INTRODUC'|ION: 1'I,IE C]I.ASSICAL I-IT'ERATURE OF.IAI'AN IN AH ISTORICAL PER SPECTI VE

The Japanese have a worldwide repulation for being good irnitators: it is often thoughtthat the entire classical culture of Japan was simply borrowed from China and that in more recent

times the Japanese have distinguished themselves by successfully modernizing Western-style but

doing so more rapidly than any Western country ever did.

But this emphasis on the borrowing and imitating phases of Japanese development is

unfair, for the Japanese have never been blind borrowers. The real talent of these people is that

of adaptation: they have a remarkable ability to take what others offer and to make it their own,

molding it to certain internal features of their indigenous culture and thus creating something

both unique and uniquely Japanese.

At the very base of the indigenous Japanese culture is Shintoism, or "the way of the

spirits." In its primitive form the main element if this religion is a certain joyous response to the

kami, or the awe-inspiring or mysterious qualities of various objects, of either physical ofspiritual natures. The spirits of ancestors have kami, as do unusually beautiful flowers, orinteresting rocks, or magical animals that can talk, or godlike people. The ketmi is thus anythingthat rises beyond the mundane and inspires awe in the beholder. Thus early Shintoism is a

religion ofjoy and celebration rather than a religion oriented toward morality.The cosmology of Shintoism involves the godly pair lzanagi and Izanami, who gave

birth, first, to the Japanese islands and then to a variety of spirits, creatures, fire, winds,

mountains, and so on. The later world is seen mostly in terms of the duality of the sun goddess,

representing peace, light, and order, and the storm god, representing violence, darkness, and

chaos. Later the sun goddess became associated with State Shinto through the person of the

emperor, who is held to be her direct descendant, while the storm god became associated withmagic rites and the mysterious communal sects. The peace-loving sun goddess is to dominate,

but the violent storm-god can never be completely subdued, and under particular circumstances

he may come to the fore.Chinese cultural influence in Japan was most strong between the sixth and ninth

centuries, during.which time regular embassies were sent from Japan to the Chinese court.

Confucian ideas became irnportant in the Japanese plitical system: they strengthened the

position of the emperor and reinforced hierarchical tendencies of the society. They also seem tohave strenglhened the indigenous Japanese ancestor worship.

But Confucianism never became a religion in Japan as it did in China, and the hey-day ofthe Sinicized Japanese court of the Heian period soon gave way before the rising military

strength of the Minamoto clan. The Japanese emperor lost most of his poweis when Yoritomo set

up the shogunate at Kamakura (l192), but he was not deposed or overthrown as he would have

been in China. Instead he was allowed to remain as a "puppet" ruler, while the shogun, the

military leader, function as the "power behind the throne.'During this time, and in fact well into the Tokugawa period (1601-1867), the feudallstic

tendency, or the tendency away from centralized power into the direction of diverse power

centers based on landownership, was prevalent. These landlords, or dainrsto, had the support ofprivate armies o.f sannrrai, and they often engaged in feuds with neighboring clans. In 1601 the

Tokugawa Shogunate provided for the first time a strong central power that could combat the

feudal tendency, but local power was still very much in the hands of the daimyo. And the

military traditions of the samurai persisted.

It was also during the period of Shogunate rule in Japan that Buddhism came into its ownand in fact took on much greater importance than it ever had in China. Several popular Buddhistsects gained some mass following during this period: Shingon, Tendai, Amidhist, Nichiren. Atthe same time there developed the highly aristocratic and uniquely Japanese form of Buddhismthat was so influential in many aspects of developing Japanese culture: Zen. Perhaps because ofits starkness and simplicity and its complete distrust of intellectualfing, Zen was closelyassociated with the militaristic samurai tradition. But it also gave rise to some of the mostdelicate and restrained forms of Japanese art. flower arranging and the Noh drama, for example.

Perhaps the most significant feature of the Tokugawa Shogunate was the fact of Japan'sjealously guarded and nearly complete isolation from the rest of the world. From the sevent-eenthto the nineteenth centuries the doors of Japan were closed by choice, except for some verylimited contact with the Chinese court and with some Dutch traders in Nagasaki. It was duringthis period of isolation that Japan strengthened herself, setting the basis for the later developmentof strong nationalism and rapid industrialization. It was also during this time that the othercultures of Asia were broken down and ravaged by the forces of Western imperialism; thus Japanused to her own benefit a time period which worked much to the detriment of all the othercountries in Asia.

But the West could neither tolerate nor understand isolation, and at last in 1853Commodore Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay with a request from the American government for theopening of relation and with some not very subtly veiled threats of force if the Japanese chosenot to cooperate.

The Japanese really had no choice as they knew how much force the West could apply,but the opening of the doors was, nevertheless, one of the important causes of the downfall of theTokugawa Shogunate and the subsequent restoration of the Emperor. The Emperor had neverbeen deposed, but his powers had been shifted to the military; at this point the power and centerof the government were shifted back to the imperial court although not to the direct control of theEmperor.

Once opened to Western influence, the Japanese became avid learners of modernprocesses of all kinds. They learned about navies from the British, armies from the Germans, andbusiness methods from the Americans. The rapid modernization of Japan was a directedmovement, carefully planned and controlled from the top as had been the process of learningfrom China centuries earlier, and thus it involved no $erious restructuring of social classes. Therewere some moves toward the democratization of the political organization, but basically thearistocrats remained firmly in power; in fact certain aristocratic families found a new source ofpower in modernization in the formation of big businesses, which even today are among the mostimportant controlling influences in Japanese society.

At any rate, Japanese modernization proceeded quickly, especially in the military field,and in 1895 Japan amazed China by defeating her in battle in Korea. In 1905 Japan amazed theworld by winning a brief war against Russia. Thirty-five years later, Japah felt sirong enough totake on several of the Western powers together and thus embarked upon what is now calledWorld War II.

After her defeat in that war, Japan was left in a shambles due to severe Americanbombing of Tokyo, atomic bombs dropped in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, frightful economicconditions brought about by war expenses, and spirits generally broken by the realization of theirown vulnerability. For many young Japanese, this tenible defeat marked the end of self-trust anda complete reorientation toward Western knowledge and Western values. But then Japan rebuilt

herself, and in the space of twenty-five years or so became once again one of the importantpowers in the world. With her phenomenal economic'growth, her citizens regained much of theirlost self confidence, and the Japanese of today are once again nationalistic, although in varyingdegrees. Neither is the new Japanese self-respect entirely due to industrial progress: most of theJapanese of today recognize the beauty and value of their traditional culture as well, and thatculture is by no means dead and buried. The traditional arts of the tea ceremony and of archeryare now practiced by very few, but a certain recognition of the past and a longing for it is felt bea great many Japanese today. In fact the reconciliation of past attitudes with present ones remainsan important problem in Japan on both the social and the literary levels.

TFM SHINTO LEGENDSThe earliest writings from ancient Japan are the Records of Ancient Matters, or Kojiki, A

D.712. and the Chronicles of Japan, or Nihongi, A. D. 720.Both of these start with chapters onthe mythological Age of the Gods and thus date themselves back into the sixth or seventhcentury B.C. But both have also been considerably influenced by Chinese thought, and mosthistorians assume that in compiling these collections early in the eight century A.D., theJapanese made a conscious effort to supply themselves with the equivalent of the Chineseclassical histories. During certain stages of Japanese development, even as late as the Meijirestoration of 1868, these Shinto legends have been accepted as histoiical fact, although inpostwar times they have slipped back into the status of myth. They are still interesting and ratherpowerful as legends and they still illustrate some of the bases of Japanese nationalism. Thefollowing selections are all from the Nihonghi, adapted from Aston's Nihongi and edited by Win.Theodore de Bury in Source of Japanese Tradition.

BIRTH OF THE SUN GODDESSlzanagi no Mikoto and lzanami no Mikoto consulted together, saying: "We have now

produced the Great-eight-island country with the mountains, rivers, herbs, and trees. Why shouldwe not produce someone who shall be lord of the universe?" They then together produced theSun Goddess, who was called O-hiru-me no muchi.

The resplendent luster of this child shone through all the six quarters. Thereforethe twoDeities rejoiced, saying: "We have had many children, but none of them have been equal to thiswondrous infant. She ought not to be kept long in this land, but we ought of our own accord tosend her at once to Heaven and entrust to her to affairs of Heaven."

At this time Heaven and Earth were still not far separated, and therefore they sent her upto Heaven by the ladder of Heaven.

They next produced the Moon-god.His radiance was next to that of the Sun in splendor. This god was to be the consort of the

Sun Goddess and to share in her government. They therefore sent him also to Heaven.Next they produced the leech-child, which even at the age of three years could not stand

upright. They therefore placed it in the rock-camphor-wood boat of Heaven and pbandoried it tothe winds.

Their next child was Susa-no-o no Mikoto.This god had a fierce temper and was given to cruel acts. Moreover he made a practice of

continually weeping and wailing. So he brought many of the people of the land to an untimelyend. Again he caused green mountains to become withered. Therefore the two gods, his parents,

addressed Susa-no-o no Mikoto, saying: "Thou art exceedingly wicked, and it is not meet thatthou shouldst reign over the world. Certainly thou rrrust depart far away to the Netherland." Sothey at length expelled him.

THE SUN GODDESS AND SUSA-NO-OAfter this Susa-no-o no Mikoto's behavior was exceedingly rude. In what way?

Amaterasu [the Heaven-Shining-Deity] had made august ricefields of Heavenly narrow ricefielisand Heavenly long ricefields. Then Susa-no-o, when the seed was sown in spring, broke downthe divisions between the plots of rice and in autumn let loose the Heavenly piebald colts andmade them lie down in the midst of the ricefields. Again, when he saw that Amaterasu was aboutto celebrate the feast of first-fruits, he secretly voided excrement in the New Palace. Moreover,when he saw that Amaterasu was in her sacred weaving hall engaged in weaving garments of thegods, he flayed a piebald colt of Heaven, and breaking a hole in tfie roof-tiles oittt" hall, flung itin. Then Amaterasu started with alarm and wounded herself with the shuttle. Indignant of tiis,she straightaway entered the rock-cave of Heaven, and having fastened the 1.o.f-do.., dwelithere in seclusion. Therefore constant darkness prevailed on all sides and the alternation of nightand day was unknown.

Then the mighty myriads of gods met on the bank of the Tranquil River of Heaven andconsidered in what manner they should supplicate her. Accordingly Omoikane no Kami, withprofound device and far-reaching thoughts, at length gathered long-singing birds of the EternalLand and made them utter their prolonged cry to one another. Moreovei hi made Ta-jikara-o tostand beside the Rock-door. Then Ame no Koyane no Mikoto, ancestor of the Nakatomi deityChieftains, and Fut-o-dama no Mikoto, ancestor of the Imibe Chieftains, dug up a five-hundreibranched True Sakaki tree of the Heavenly Mt. Kagu. On its upper branchesihey hung an eight-hand mirror. On its lower branches they hung blue soft offerings and white soflofferings. T'henthey recited their liturgy together.

Moreover, Ama no Uzume no Mikoto, ancestress of the Sarume Chieftain, took in herhand a spear wreathed with Eulalia grass, and standing before the door of the rock-cave ofHeaven, skillfully performed a mimic dance. She took, moreover, the true Sakaki tree of theHeavenly Mount'Kagu and made of it a headdress, she took club-moss and made of it braces, shekindled fires, she placed a tub bottom upward and garie forth divinely inspired utterance.

Now Amaterasu heard this and said: "Since I have shut myself up in the Rock-cave, thereought surely to be continual night in the Central Land of fertile reed-plains. How then can Amano Uzume no Mikoto be so jolly?" So with her august hand, she opened for a narrow space theRock-door and peeped out. Then Ta-jikara-o no Kami forthwith took Amaterasu bu the hand andled her out. Upon this the gods Nakatomi no Kami and Imibe no Kami at once drew a limit bymeans of a bottom-tied rope (also called a left-hand rope) and begged her not to return againIinto the cave].

After this all the gods put the blame on Susa-no-o and imposed on him a fine of onethousand tables and so at length chastised him. They also had his hair plucked out and made himtherewith expiate his guilt.

TF{E F{EAVENLY GRANDCHILD AND T}IE SEA-GOD'S DAUGHTER

The elder brother Ho-no-susori no Mikoto had by nature a sea gift and the youngerbrother Hiko-hoho-demi had by nature a mountain gift In the beginning"the two brother{ the

elder and the younger, conversed together, saying: "Let us for a trial e-xchange gifts.', Theyeventually exchanged them, but neither of them gained aught by doing so. The elder brother

repented his bargain and returned to the younger brother his bow und urt*r, asking for his fish-hook to be given back to him. But the younger brother had already lost the elder brother,s fish-hoolq and there was no means of finding it. He accordingly made a new hook, which he offeredto his elder brother. But his elder brother refused to accEpt it and demanded the old hook. Theyounger brother, grieved at this, forthwith took his

"rorr-*ord and forged from it new fish-hooks, which he heaped up in a winnowing tray andoffered to his brother. But his elder brother

was wroth and said. "These are not my old fish-hook; though they are many, I will not takethem." And he continued repeatedly to demand it vehemently. fherefore Hiko-hoho-demi,s grief

was exceedingly profound, and he went and made moan by the shore of the sea. There he metShiho-tsutsu no Oji. The old man inquired of him, saying: "Why dost thou grieve here?,, He

answered and told him the matter from first to last. The old man-said. "Grieie no more. I willarrange this matter for thee." So he made a basket without interstices, and placing it in Hiko-

hoho-demi, sank it in the sea. Forthwith he found himself at a pleasant strand, where heabandoned the basket and, proceeding on his way, suddenly arrived at the palace of the Sea-God..This

palace was provided with baulements and turrets und hud stately toivers. Before the gatethere was a well, and over the well there grew a many-branched cassia-tree with wide-rpr"iding

boughs and leaves. Now Hiko-hoho-demi went upio the foot of this tree and loitered about.After some time a beautifulwoman appeared and, pushing open the door, came forth. She at

length took a jewel-vessel and approached. She was about to draw water when raising her eyes,she saw him and was alarmed. Returning within, she spoke to her father and mother, saying:

'

"There is a rare stranger at the foot of-the tree before the gate." The God of the sea thereupinprepared an eight-fold cushion and led him in When they had taken their seats, he inquirei of

him the object of his coming. Then Hiko-hoho-demi explained to him reply all thecircumstances. The Sea-God accordingly assembled the fishes, both great and small, and

required of them an answer. They all said: "We know not. Only the Redloman has had a soremouth for some time past and has not come," She was there6re peremptorily summoned to

appear, an on her mouth being examined, tlre lost hook was aciually found.After this' Hiko-hoho-demi took to wife the Sea-God's daughter, Toyo-tama-hime, and

dwelt in the sea palace-... When the heavenly Grandchild was about to sei out on his returnjourney, Toyo-tama-hime addressed him, saying. "Thy Handmaiden is already pregnant, unO it.time of her delivery is not far off. on a day *hen the winds and waves u.. ruging, I will surelycome forth to the seashore, and t pray that thou wilt make for me a parturition hour" and awaitme there...."

After this Toyo-tama-hime fulfilled her promise and brought with her a younger sister.Tama*yori-hime bravely confronted the winds and waves and caile to the seashore. When thetime of her delivery was at hand, she besought Hiko-hoho-demi saying: "When thy handmaidenis. in travail, I pray thee do not look at her." However, the Heavenly Grandchild could not.restrainhimself but went secretly and peeped in. Now Toyo-tama-hime just in cniraUirtfr rr;J;;;g;;into a dragon. She was greatly ashamed and said: i.Hudrt thou nit disgraced me, I would havemade the sea and land communicate with each other and forever pre-vented them from beingsundered. But now that thou hast disgraced me, wherewithal shait friendly feelings be kniitogether?" So she wrapped the infant in rushes and abandoned it on the slashore. Then she

barred the sea-path and passed away. Accordingly the child was called Hiko-nagisa-take-u-gaya-fuki-aezu no Mikoto.

A long time after, Hiko-hoho-demi no Mikoto died and was buried in the imperial moundon the summit of Mount Takaya in Hyuga.

EARLY JAPANESE POETRY

TO COMFORT MY LITTLE SON AND DAUGHTERMichizane, a high official, was forced into exile. AII of his twenty-three children were detainedor sent to different places except the two youngest, who were allowed to accompany their fatherto Kyushu.

Your sisters must all stay at home,Your brothers are sent awayJust we three together, my children,Shall chat as we go alongEach day we have our meals before us,At night we sleep all together.We have lamps and tapers to peer in the darkAnd warm clothes for the cold.

Last year you saw how the Chancellor's sonFell out of favor in the capital.Now people say he is a ragged gamblerAnd call him names on the street.You have seen the barefooted wandering musicianThe townspeople call the Justice's Miss -Her father, too, was a great offrcial;They were all in their day exceedingly rich.Once their gold was like sgnd in the sea;Now they hardly have enough to eat.When you look, my children, at other people,You can see how gracious Heaven has been.

THE SPIDER.

There is craft in this smallest insect,With strands ofweb spinning out his thoughts,In his tiny body finding rest,And with the wind lightly turning.Before the eaves he stakes out his broad earth;For a moment on the fence top lives through his life,When you know that all beings are even thus,You will know what creation is made of.