Scientific Method and Models of Mass Communication Research:

By

Abid ZafarFall 2014

Communication Theory International Islamic University

Islamabad

What is Communication?

The word communication has been oriented from a Latin word “Communes” which means something common. Therefore, when we communicate. We are indeed trying to establish commonness of thoughts or feelings with other individuals

Communication is a process in which the message moves from source to destination

Purpose of Communicationa) Change in the behavior of receiver (cognitive thinking, feeling, acting)

b) To inform, educate and entertainment

Elements of Communication Source Encoding (the process of giving physical shape to one’s idea) Message (coded idea of the sender. Written script etc.) Channel (medium) Decoding (retranslation of the message) Receiver Feed back Noise

Types of Communication Intrapersonal communication

(takes place with himself)

Interpersonal Communication (between two or a small group of persons)

Macro Group Communication (speech of a political leader with instant feedback)

Mass communication

Hurdles of Communication

Physical Psychological Physical problem in transmitting

a message from its source to destination

a) Signal problem in TV watching

b) Knocking doors during lecture

c) Noise during Telephone calls

How to overcome channel noise?

By repetition of the main idea

Semantic Noise Field of Experience Cognitive dissonance Frame of Reference Poor understanding

Models of Mass Communication Research Definition and Function Model is considered as a consciously simplified description in graphic form

of a piece of reality A model seeks to show the main elements of any structure and the

relationship between these elements Deutsch (1966) notes the following main advantages of models in social

sciences

1. They have an organizing function of ordering and relating system to each other by providing us with images of wholes that we might not otherwise perceive

2. They help in explaining the key points of a process of system

3. Claim only to describe the structure of a phenomenon

4. Theoretical and simplified representation of the real world

5. A model is not an explanatory device by itself, but it helps to formulate theory

Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) said, The study of communication can be organized in three categories

Types There are three main types of communication models1. Linear Model

The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker speaks and the listener listens

a) Lasswell Model (1948)

b) Shannon and Weaver’s Model (1949)

c) Braddock’s Model (1958)

2. Interactive Model Wood (2009) Introduced more interactive model that saw the receiver or listener providing

feedback to the sender or speaker. This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have

common fields of experience This model fails to show that communication is a dynamic process which changes over

time.

Cont…

Transition Model

The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each person in  the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously sending and receiving messages

There are three implications in the transactional model

1. Communication is an ongoing and continuously changing process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing and your environment is also continually changing as well

2. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.

3. Each person in the communication process

reacts depending on factors such as their background,

prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and

  self-esteem

The Lasswell Formula

The American political scientist Harold D. Lasswell began an article in 1948 with perhaps the most famous single phrase in communication research.

A convenient way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions:

Barddock (1958) found that there are more considerations to work with than those five presented by Lasswell.

1. The circumstances under which a message is sent

2. For what purpose the communicator says something

Criticism Lasswell’s Model has been criticized, not having the element of feedback

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication Worked for Bell Telephone Laboratory and his theories and models primarily

applied to its particular field of communication involving questions such as: Which kind of communication channel can bring through the maximum amount of

signals? How much of transmitted signals will be destroyed by noise underway from

transmitter to receiver?

According to this model, communication is described as a linear, one way process. ‘The model states five functions to be performed and notes one dis-functional factor, noise.

De Fluer Model of Communication(1966) In Shannon and weaver’s model messages are transformed through

transmitter by decoding De fluer adds another set of components to the original Shannon and

Weaver model to show, how the source gets its feedback which gives the source a possibility of adapting more effectively its way of communicating to destination.

Shanon and Weaver’s model having linearity but this model having the element of mass communication

The source get limited feedback from the audience in this model

The Osgood and Schramm Circular Model Shannon’s model could be described as linear, we may say that the Osgood-

Schramm model is highly circular Shannon’s interest is primarily directed to the channels mediating between

the sender and receiver but Schramm and Osgood devote their discussion to the behaviour of main actors in communication process

Shannon’s model having the element of linear communication but this model is very useful in describing interpersonal communication

Criticism The model conveys a feeling of equality in communication

Newcomb’s Symmetry Model Newcomb (1953) approach to communication is that of a social

psychologist concerned with interaction between human beings.

His model is reminiscent of the diagrams of group networks made by social psychologists and is one of the early formulations of cognitive consistency

In its simplest form of the communication acts, a person, A, transmits information to another person, B, about something X

The model assumes that A’s attitude toward B and toward X are independent

Scientific Method Science serves as a guard against untested assumption The scientific method differs from other methods of obtaining knowledge in

that it is based on observation and the testing of our assumptions

Methods of establishing truth were not commonly employed before the development of the scientific method include tenacity, authority and intuition (Cohen & Nagel, 1934)

a) Method of Tenacity: true because it is always true (ex. I don’t believe advertising because my parents said so).

b) Method of Intuition: true because it is self-evidence (ex. A Creative Director uses certain method and always work).

c) Method of Authority: true because an authoritarian person said so.

d) Method of Science: “an organized, objective, controlled, qualitative or quantitative empirical analysis of one or more variables”

Imagination in Science A great 19th century scientist Huxley once defined science as “trained and

organised common sense” and added that theory building is something you engage in “every day and every hour of your lives”

The father of the relativity theory, Albert Einstein, said, “The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of every day thinking”

Scientific generalization about Reality• Scientists seek to make generalizations about the nature of reality• Reliability• Validity• Replicable until the confirmation of hypothetical approving

Safeguards against Bias and Fraud Findings can be replicated till reliability has been approved

What is Research?

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analysing information to increase our understanding the phenomenon under study

It is the process in which scientific and systematic methods are involved on social phenomena to develop and invent new ideas

Ker linger (1986) defines scientific research as a systematic, controlled, critical and hypothetical proportions

Research phases in Media Phase 1: The Medium itself There is an interest in the medium

itself. What is it? How does it works? What technology does it involve? What functions and services does it

provide? Phase 2: Uses and users of the

medium How do the people use this medium in

real life? Do they use it for information only, to

save time, for entertainment or for other reasons?

Do children use it? Do adults use it and why?

Phase 3: Effects of the medium

Does it change peoples perspective about anything?

Are there any harmful effects related to using the medium?

Phase 4: How the medium can be improved?

How can the new technology be used to perfect or enhance the sight and sound of the medium?

Objectives of Research To find out some thing To investigate something To test something To verify something To draw a conclusion about some

phenomenon To develop better understanding of

a particular phenomenon To find solution of a particular

problem To check the hypothesis

Sectors of Research

Academic Research Private Research

Scholars from colleges and universities conduct academic sector research. This type of research has theoretical approach and the result of this type of research help to explain the mass media and their effects on individuals

Exp:The effects of media in promoting violence etc.

Nongovernmental or private organizations or their research consultants conduct private sector research and the result of this type of research facilitate their decision making policy

Exp:PR campaigns

Process/Steps of Research

The scientific evaluation of any problem follow a sequence of steps to increase the chance that it will produce relevant data

Research process consists of series of steps necessary to carryout research

Steps in the process of researchi. Selection of the topic

ii. Literature review

iii. Statement of hypothesis or research question

iv. Determine of appropriate methodology and research design

v. Data collection

vi. Analyse and interpretation of data

vii. Presentation of results

viii. Replication

Types of Scientific Research Methods

Quantitative Research Methods

Survey Research Content analysis Experimental Research

Qualitative Research Methods

Focus Group In-depth Interviews

Cont…

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Primarily inductive process  More subjective Data is in the form of words More in-depth information in few

cases No statistical tests Specific to general Researcher is the data gathering

instrument

Primarily deductive process More objective Number-based Less in-depth Statistical tests are used for

analysis General to specific Researcher uses tools, such as

questionnaires, coding sheets

Survey Research Hansen (1998), Survey Research seeks to provide empirical data, collected

from a population of respondents on a whole number of topics or issues Bertrand & Hughes (1999) explain survey research as a research method

involving the use of questionnaires to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviours

Types of Survey

1. Descriptive Survey

A descriptive survey attempts to describe or document current conditions or attitudes that is, to explain what exists at the moment.

Exp: Survey during a meeting or in a live talk show

2. Analytical Survey

An analytical survey attempts to describe and explain why situation exists. In this approach, two or more variables are usually examined to investigate research questions or test hypothesis

Cont…

Process of Survey

Research Question Define population Select sample Questionnaire Pre-test Data collection Data analysis Research Report

Content Analysis Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and

quantitative description of the manifest content of communication (Wimmer & Dominick)

Process of Content Analysis Research1. Formulate Research Question or Hypothesis

2. Define the universe in question

3. Select an appropriate sample from the population

4. Select a unit of analysis

5. Construct the categories of the content to be analysed

6. Establish a quantification system

7. Train coders and conduct pilot study

8. Code the content according to the established definitions

9. Analyse the collected data

10. Draw conclusion

Experimental Research Technique Oldest method in mass media with less usage Examining the basic techniques with the discussion of the controlled

laboratory experiments and field experiments Laboratory studies involved both manipulation and observation. In the

simplest form of an experiment, researchers manipulate independent variables and then observe the responses of subjects on the dependent variables

Focus Group The focus group/group interviewing is a research strategy for understanding

audience attitudes and behaviour From 6 to 12 people are interviewed simutaneusly, with a moderator The identifying charactaristics of the focus group is contrlled group

discussion (Wimmer & Dominik, 2000)

Case Studies The case studies method is a qualitative research technique.

A case study uses as many data sources as possible to systematically investigate individuals, groups, organizations or events

Case studies are conducted when a researcher need to understand or explain a phenomenon (Wimmer & Dominick, Communication Research, P.P 86, 9th edition)

Conclusion Implication of predictions that can be verified by tests

Evaluation of information theory according to the criteria allowing to organize, order and relate data to show similarities that had previously not perceived

As a scientist, in any field of investigation develops and tests hypotheses about the nature f the world in a particular area of interest, the process of observation, testing and replication

Building of a theory that provides explanations and make possible predictions approving hypothesis

Answer to specific questions