anatomical terms outline

7/31/2019 Anatomical Terms Outline

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Anatomy - The Study of Form

Examining structure of the Human Body inspection

palpation

auscultation

percussion

Cadaver dissection cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their

relationships

Comparative anatomy study of more than one species in order to examine

structural similarities and differences, and analyze

evolutionary trends


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Exploratory Surgery

open body and take a look inside

Medical imaging viewing the inside of the body without surgery

Radiologybranch of medicine concerned with imaging

Gross Anatomy study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye

Cytology study of structure and function of cells

Histology (microscopic anatomy) examination of cells with microscope

Ultrastructure the molecular detail seen in electron microscope

Histopathology

microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

Anatomy - The Study of Form


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Physiology - The Study ofFunction

Subdisciplines

neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)

endocrinology (physiology of hormones)

pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)

Comparative Physiology

limitations on human experimentation

study of different species to learn about bodily function animal surgery

animal drug tests

basis for the development of new drugs and medical

procedures


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Hierarchy of Complexity Organism a single, complete individual

Organ Systemhuman body made of 11 organ systems

Organstructure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carryout a particular function

Tissuea mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of anorgan and performs a specific function

Cells the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life Cytology the study of cells and organelles

Organelles

microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions

Moleculesmake up organelles and other cellular components

macromolecules proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNA

Atomsthe smallest particles with unique chemical identities1-4


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Characteristics of Life Organization

Cellular composition

Metabolism

anabolism, catabolism and excretion

Responsiveness and movement

stimuli

Homeostasis

Development

differentiation and growth

Reproduction

Evolution

mutations


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Physiological Variation

Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity

Typical physiological values

reference man 22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activity

consumes 2800 kcal/day

reference woman

same as man except 128 lbs and 2000 kcal/day

Overmedication of elderly


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Homeostasis Homeostasisthe bodys ability to detect change,

activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintainrelatively stable internal conditions

Claude Bernard (1813-78) constant internal conditions regardless of external

conditions internal body temperature ranges from 97 to 99 degrees despitevariations in external temperature

Walter Cannon (1871-1945) coined the term Homeostasis

state of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) withinlimited range around a set point

Negative feedback keeps variable close to the set point

Loss of homeostatic control causes illness

or death


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Negative Feedback in HumanThermoregulation

Brain senses change in blood temperature

if to warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweatingbegins (heat losing mechanisms)

if too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction)and shivering begins (heat gaining mechanism)

Time

Sweating

Set point

Vasoconstriction

Vasodilation

36.5C

(97.7F)

37.0C

(98.6F)

37.5C(99.5F)

Shivering

Corebodytemperature

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Figure 1.10


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Negative Feedback Control ofBlood Pressure

Sitting up in bed causes a drop in blood pressurein the head and upper thorax

Baroreceptors in the arteries near the heart alert

the cardiac center in the brainstem

Cardiac center sends nerve signals that increasethe heart rate and return the blood pressure to

normal Failure of this to feedback loop may produce

dizziness in the elderly


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3 Components of a FeedbackLoop

Receptor - senses change in the body

Integrating (Control) Center - controlcenter that processes the sensoryinformation, makes a decision, anddirects the response

Effectorcarries out the final correctiveaction to restore homeostasis


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Positive Feedback Loops Self-amplifying cycle

leads to greater change in the same direction feedback loop is repeated change produces more change

Normal way of producing rapid changes occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and

generation of nerve signals

Head of fetus

pushes against cervix

2

3

4

1

Oxytocin stimulates uterine

contractions and pushes

fetus toward cervix

Nerve impulses

from cervix

Transmitted

to brain

Brain stimulates

pituitary gland to

secrete oxytocin


Figure 1.12


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Harmful Positive Feedback Loop

Fever > 104 degrees F

metabolic rate increases

body produces heat even faster

body temperature continues to rise

further increasing metabolic rate

Cycle continues to reinforce itself

Becomes fatal at 113 degrees F


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Importance of Precision

Be precise in your terms

Spell correctly

Health Care professions demand thesame type of precision

Peoples lives will be in your hands


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Review of Major Themes

Cell Theory All structure and function result from the activity of cells

Homeostasis The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable

conditions within the body

Evolution The human body is a product of evolution

Hierarchy of Structure Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

Unity of Form and Function Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be

divorced from anatomy


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Medical Imaging

Radiography (x rays)

William Roentgen - 1885

penetrate tissues to

darken photographic filmbeneath the body

dense tissue appearswhite

over half of all medicalimaging

until 1960s, it was the only

method widely available


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Medical Imaging

Radiopaque substances

injected or swallowed

fills hollow structures

blood vessels

intestinal tract

(b) Cerebral angiogramCustom Medical Stock Photo, Inc.


Figure 1.13b


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Medical Imaging

ComputedTomography (CTscan)

formerly called a CATscan

low-intensity X raysand computer analysis

slice type image increased

sharpness of image

Figure 1.13c

(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan

CNR/Phototake



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Medical Imaging - Nuclear Medicine

Positron Emission Tomography (PET scan)

assesses metabolic state of tissue

distinguished tissues most active at a

given moment mechanics

inject radioactively labeled glucose

positrons and electrons collide

gamma rays given off detected by sensor

analyzed by computer

image color shows which tissues

were using the most glucose at that moment

damaged tissues appear dark


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Medical Imaging

Magnetic ResonanceImaging (MRI)

slice type image

superior quality to CT scan

best for soft tissue

mechanics

alignment & realignment ofhydrogen atoms withmagnetic field & radio waves

varying levels of energygiven off used by computerto produce an image

(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)


Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY

Figure 1.13e

anatomical terms outline

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