not be

tempted to enter any other information right now. Especially not a starting date.

8. Its good practice even at this stage to enter general headings (phases) for tasks e.g

Design and then more specific tasks underneath, but never enter a duration for a

general heading.

1. GANTT CHARTS

A Gantt chart, commonly used in project management, is one of the most popular and useful

ways of showing activities (tasks or events) displayed against time. On the left of the chart is

a list of the activities and along the top is a suitable time scale. Each activity is represented by

a bar; the position and length of the bar reflects the start date, duration and end date of the

activity. This allows you to see at a glance:

What the various activities are

When each activity begins and ends

How long each activity is scheduled to last

Where activities overlap with other activities, and by how much

The start and end date of the whole project

To summarize, a Gantt chart shows you what has to be done (the activities) and when (the

schedule).

Gantt Chart

2. Network Chart

A network diagram is essentially a flow chart that includes all of the project elements and

how they relate to one another. It shows parallel activities and the links between each

activity. Network logic is the collection of activity dependencies that make up a network

diagram for a particular project. In other words, certain tasks are dependent on one another to

complete the project. This creates a logical stream of events that will lead to completion of

the project. The network diagram lets you do the following:

Define the project's path

Determine the sequence of tasks to be completed

Look at the relationship between activities

Determine the dependencies

Make adjustments as tasks are completed

Take a broad look at the project path and clearly see the relationships and dependencies

between tasks

CLICK View and then Network diagram. It wiil then generate the diagram shown

below.

Network Chart

PRACTICAL:- 6

AIM :- To set dependencies and establishes deadlines in OpenProj software.

Dependencies allow you to show the relationships between tasks and set rules for when tasks

can be started or finished. OpenProj uses four types of dependencies:

FS (Finish-to-Start):- This is the default relationship in OpenProj. It defines that one

task has to finish before the next one can start. For Example, printing a document

cannot start until editing the document is finished.

SS (Start-to-Start):- The start of a task is dependent on the start of its predecessor. In

other words, the task can only start after the predecessor task has started (or at a later

date)

FF (Finish-to-Finish):- The completion of a task is dependent on the completion of

its predecessor. In other words, the task can only finish at the same time (or after) the

previous task has finished

SF (Start-to-Finish):- The finish of the next task depends on the start of the previous

task. In other words, the first task begins after the second task ends.

When dependencies are created, the start and finish dates of tasks are usually affected.

OpenProj automatically edits start and finish dates so that they adhere to these new

constraints. Any change to dependencies will update task dates and Gantt bars automatically.

You can link tasks listed below. If you make a mistake at any time you can undo with the

menu: Edit-Undo or press Ctrl-Z. The following steps are taken to set dependencies.

1. Select the task rows in the table that are to be linked with a dependency. In the

example above we know all the tasks are dependent on each other, so we will select

rows 2,3,4,5 & 6 with the mouse and click (menu: Edit / Link) or simply click the

task linking icon .

2. You will see that all the tasks have now become dependent on each other with one

click, rather than typing each individual task dependency in manually. You can select

multiple or separated rows by using the CTRL-click action (for multiple selections).

You can delete dependencies by clicking on the number in the predecessors box and

deleting it with the delete key. Alternatively you can select the linked tasks in the table and

use the menu item Edit Unlink or click the icon or click the link line between the two tasks

in the Gantt chart and select the Remove option in the pop-up menu.

All task-related information is managed centrally via the Task Information window. For

every task you have the ability to modify information and task settings within six tabs. Its

good practice to edit information in this menu rather than in the columns in the table view of

the spreadsheet. The editing window consists of following tabs as follows.

General: - General task date information and percentage complete information.

Predecessors: - List of all predecessor tasks and dependency type settings.

Successors: - Information about successor tasks and dependency type settings.

Resources: - Shows the assigned resources and allocations for this task.

Advanced: - Task type and date constraint information.

Notes Allows entry of notes about the task.

Deadlines are used to monitor the progress of individual tasks. A deadline set for a particular

date will trigger a notification as soon as that date slips and an icon in the indicator column is

displayed. Deadlines also appear in the Gantt chart as yellow diamonds. To set a deadline:

1. Select the task in Name column for which youd like to apply a deadline.

2. Open the task information Dialog Box by double-clicking the task name, or click the

icon.

3. Select the Advanced tab and enter the desired date into the Deadline: field.

4. Confirm your entry and click Close.

PRACTICAL 7

AIM: To study the Data Flow Diagrams of various case studies.

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

A data flow diagram, also known as bubble chart has the purpose of clarifying system

requirements and identifying major transformation that will become programs in system

design. It is a graphic representation of a system or portion of system. A DFD consists of a

series of bubbles joined by lines. It consists of data flows, processes, sources, destinations

and stores all described through the use of easily understood symbols. An entire system can

be described from the viewpoint of the data it processes with only four symbols. The DFD is

also powerful enough to show parallel activities.

TYPES OF DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

Physical data flow diagram: - Physical data flow diagram is implementation dependent. They show the actual devices, department, people etc. involved in the

current system.

Logical data flow diagram: - It describes the system independently of how it is actually implemented, that is , they show what takes place, rather than how an activity

is accomplished.

COMPONENTS OF DATA FLOW DIAGRAM:-

a) Source or Destination: - The source or destination is graphically represented as a

rectangle. Source or destination external entities with which the system communicates. A

source or destination is a person or a group of persons that are outside the control of the

system being modeled.

b) Data Flow: - The flow is represented graphically by an arrow into or out of a process. The

flow is used to describe the movement of chunks or packet of information from one part of

the system to another part. The flow represents data in motion.

c) Process: - The process shows a part of the system that transforms input into output. The

process is represented graphically as a circle or bubble.

d) Data Store: - The data store is used to model a collection of data packet at rest. The

notation of a data store is two parallel lines. Data stores are typically implemented as files or

databases in computerized system. Data stores are connected by flow to processes.

Data Stores have two types of flow:-

Basic Symbols for Data Flow Diagram:-

1.

= Source or destination of data

2.

= Data Flow

3.

or = Process that transforms data flow

4.

or = Data Store

In data flow diagrams a single process node on a high level diagram expanded to show a

more detailed data flow diagram. The first level DFD shows the main processes within the

system. Each of these processes can be broken into further processes until we reach pseudo

code.

The various elements used for drawing structure chart using Smart Draw are the following:

1. Circles: Circles are used to represent the process

2. Rectangles: Rectangles are used to represent the external entity.

or

3. Straight Line: Straight line is formatted to arrow head to show the flow of control from

one process to another and also represents the data flowing from one process to another.

4. Edit Text: To add text to various processes and to define data flowing from one process to

another

CASE STUDY ON RAILWAY RESERVATION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

The Railway Reservation system has the following main features :

Traveller may be able to book tickets from any station to any station

Availability of seats can be known at any time

Status of trains can be easily checked

Previous bookings can be easily seen The system requires the traveler to give the specific details about traveling schedule, it

includes date of journey , source station , destination station, class of traveling , number of

seats to be reserved etc. Clerk will then send the account details to the accountant , who

calculates the actual fare.Supervisor then checks all the details like availability of seat etc and

pass it to the management.

Level1

Level2

CASE STUDY ON UNIVERSITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

University is created to provide quality education to the people. A lot of colleges come under

a single university. The administrator & bindings of different colleges is its primary goal. The

secondary goals would be designed to achieve better results of its primary goal.

In order to achieve its goals a proper management system is must. Because its this system

that develops interrelationship b/w different departments and colleges that come under a

university and also between different universities

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

Level1

Level 2

Hospital management system

Level 1

Inventory dfd

Level 1

Level2

CUSTOMER

1.0

Stock In

Store

TYPES OFSTOCK

NO. OF ITEMS

IN EACH TYPE

Makes

Request

Kinds Of

Items

AvailableQuantity Of

Items

1.1

Stock

Brought

1.2

StockSold Out

AMOUNTSPENT INFO

STOCK TYPE

PROFITMADE

SOLD OUTTYPE

ProfitEarned

Pick Type

MoneySpent

Pick Type

Items

Brought

Sales

2.0Delivery

TRANSPORTATION

CHARGES

CUSTOMER'S

ADDRESS

DecideCharges

Pick Address

Delivery Process

PRACTICAL:8

AIM: To study Unified Modeling Language (UML) .

In the field of software engineering, the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a

standardized visual specification language for object modeling. UML is a general-purpose

modeling language that includes a graphical notation used to create an abstract model of a

system, referred to as a UML model. The Unified Modeling Language or UML is a mostly

graphical modeling language that is used to express designs. It is a standardized language in

which to specify the artifacts and components of a software system. It is important to

understand that the UML describes a notation and not a process. It does not put forth a single

method or process of design, but rather is a standardized tool that can be used in a design

process.

UML diagrams represent three different views of a system model:

Various Diagrams Are:

1.Structural (static) Diagrams:

a) Class diagram:

The class diagram shows how the different entities (people, things, and data) relate to each

other; in other words, it shows the static structures of the system.

Various relationships are:

Dependency represnted by ------------> Association represented by Generalization represented by Realization represented by ------------

Boxes represent the class as shown below:

Where the first section gives the class name and the second one gives the attributes and

the last section gives the class operations(methods).

Example: Class diagram of university system.

b) Component Diagram:

A component diagram provides a physical view of the system. Its purpose is to show the

dependencies that the software has on the other software components.

Example: component diagram of university system

c) Object Diagram:

In the Unified Modeling Language (UML), an object diagram is a diagram that shows a

complete or partial view of the structure of a modeled system at a specific time. This

snapshot focuses on some particular set of object instances and attributes, and the links

between the instances. A correlated set of object diagrams provides insight into how an

arbitrary view of a system is expected to evolve over time. Object diagrams are more

concrete than class diagrams, and are often used to provide examples, or act as test cases for

the class diagrams. Only those aspects of a model that are of current interest need be shown

on an object diagram.

Each object and link on an object diagram is represented by an InstanceSpecification. This

can show an object's classifier (e.g. an abstract or concrete class) and instance name, as well

as attributes and other structural features using slots. Each slot corresponds to a single

attribute or feature, and may include a value for that entity.

The name on an instance specification optionally shows an instance name, a ':' separator, and

optionally one or more classifier names separated by commas. The contents of slots, if any,

are included below the names, in a separate attribute compartment. A link is shown as a solid

line, and represents an instance of an association.

Example: object diagram of university system

d) Deployement Diagram:

The deployment diagram shows how a system will be physically deployed

in the hardware environment. Its purpose is to show where the different

components of the system will physically run and how they will

communicate with each other. Since the diagram models the physical

runtime, a system's production staff will make considerable use of this

diagram. The notation in a deployment diagram includes the notation

elements used in a component diagram, with a couple of additions,

including the concept of a node. A node represents either a physical

machine or a virtual machine node (e.g., a mainframe node). To model a

node, simply draw a three-dimensional cube with the name of the node at

the top of the cube. Use the naming convention used in sequence

diagrams: [instance name] : [instance type].

Example: deployement diagram of university system

2. Functional(Dynamic) Diagrams:

a) Sequence Diagrams:

Sequence diagrams show a detailed flow for a specific use case or even just part of a specific

use case. They are almost self explanatory; they show the calls between the different objects

in their sequence and can show, at a detailed level, different calls to different objects.

A sequence diagram has two dimensions: The vertical dimension shows the sequence of

messages/calls in the time order that they occur; the horizontal dimension shows the object

instances to which the messages are sent.

A sequence diagram is very simple to draw. Across the top of your diagram, identify the class

instances (objects) by putting each class instance. Reading a sequence diagram is very

simple. Start at the top left corner with the "driver" class instance that starts the sequence.

Then follow each message down the diagram.

Example: Sequence diagram of university system

b) Use Case Diagram:

A use case illustrates a unit of functionality provided by the system. The main purpose of the

use-case diagram is to help development teams visualize the functional requirements of a

system, including the relationship of "actors" (human beings who will interact with the

system) to essential processes, as well as the relationships among different use cases. Use-

case diagrams generally show groups of use cases -- either all use cases for the complete

system, or a breakout of a particular group of use cases with related functionality. To show a

use case on a use-case diagram, you draw an oval in the middle of the diagram and put the

name of the use case in the center of, or below, the oval. To draw an actor (indicating a

system user) on a use-case diagram, you draw a stick person to the left or right of your

diagram. Use simple lines to depict relationships between actors and use cases.

Example: use case diagram of university system

c) Activity Diagram:

Activity diagrams show the procedural flow of control between two or more class objects

while processing an activity. Activity diagrams can be used to model higher-level business

process at the business unit level, or to model low-level internal class actions. activity

diagrams are best used to model higher-level processes, such as how the company is currently

doing business, or how it would like to do business. This is because activity diagrams are

"less technical" in appearance, compared to sequence diagrams, and business-minded people

tend to understand them more quickly.

An activity diagram's notation set is similar to that used in a statechart diagram. Like a

statechart diagram, the activity diagram starts with a solid circle connected to the initial

activity. The activity is modeled by drawing a rectangle with rounded edges, enclosing the

activity's name. Activities can be connected to other activities through transition lines, or to

decision points that connect to different activities guarded by conditions of the decision point.

Activities that terminate the modeled process are connected to a termination point (just as in a

statechart diagram). Optionally, the activities can be grouped into swimlanes, which are used

to indicate the object that actually performs the activity.

Example : Activity diagram of university system

d) StateChart Diagram:

The statechart diagram models the different states that a class can be in and how that class

transitions from state to state. It can be argued that every class has a state, but that every class

shouldn't have a statechart diagram. Only classes with "interesting" states -- that is, classes

with three or more potential states during system activity -- should be modeled. the initial

starting point, which is drawn using a solid circle; a transition between states, which is drawn

using a line with an open arrowhead; a state, which is drawn using a rectangle with rounded

corners; a decision point, which is drawn as an open circle; and one or more termination

points, which are drawn using a circle with a solid circle inside it. To draw a statechart

diagram, begin with a starting point and a transition line pointing to the initial state of the

class. Draw the states themselves anywhere on the diagram, and then simply connect them

using the state transition lines.

Example: Statechart diagram of university system

e) Collaboration Diagram:

An interaction diagram captures the behaviour of a single case by showing the collaboration

of the objects in the system to accomplish the task. These diagrams show objects in the

system and the messages that are passed between them.In this the methods on the various

clasees are numberd.

Example: Collaboration diagram of university system

PRACTICAL 9

AIM: Introduction to Beta Testing.

BETA TEST

In software and Web development, a beta test is the second phase of testing in which a

sampling of the intended audience tries the product out. (Beta is the second letter of the

Greek alphabet.) Originally, the term alpha test meant the first phase of testing in a software

development process. The first phase includes unit testing, component testing, and system

testing. Beta testing can be considered "pre-release testing.

In software engineering, development stage terminology expresses how the development of a

piece of software has progressed and how much further development it may require. Each

major version of a product usually goes through a stage when new features are added (alpha

stage), then a stage when it is actively debugged (beta stage), and finally a stage when all

important bugs have been removed (stable stage). Intermediate stages may also be

recognized.

The software has reached "beta" stage when it is operating with most of its functionality, and

is ready for user feedback. During the beta test, end users who will likely use the software

perform testing and provide feedback to EPRI and the developers. EPRI requires obtaining

feedback from at least one beta tester who is an actual user outside EPRI. Recommended are

5-10 beta testers. EPRI Corporate Software Quality must review all beta software before it is

sent to beta testers

BETA TESTING

Beta testing is a common final check on system content and accuracy. When feature or defect

problems come back from beta testing, that's bad news, and we might have to freeze the code.

Therefore, treat beta testing as "business as usual".

The Purpose of Beta Testing

Most commonly, we do beta testing because someone somewhere wants a final check that

everything is OK. In XP terms, we fear that if we don't beta test, something bad will happen.

Beta testing is done to alleviate that fear.

One of the XP values is Courage. If the organization feels enough fear to want to do beta

testing, then I'd like to suggest that there is not enough courage. The response isn't just to

hold our chin up and say "Be brave, little Piglet," or "Damn the beta testing, full speed

ahead." But the response might be to examine the information that comes back to those who

hold this fear, and try to get it sooner.

Information from Beta

Beta gives us back two basic dimensions of feedback, which I'll call Defect Feedback and

Feature Feedback.

Defect Feedback

We might find actual defects in beta. The system might not run correctly on some user

configurations, or there might just be defects in the software. The technical term for this is

"bad".

Beta testing, in its common form, is done very late in the development cycle. We think we are

done and just want to be sure. This is a very bad time to be finding defects. Whenever a

defect escapes from a coding cycle or from an iteration, an XP team improves its tests and its

practices to prevent that kind of escape from happening again. This is an application of the

XP value of Feedback.

A defect found during beta testing was probably injected, on the average, halfway from the

last beta test until the current one. By XP standards, where we expect testing feedback every

couple of hours, this is seriously open-loop, not the best case of the XP value Feedback.

Therefore, a wise XP team will do pre-beta testing or on-site configuration testing, or take

whatever measures are necessary to reduce the chance for Defect Feedback during beta. We

want beta to be a non-event.

Feature Feedback

Even if the software works as planned, we might also do beta testing to be sure that it is what

the customers want. We might not have built quite the features they asked for, it might be

harder to use than they like, and so on. This is, in essence, feedback to the XP Customer

about how good a job she has done.

As with Defect Feedback, a problem discovered in Feature Feedback was probably injected,

on the average, a long time back. As with programming defects, this feedback is too slow to

be really useful. The wise customer will find ways to be sure, long before beta-time, how

well her decisions match up with the needs and preferences of the buyers and users. The XP

Customer, too, wants beta to be a non-event.