Socio-Economic Baseline Studies in Selected Wildlife Management Areas under the Financial Crisis

Initiative/Cash-for-Work Program

IKONA WMA Report

A herd of cattle grazing in Ikona WMA

FRANKFURT ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY

HEALTH & DEVELOPMENT INTERNATIONAL CONSULTANTS

Associates in Professional Public Health and Development Consulting

2ND FLOOR NAKIETE HOUSE, ALI HASSAN MWINYI ROAD P .O. BOX 33335 ,TEL :+255 22 27728 16 ,FAX: +255 22 27728 14

DAR ES SALAAM, TANZANIA

Final Report, October 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. ii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ iv

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................... v

LIST OF PLATES ............................................................................................................. v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. vi

ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... vii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................. viii

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION AND THE SETTING OF THE STUDY .......................................... 1

1.1 Introduction and the Background ....................................................................... 1

1.2 Community-Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) Wildlife .... 1

Policies and the Evolution of WMAs ............................................................................. 1 1.2.1 The genesis of WMA and Institutional legal Framework in Tanzania ............................ 2

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 6

THE TERMS OF REFERENCE, APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY .................. 6

2.1 Objectives of the Baseline Survey and Scope of Work .................................. 6

2.2 Area of the Study .................................................................................................. 6

2.3 Study Design and Methodology ......................................................................... 8 2.3.1 Study Population, Sampling Size and Strategy ............................................................... 8

2.3.2 Methods of Data Collection ........................................................................................... 9

2.3.2.1 Documentary and Library research ......................................................................... 9

2.3.2.2 A Quick-Scan of Income Generating Activities at Village Level ............................... 9

2.3.2.3 Administration of a Social Survey .......................................................................... 10

2.3.2.4 Administration of In-Depth Interviews .................................................................. 10

2.3.2.5 Administration of Focus Group Discussions .......................................................... 11

2.3.2.6 Non-Participant Ethnographic Observation and Assessment................................ 11

CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................... 12

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARATERISTICS AND ECONOMIC STATUS......... 12

3.1 Population Characteristics and Social Relationships ................................... 12 3.1.1 Background characteristics of respondents ................................................................. 12

3.2 People’s Socio-Economic Status ..................................................................... 14 3.2.1 People’s Living Standards and Conditions ................................................................... 14

3.2.2 Household assets ......................................................................................................... 14

3.2.3 Type and use of toilet facility ....................................................................................... 17

3.2.4 Main source of drinking water ..................................................................................... 19

3.2.5 Sources of energy ......................................................................................................... 20

3.3 Socio-Economic Activities of the Households and how they ...................... 21

Perform ............................................................................................................................ 21

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3.3.1 Main Economic Activities Existing in the WMA ........................................................... 24

3.3.2 Sources, Levels and Types of Income in Selected Villages ........................................... 24

3.4 Sources of and Types of Incomes in Selected Villages ............................... 25

3.5 Availability and Quality of Social Service Infrastructure ............................... 29

3.6 Socio-Economic Threats and Opportunities Related to NRs in WMA Villages............................................................................................................................. 34

3.7 Other Resources Available and their Uses .................................................... 34

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 37

EXPENDITURE PATTERNS IN THE WMA .............................................................. 37

4.1 Expenditure Patterns in Villages forming WMA ............................................ 37

4.2 Sources of Revenue and Type of Investments in WMA Villages ............... 37

4.3 Economic and Ecological Status of the WMA ............................................... 40

4.4 Contribution of WMA on Village Revenues and their Common .................. 41

Expenditure ..................................................................................................................... 41 4.4.1 Expenditure of the revenues from WMA ..................................................................... 42

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 44

KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS OF CBNRM PROGRAMME AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS ............................................................................................... 44

5.1 Knowledge, Awareness and Attitudes Towards WMA ................................. 44

5.2 People’s Views on Community Participation in Conservation of ................ 46

Natural Resources ......................................................................................................... 46

5.3 People’s Views and Perception on the Benefits of WMAs .......................... 47

5.4 People’s Perception and Willingness to Participate in Cash-for Work Programmes .................................................................................................................... 52

CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 54

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AT VILLAGE LEVEL .......................... 54

6.1 Population characteristics ................................................................................. 54

6.2 Main economic activities ................................................................................... 54

6.3 Expenditure patterns .......................................................................................... 55

6.4 Income patterns .................................................................................................. 55

6.5 Entrepreneurship groups .................................................................................. 57

The total population size of Ikona WMA villages is 15,943; out of which women are 8,618 .......................................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER SEVEN ......................................................................................................... 60

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 60

7.1 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 60

7.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................. 60

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 63

Appendix 1....................................................................................................................... 64

Structured Questionnaire .............................................................................................. 64

Appendix 2....................................................................................................................... 75

Focus Group Discussion Guide ................................................................................... 75

Appendix 3....................................................................................................................... 78

In-Depth Interview Guide .............................................................................................. 78

Appendix 4....................................................................................................................... 81

Checklist for 5 WMA Studies ........................................................................................ 81

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: population in the wards forming IKONA WMA .......................................... 7

Table 2.2: Social survey questionnaires administered by site ................................ 10

Table 3.1: IKONA WMA respondents’ background characteristics ........................ 13

Table 3.2: Respondents’ type of house owned by sex ............................................ 16

Table 3.3: Household assets by sex ........................................................................... 17

Table 3.4: Occupation of respondents by sex ........................................................... 22

Table 3.5: Respondents’ perception on whether the annual income earned per year is enough by sex .................................................................................................... 23

Table 3.6: Respondents’ perception on whether men and women have equal decision in household by sex ....................................................................................... 23

Table 3.7: Respondents’ access to credit by sex ...................................................... 25

Table 3.8: Respondents’ engagement in wildlife venture by sex ........................... 27

Table 3.9: Respondents’ earning from wildlife venture by sex ............................... 27

Table 3.10: Respondents’ perception on earning trends by sex ............................ 28

Table 3.11: Respondents’ perception on type of change in earning by sex ......... 28

Table 3.12 Respondents’ perception on the period of change in earnings by sex........................................................................................................................................... 28

Table 3.13: Respondents’ coping mechanisms following the decline of earnings........................................................................................................................................... 29

Table 3.14: Respondents’ perception of road infrastructure by sex ...................... 30

Table 3.15: Perception of market infrastructure ........................................................ 33

Table 3.16: Respondents’ ownership of livestock by sex ........................................ 35

Table 3.17: Respondents’ ownership of a shamba by sex ...................................... 35

Table 3.18: Respondents’ size of land owned by sex .............................................. 35

Table 4.1: Households’ daily expenditure by sex ...................................................... 37

Table 4.2: Sources of revenue for Robanda Village ................................................. 38

Table 4.3: Estimates of revenues collected from investors in Robanda village, 2008/2009 ........................................................................................................................ 39

Table 4.4: Estimates of revenue collection from investors in Robanda Village, 2009/2010 ........................................................................................................................ 39

Table 4.5: Respondents’ perception on poaching incidences, frequency and trends by sex ................................................................................................................... 41

Table 4.6: Frequency of fire in the last year by sex .................................................. 41

Table 4.7: Amount received by each of the WMA village (in Tshs) ....................... 42

Table 4.8: Respondents’ awareness of the project financed by WMA by sex ..... 43

Table 5.1: Respondents’ attendance to the village general meeting ..................... 44

Table 5.2: Main discussion topics in village general meetings ............................... 45

Table 5.3: Discussion of WMA in village meeting by sex ........................................ 45

Table 5.4: Respondents’ Understanding of WMA by sex ........................................ 45

Table 5.5: Respondents’ perception of benefits from WMA .................................... 47

Table 5.6: Impact of WMA on wildlife resources ....................................................... 48

Table 5.7: Impact of WMA on community by sex ...................................................... 48

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Table 5.8: Respondents perception on WMA benefits sharing and perceived Impact on livelihood ....................................................................................................... 49

Table 5.9: Respondents’ perception of conflict or disputes due to WMA by sex . 50

Table 5.10: Respondents expectation from WMA by sex ........................................ 51

Table 5.11: Respondents’ perception of major problems behind the WMA by sex........................................................................................................................................... 52

Table 6.1: Entrepreneurship groups and their annual income levels (T.Sh) ........ 57

Table 6.2: Key Parameters at Village Level in Ikona WMA ..................................... 58

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Map of Ikona WMA ........................................................................................ 5

Figure 2: Sex of respondents ...................................................................................... 12

Figure 3: Type of toilets ................................................................................................ 18

Figure 4: Sharing of toilets ........................................................................................... 19

Figure 5: Main water sources ...................................................................................... 20

Figure 6: Main sources of energy ............................................................................... 21

Figure 7: Decision making by sex............................................................................... 24

Figure 8: Credit facilities ............................................................................................. 26

Figure 9: Comparison of village population sizes ..................................................... 54

Figure 10: Expenditure levels across villages ........................................................... 55

Figure 11: Average household income levels ............................................................ 56

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: One of modern houses at Robanda Village in Ikona WMA ...................... 16

Plate 2: Natta-Mbiso Primary School at Natta-Mbiso Village .................................. 30

Plate 3: Newly constructed maternal ward at Robanda Village .............................. 31

Plate 4: Water source at Nyichoka Village ................................................................. 32

Plate 5: Horticultural products at Natta-Mbiso Village .............................................. 33

Plate 6: Some of poorly built houses at Park Nyigoti Village in Ikona WMA ........ 56

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A report like this is certainly not a product of the consultants alone but a result of concerted efforts between the consultants, the client, and other various individuals and institutions. We thus wish to convey our sincere thanks to World Wildlife Fund-Tanzania Office for entrusting us to carry out this important study. From the very beginning of this work, we benefited a lot from the views we got from various officials of WWF especially Dr. Hussein Sosovele. We worked with him not only in determining the study approach to be adopted, but also in planning the study as well as in designing the research instruments. His views and ideas helped us a great deal in adopting an appropriate methodology of work that was of great help in carrying out this exercise. While in the field, we benefited quite a lot from the District Natural Resources Officers and District Game Officers of Serengeti District. We also got enough support from various individuals who work in various organizations that deal with conservation in the district, like the Wildlife Conservation Society. They assisted us tirelessly and provided us with a lot of support during the whole research process. We also received a lot advice from the officials of the IKONA Wildlife Management Area as well as from various officers of the villages that we visited during this study. Their guidance in terms of how the study should be carried out was indeed very helpful in our work. In this case their presence and their willingness to work with us is highly appreciated. Without their assistance we would not have been able to produce this report. We also wish to convey our profound gratitude to the research subjects that participated in this study and provided us with a lot of information that appears in this report. We learnt quite a lot from their views, most of which have been incorporated in this report. They provided sufficient information and helped us learn quite a number of things. They shared with us many things some of which were probably confidential. We strongly believe that they did this because they trusted us, but more so because they understood the importance of this work. We have no doubt that without them we could not have been able to understand the dynamics of life in the WMA. A special mention goes to the following researchers who were responsible in collecting data and writing this report. These are Mr. Faustin Richard Sambaiga, Peter Chacha Agwambo, Machunde Mauma and Reginald Masaki. All these people worked tirelessly as a team in order to accomplish this task. It is very difficult to mention each person that was involved in this activity. What we would like to say is thank you very much to everyone. You all have been a source of inspiration in our work and we have learnt a lot from you. While many people and institutions have participated in this work in one way or another, we wish to confirm that the views expressed in this report do not necessarily represent the views of these people and their institutions. They are entirely ours; and so are any weaknesses that may occur.

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ABBREVIATIONS

AA : Authorized Association CBC : Community Based Conversation CBNRM : Community Based Natural Resource Management CBO : Community Based Organization FCI : Financial Crisis Initiative FGD : Focus Group Discussion FZS : Frankfurt Zoological Society IDI : In-Depth Interview MNRT : Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism NCA : National Conservation Area NGO : Non-Governmental Organization NRs : Natural Resources USAID : United States Agency for International Development WD : Wildlife Division WMA : Wildlife Management Areas WWF : World Wide Fund For Nature

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The baseline survey for Ikona WMA mainly intended to obtain socio-economic data and information on the households in the five selected WMAs, including Ikona that would form a basis for evaluating the impact of the FCI on rural income. In order for accomplishment of the above goals, the baseline survey encompassed participatory assessment and methodological triangulation of qualitative and quantitative research approaches. These included a household socio-economic and demographic characteristics survey, focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, a quick scan of income generating activities and non-participant observation. A total of 319 people were involved in the baseline study. These included 198 respondents for the questionnaire, 100 participants in 13 FGDs and 21 key informants for in-depth interviews. As its major output, the baseline in Ikona WMA established the following key indicators. There are more male headed (58.6%) than female headed households (41.4%) in IKONA WMA. However the findings further imply that female headed household is on the increase. Majority (74.4%) population in the WMA has primary education while 19.1% have no formal education and only 5.1% have secondary education. Furthermore, 68.4% of respondents were married, out of which 53.6% had monogamous marriage while 14.8 had polygamous marriage. About 7% of the Ikona WMA population aged between 21 and 81 years have been divorced. Moreover, household size in Ikona WMA has an average of 5 people with a range of 1 and 2 income earners. More people (63.9%) are migrants who have settled in the WMA village for more than 9 Years (92.1%) looking for opportunities for farming activities (39.6%) and joining family and friends (36.0%). As far as their living standards and conditions are concerned, majority of the population (97%) own a house. Fifty one percent of the houses are thatched while 49.7% are roofed with iron sheet. About half (47.7%) of the houses have walls made of burnt bricks. Moreover, 39.1% of houses have cement and sand for floor material. Regarding the means of transport, 53.8% own a bicycle and 2.60% own a motorcycle. Ownership of electronics includes radio (60%) mobile phone (53.8%), Television set (9.7%), and DVD/VCR and Satellite dish (8.7%). In respect to sanitation, 92% have pit latrine while 3.6% reported to have flush toilet and 3.0% had no toilet. In addition, 60.7% depend on public well for drinking water, while 23.5% depend on public piped and only 2% on tape water. For energy sources 83.0% depend on firewood and 16.0% on charcoal.

On economic activities and source of income, 87.8% engage in food crop farming, livestock keeping (40.8%), Cash crop farming (20.9%), small business (14.3%), other activities (12.6%) and wage employment (6.6%). Important

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household economic activity is farming of food and cash crops and livestock keeping. The major crops produced include, maize (93.9%), millet (62.1%), cassava (45.4%) and sorghum (31.3%). The incomes earned from agricultural activities per year range between less than Tshs. 100,000 and Tshs 500,000 and above. This is perceived to be insufficient for household need (42.8%) especially by female headed households (50.6%). Only 10% of the population in the WMA engages in wildlife ventures of which 44.4% earn more than Tshs. 150,000 with more female (60.0%) than male 38.5% falling in this category. About 62% of those engaging in wildlife ventures reported an increase of earnings from wildlife ventures while 38.2% perceived a decrease of earnings. About 45% of the population in the WMA access to credit particularly from micro finance institutions (74.4%), SACCOS (12.8%) and relatives or friends (8.1%).

With regard to other resources, 76.5% have livestock which included cows, goats, sheep, poultry and few had donkeys while 98.4% own a shamba. Fifty one percent owned between 5 and 10 acres, 30.2% own more than 10 acres of land. More male (40.5%) compared to female (16.0%) own more than 10 acres of land. On the social relations at the household level 83.6% confirmed that there is equal decision making between men and women at the household, more men (87.7%) than women (77.8%) shared this view. About 15% perceive that men and women do not have equal decision at the household.

Transport infrastructure in IKONA WMA is still undeveloped as echoed by all village leaders and 77.3% of respondents confirmed that their roads are in bad shape. Schools in the area are faced with shortage of teacher, housing for teachers and teaching materials. There is only one secondary school in the area, and two villages have started construction of Secondary schools. Health facilities in the area include one health centre and three dispensaries which are also featured with acute shortage of personnel, equipment and supplies. Water, electricity and markets are among the major problems in Ikona WMA. At the household level, 62.6% use more than Tshs. 4000 per day for various household expenditures. More male (67.3%) than female (56.1) headed households are this category. Also, 15% use 20% of their expenditure on education while 48.2% use 10% of their expenditure on health. At the village level, except for Robanda and Nyakitono villages who receive concession fee and bed fees from the investors in their villages, the rest of the villages in Ikona WMA, depend on the WMA, District Council and contribution from villagers as their major source of revenue. The contribution of Ikona WMA to the village revenue is evident. Fifty percent of the total revenue collected from its sources is equally distributed to its members. Fifteen percent (15%) of the remaining funds go to the Serengeti District Council and 35% remains with the AA to carter for operational costs. So far each of the village has received a total of Tshs.56, 500,481 since 2007 and the amount is on increase from one year to the other. The funds have been injected into

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development projects such as education, health and water. As a result it has relieved villagers of the burden of contributing to the named projects in cash.

People in the Ikona WMA understand WMA as resources conservation 53.8%, community participation 24% and benefit sharing 7.1% (14). However 14.8% of the respondents were not are about WMA. More female respondents (28.8%) than male 7.7% are in this category. WMA is discussed in village meetings. There is an acceptance of WMA in the area although many are dissatisfied with the leadership of AA and manipulation from District authorities who are meant to advise. About 63% were of the opinion that the WMA initiative is beneficial. More male (69.2%) than female (50%) said that the WMA confirmed this while 21.5% of male and 21.9% of female said the WMA is not beneficial to them and their area. The community members in villages that form Ikona WMA are willing and ready to participate fully in cash for work programs.

In a nutshell, the above indicators can serve to monitor progress with regard to interventions in the Ikona WMA. The WMA is performing relatively well despite a wide range of challenges that would need to be addressed if it has to improve its performance. One of the major challenges is management dynamics emanating from the interactions between AA leadership, District Council, Village governments, investors and the community members. Unless the interests of all stakeholders are harmonized, sustainability of the initiative leaves a lot to be desired.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND THE SETTING OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction and the Background

The idea that local people participate in the designing, implementation and monitoring of their development programs which will play a leading role in determining their future destiny, has been the cornerstone of development policy and planning in Tanzania. Since independence there have been noticeable efforts from the government of Tanzania aimed at making sure that the local communities are involved in development process programs to instill their ownership and hence sustainability of the developmental interventions. For the latter to happen it is imperative that the local communities benefit directly from development programs or projects that are implemented in their localities. It is within this context that the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism has been grappling with devolving the management of natural resources to the local communities and the private sector.

1.2 Community-Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) Wildlife Policies and the Evolution of WMAs

The 1990s have witnessed a significant departure from the way natural resources had been managed in sub Saharan Africa. On vogue now are approaches (collectively referred to as Community-based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) geared towards the devolution of natural resources management and responsibilities to local communities and the engagement of other stakeholders (including the NGOs, community and the Private sector ) in managing the resources. CBNRM is a form of management that seeks to divert from the “garrison conservation” where the government was the sole manager of natural resources. Underlying CBNRM is the belief that communities in which natural resources occur /that surround Natural resources can be the most effective partners in the governments endeavor to attain sustainable management of natural resources. CBNRM involves practices of management and benefit sharing with the non state agents i.e. people /communities, but who, ‘by virtue of their collective location and activities are critically placed to enhance the present and future status of natural resources and their own well being.” (USAID 2003) This new paradigm to managing natural resources was prompted by the realization (by governments and donors alike) that the hitherto existing natural resources management practices under the government (Fines and fences, garrison conservation etc.) had been found wanting. Governments were

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becoming constrained in terms financial, human and infrastructural resources needed to effectively manage the vast natural resources in their countries (Kessy et al 2003). At the same time and as a consequence of the foregoing degradation of the natural resources base was going on unabated, due to poorly defined ownership and use rights (Kessy et al 2003) CBNRM as an alternative natural resources management approach comprise a corpus of interventions that seek to improve on the management of renewable natural resources “through devolving certain rights to these resources and for the ostensible benefits of the owners and thus managers of these resources”. Such interventions aim at rebuilding functioning natural resources management institutions among the local communities that had been destroyed as a result of state control of both land and natural resources. This rebuilding includes but not limited to creating a sense of ownership of these resources and devolution of clear rights to the local communities/people as incentives for their commitment to conservation.

1.2.1 The genesis of WMA and Institutional legal Framework in Tanzania

Until 1980s Tanzania wildlife management depended on “fines and fences” approach based on protected areas like National Parks and Game Reserves and restrictive laws preventing hunting of wildlife. The inadequacy of this approach was manifest in the crisis that gripped the wildlife sector in the 1970’s and 1980’s as poaching incidence for both commercial and subsistence uses of wildlife increased dramatically (Sulle et al. 2006). The crisis brought the government and donor support to bear the fact that there was a need for a paradigm shift in the management of wildlife. At the center of this shift was greater participation of local communities in the new concept of community wildlife management. As part of the paradigm shift in the management of natural resources and specifically wildlife, the government of Tanzania through it’s the Wildlife Division in the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism started cooperating with various donors, NGOs in the implementation of community based activities in areas adjacent to core to the core wildlife protected areas. These are activities related to the utilization of wildlife and forest resources for tourism, live trade animals, trade in forest products and eco-tourism, wildlife farming, handcraft and community based ventures, small and macro enterprises. Such a shift is indicative of the government’s realization that success in CBC activities would win support and greater participation of communities in sustainable management of natural resources. Evidently CBC activities were projected as tools that would contribute to the improvement of natural resources management and planning process while at the same time strengthening local level governance and generate tangible social, economic and financial benefits to the communities. In line with the foregoing, the Wildlife Sector Review Task Force in 1995 pointed out that “it is essential to the future of wildlife management

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in Tanzania that local communities amongst the wildlife should derive direct benefits from it” In a move to further the above community based conservation initiatives, the government issued the wildlife Policy of Tanzania (1998) which called for the establishment of Wildlife management areas on community lands adjacent to protected areas. This was a new category of multiple land use areas whose central focus would be wildlife conservation and a means to effect CBC activities related to wildlife conservation in Tanzania. The policy envisaged that under this new form of wildlife conservation (WMAs), the local communities “will have full mandate of managing and benefiting from their efforts. The overall policy objective was to ‘to increase the direct economic benefits that communities in wild rich areas accrue from the wildlife on village lands and to increase the responsibility and authority of local communities for wildlife management decisions in those areas”. In the revised WPT 2007, the principle of community based management was given a central role. The overriding aim here was to ensure that wildlife compete with other forms of land use (crop and animal husbandry) that may jeopardize wildlife populations and movements. The WPT 2007 for example points out that “local communities living on village lands with viable populations of wildlife have a role of protecting and benefiting from wildlife…..by setting wildlife conservation area in their land (MNRT 2007 sec. 3.1.4) The policy also sees one of the hitherto challenges facing wildlife management to be inadequate involvement and participation of the village communities in planning, management and conservation of wildlife and this has led to the unsustainable use of the resource (MNRT sec.3.2). The policy admits that wildlife has cultural values and cultural practices have facilitated sustainable management utilization and conservation of the resources. In recognition of the wildlife’s intrinsic value including direct and indirect benefits to village communities, the WPT 2007 underscores the government commitment in its policy statement that:

”the government will ensure that Tanzanians have right to legal access to wildlife and wetland resources. The government will also promote development of village communities living in or close to wildlife and wetland areas (except in NCA) through facilitating establishment of WMAs” (WPT 2007:27).

Since the Wildlife Act 1974 did not directly provide for wildlife management areas, the process of formation of WMs was stalled until 2003 when new regulations on how the WMA designation process would operate were formally issued. The absence of legal backing has now been taken care of under Part V of the Wildlife Conservation Act, 2009 which provides for the establishment and management of the Wildlife management Areas and benefit sharing (URT:194)

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At the time of conducting this baseline a total of 16 WMAs have been officially gazetted. These included Ipole WMA, Uyumbu WMA, Burunge WMA, and Ngarambe-Tapika WMA etc. Some these WMAs are now engaged in tourism related businesses where revenue is generated. The anticipated objective of benefits to the local communities has already started to show as part of the income accrued from activities in the WMAs is distributed to the member villages. However, owing to the ongoing worldwide financial crisis, the sustainability of steady income accruing to some of the WMAs is at risk.

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has rightly observed that as a result of global financial crisis, the amount of income derived from tourist arrivals is likely to decline in some WMAs. This will have some deleterious consequences on the lives of rural communities who had started benefiting from incomes from WMAs activities as their incomes will undoubtedly decline. It is envisaged that as a result of this (income) poverty, some people in the rural communities may revert to unsustainable utilization of natural resources i.e. overexploitation of the natural resources to sustain their livelihoods. This may in turn lead to further destruction of the environment. To avert such an eventuality, the WWF intends to initiate a variety of interventions including implementing a Financial Crisis Initiative (FCI) or Cash-for Work Program focusing on a range of infrastructure programs in 5 WMAs. As far as WWF is concerned, the implementation of this program among others aims at providing incomes to the rural communities within the 5 WMAs through wages and other services or goods linked infrastructure development. WWF envisage that incomes accrued from engaging in infrastructural development activities and related benefits will improve the living conditions in these rural areas and allay fears of their reverting into unsustainable utilization of natural resources.

The above mentioned interventions aim at coming up with some positive changes and/or mitigate against the anticipated risks to the community and the natural resource base. In this regard it is important to establish some important benchmarks (with regard to the current economic and social status) on the basis of which the intervention will be built. As the implementation of the interventions proceed it is important that their performance is monitored. For monitoring to be meaningful there must be some important yardsticks in place. It is these yardsticks that can indicate change from one state to another or no change. Today monitoring has become a very effective management tool. It is within this context and background that WWF contracted Health and Development International Consultants to undertake a socio-economic baseline survey that will generate data and information on the socio-economic status in the 5 WMAs. This information will generate indicators that are going to be used to monitor changes arising from the intervention as well as determining the level of changes in the key indicators of incomes, number of households involved in tourism related businesses in the villages within WMAs, rural livelihoods, status

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of biodiversity and reported cases of poaching, infrastructure services. The baseline data is presented below after delineating the study and limitations thereof. The baseline survey study was carried out in 5 WMAs namely, MBOMIPA (Iringa Rural District), Ipole (Sikonge District), Ikona (Serengeti District), Enduimet (Longido District) and Burunge (Babati District). The baseline study reports of these 5 WMAs have been presented separately. This report is for IKONA WMA.

Figure 1: Map of Ikona WMA

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CHAPTER TWO

THE TERMS OF REFERENCE, APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

2.1 Objectives of the Baseline Survey and Scope of Work

The main objective of the baseline survey was: “To obtain socio-economic data and information on the households in the five selected WMAs that will form a basis for evaluating the impact of the FCI on rural income”

The specifically the socio-economic baseline survey was supposed to:

a) Identify the sources and type of income in selected villages forming WMAs.

b) Evaluate expenditure patterns in selected villages forming each WMA. c) Asses living conditions such as the status of houses, livelihood assets,

land uses production trends etc. d) Evaluate existing economic activities in the selected WMAs. e) Assess availability and quality of infrastructure services such as health,

education, transportation and communication, institutions; f) Assess the level of income in selected households in villages forming

WMAs. g) Assess population characteristics (age, sex, migration, social

relationships) h) Document various resources available, resource uses and markets (e.g.

farms/livestock and the uses) i) Provide information on the economic and ecological status of a WMA

including number of investors, visitors, poaching incidences etc. j) Assess attitudes, perception and views towards existing CBNRM

program/WMA k) Provide information on existing investments in the selected WMAs –

detailing visitor numbers, services, revenue. l) Assess social economic threats; drivers and opportunities related NRs in

the selected villages. It is these objectives that comprised the Terms of Reference (TORS) and described the Scope of Work (SOW) for this consultancy.

2.2 Area of the Study

This study was carried out in IKONA WMA. This WMA is located in Serengeti District in Mara region. The WMA has a total area of 242.3 square km and covers five villages namely Robanda, Nyichoka, Makundusi-Nyakitono, Park-Nyigoti and Natta-Mbisso. The villages are found in three wards (Ikoma, Natta and

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Kyambahi) of Grumeti division. IKONA WMA is divided into two areas namely Tourist hunting block which covers Nyichoka, Makundusi-Nyakitono, Park-Nyigoti and Natta-Mbisso villages and Photographic tourism area which is mainly in Robanda village. It has an estimated total population of 24,000 people. This WMA was officially registered as a WMA in 2006. Interesting to note is the fact that Serengeti District in which the WMA is located has a total area of 10,373 square km of which Serengeti national Park occupies 7,000 square km, Ikorongo game reserve covers 190 square km, while Grumeti game reserve occupies 66.9 square km and there is an open area of 2,456 square km. Therefore only 659 square km of the district area is arable land used for agriculture, livestock grazing and residence. Administratively, Serengeti District has one Parliamentary constituency but it is divided into 4 division, 18 wards, 75 villages, 319 sub villages (vitongoji) and 31,388 households. According to the 2002 National population and Housing census, Serengeti district had a total of 176,609 people of which 92,706 were females and 83,903 were males. The annual growth rate was 2.8%. Thus population projections for 2010 estimate the district population to be 220,344 people of whom 113,581 are females and 106,763 are males (Serengeti District Council 2010). Table 2.1 below show population projection in the wards covered by IKONA WMA.

Table 2.1: population in the wards forming IKONA WMA

Ward Households Male Female Total

Ikoma 855 2584 2548 5132

Natta 1433 4304 4292 8596

Kyambahi 1225 3718 3631 7349

Source: Serengeti District Council, 2010 The major economic activities in Serengeti District include farming, livestock keeping, small business enterprises, small scale industries and formal employment. However, majority of the people in the District (90%) engage in agricultural undertaking. Tourism is a growing sector in Serengeti district due to the presence of varied tourist attractions. The following are among the tourist hotels and camps in Serengeti district:

a) Seronera Wildlife Lodge b) Lobo Wildlife Lodge c) Serena Wildlife Lodge d) Sasakwa Lodge e) Sabora Lodge f) Bilila Lodge g) Tented camps include, Grumet, Sengo Safaris, Ndasiata, Moivaro, Swala,

Zara Thompson Savana, Tanzania Adventure and Kleins and Downey.

8

2.3 Study Design and Methodology

This was an explorative and explanatory study combining both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection in order to collect information that would be used for monitoring purposes and determining the level of changes in the key indicators such as incomes, numbers of households involved in tourism related businesses, nature of rural livelihoods, status on biodiversity with each phase comprising a specific research study component using specific methods of data collection and analysis

2.3.1 Study Population, Sampling Size and Strategy

The methodology and structure of this study was determined by the methodology and structure that was applied to all 5 WMAs. In this case even the sampling strategy followed the pattern that was used in other WMAs. It was decided that the entire study should recruit a total of 2000 respondents for the survey questionnaire. Taking into consideration that there were a total of 49 villages, a proportional sampling strategy was applied in order to determine the total number of respondents per village especially for the social survey. The 2000 respondents were divided among 49 villages and this resulted into 41 respondents per village. Since the IKONA WMA has a total of 5 villages we had to recruit a total of 200 respondents in our sample. However due to fact that our last 2 respondents declined from the survey, we managed to recruit total of 198 respondents for the social survey. While in villages attempts were made to make sure that at least there was an equal representation between men and women in the sample. For qualitative data, the procedure for sampling informants was purposive. The research subjects were selected based on the extent to which they were familiar with either WMAs or village development politics. It was thought that due to their experience and exposure, they would provide useful knowledge on the socio-economic situation in the WMAs. Using this approach, we managed to recruit the total of 121 people for FGDs and in-depth interviews. Therefore the study in IKONA WMA involved a total of 319 people whereby 198 respondents took part in the administered social survey questionnaire, while 100 individuals participated in the FGDs and 21 people were key informants for the in-depth interviews. Selection of households considered the socio-economic diversities of the communities forming IKONA WMAs. In that regard, households with varied characteristics were included in the sample. Respondents for FGDs and key informants for in-depth interviews were purposively selected to suit the objectives of the study. The characteristics of the study population are further described in section 3 of this report.

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2.3.2 Methods of Data Collection

The study employed a variety of both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection. Specifically, we used the following methods of data collection:

Documentary and Library Research.

Administration of a Quantitative Social Survey Questionnaire.

In-depth Interviews with key informants/opinion leaders, District Advisory Board Village, Approved/Authorized Associations (AA) Community Based Organisations (CBO).

Focus Group Discussions with a sample villagers, village entrepreneurs, and village and district leaders.

A Quick-Scan Analysis of Income-Generating Activities in the Study Area.

On-the-Spot Non-Participant Ethnographic Observation and Assessment The description of how each of the above method was used in the study is presented here below:

2.3.2.1 Documentary and Library research

A range of documents such as previous baseline survey reports, Serengeti District profile, IKONA WMA constitution and annual reports as well as Wildlife policy and legislative documents were reviewed. The idea was not only to collect some secondary data but also to deconstruct the existing knowledge regarding WMAs.

2.3.2.2 A Quick-Scan of Income Generating Activities at Village Level

While in villages, a very quick scan of income-generating activities that exist in the IKONA WMA was undertaken. Findings show a diversity of economic activities and a clear pattern in terms of the nature of key participants (male or females). Food vending is predominant in all centers of the five villages forming IKOMA WMA. As in most areas, this is dominated by females. Gardening is also common in the five villages but this involves both male and females. This is mainly done along the banks of a river or/and near a dam. Agriculture and livestock keeping constitute primary economic activities in the surveyed villages. Both male and female are involved though with varied degree. Other business ventures such as retail shops for consumer goods and drinks including local beer

10

were noted at the centre of each village. There are no reliable markets for the goods and services produced in the villages of IKONA WMA.

2.3.2.3 Administration of a Social Survey

A total of 198 social survey questionnaires were administered to the head of households in the five villages of IKONA WMA. This is an average of 40 respondents per village. Interviews were conducted at the respondents’ households although in some cases where households were much more scattered, respondents were informed by the village leaders to come to the village office for interviews. Each interview took a maximum of 30 to 45 minutes. This questionnaire enquired a range of issues as per the objectives of the baseline and TOR. Table 2.2 show the number of respondents for a social survey questionnaire by site.

Table 2.2: Social survey questionnaires administered by site Village Questionnaires Percent

NATTA-MBISO

34 17.2

MAKUNDUSI-NYAKITONO

40 20.2

NYICHOKA

44 22.2

PARK NYIGOTI

44 22.2

ROBANDA

36 18.2

Total

198 100.0

2.3.2.4 Administration of In-Depth Interviews

About 4 in-depth interviews with key informants were undertaken in each of the five villages of IKONA WMA. The key informants included village leaders, professionals mainly teachers, elderly persons and village representatives to the AA and people who participate in wildlife related activities in the village. At the district level, key officials could not be find time for in-depth interviews instead the research team organized a focus group discussion with the district top officials as explained in the subsection 2.3.2.4. At the AA office of IKONA WMA, one in-depth interview was done with the executive Secretary of IKONA AA after the collection of data from the five villages. This served to clarify a couple of issues and allegations raised in the interviews and focus group discussions. In a nutshell, about 21 in-depth interviews were conducted in IKONA WMA. Depending on what the researchers wanted to explore, the interviews took between 15 minutes to 1hour1.

1 Depending on the contexts in which the researchers agreed to meet with the key informants, not all of the

interview sessions were recorded.

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2.3.2.5 Administration of Focus Group Discussions

In total, 13 FGDs with a total of 100 participants were organized to capture both diversity in the people’s views and areas of consensus. As stated above, one FGD was organized as part of the courtesy visit to the Serengeti District council. This involved the top officials of the council namely The District Executive Director (acting), The District Legal Officer, District Land Officer and the District Planning officer. This provided us with the views shared by the district authority as far as the operation of IKONA WMA is concerned. At the village level, two to three FGDs with 8-10 participants were organized in each village. A focus group discussion with the village leaders namely chairperson, executive officer, members of the village government, chairpersons of vitongoji served as an entry point to the villages. These comprised both males and females although in all villages there were more men than women in the FGDs. Furthermore, FGDs with representatives of production groups in the villages were organized. Participants included males and females although in Robanda, Park Nyigoti and Natta-Mbiso, there were more female than male participants in the focus group discussions. Where males attempted to dominate female participants, participants were divided into two groups according to their sex. This was the case in Robanda and Nyakitono.

2.3.2.6 Non-Participant Ethnographic Observation and Assessment

Throughout the period of our study in the five villages of IKONA WMA, we conducted a non-participant ethnographic observation and assessment of various socio-economic aspects and programs or projects within the WMAs. We visited schools, health facilities, market centers and households. We were able to see development projects financed through the funds villages receive as members of IKONA WMA. By using the roads that serves the villages we surveyed, it was easy to make sense of peoples’ response regarding the status road infrastructure in the area. Indeed, the ethnographic observation and assessment helped the research team to connect people’s responses generated via other methods of data collection and what actually happens daily in people’s lives.

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CHAPTER THREE

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARATERISTICS AND ECONOMIC STATUS

3.1 Population Characteristics and Social Relationships

An Individual’s background characteristics such as age, sex, migration and social

relations can shape not only the patterns of social practices but also the ways in

which people interact with natural environments such as wildlife resources and

the way they perceive the management of the same. It is therefore pertinent to

describe the background characteristics of the respondents involved in the

baseline survey. The population that we studied in IKONA WMA had the

following socio-demographic characteristics.

3.1.1 Background characteristics of respondents Of the 198 sample respondents to whom the social survey questionnaires were administered, 58.6% (116) respondents were male while 41.4% (82) respondents were females (Figure 1). Since the study targeted the heads of households, findings suggest that there are more male headed (58.6%) than female headed households (41.4%) in IKONA WMA. However, the findings further imply that female headed households are on the increase especially in Natta-Mbiso and Nyichoka Villages. This was also evident in the FGDs and in-depth interviews.

Figure 2: Sex of respondents

Sex of respondents

Male

59%

Female

41%

Moreover, the study involved adult respondents between 21 and 81 years of age.

The majority (74.4%) of the respondents had primary education while 19.1% had

no formal education and only 5.1% of the respondents had secondary education.

13

Furthermore, 68.4% of respondents were married, out of which 53.6% had

monogamous marriage while 14.8 had polygamous marriage. About 13% of

respondents were single and 12.8% were widowed. Only 6.6% of respondents

reported to have been divorced. The study further established that household

sizes in IKONA WMA were at an average of 5 people, with more than half of the

households (54%) is having five or less than five people and 46% of the

households having more than five people. The majority (96%) of the households

have between 1 and 2 income earners.

Interestingly, more people (63.9%) were not born in the villages in which they

were living, compared to 46.1% who confirmed to have been born in the

surveyed villages. This suggests that the communities of IKONA WMA have

attracted immigrants who have become permanent residents. The majority

(92.1%) have settled in these villages for more than 9 years and a small

percentage of the immigrants have relocated to the respective villages within the

past 1 to 4 years (3.6%) and 5-9 years(4.2%). Reasons for moving into the

villages are varied, but a greater percentage mentioned opportunities for farming

activities (39.6%) and joining family and friends (36.0%). The above findings are

summarized on table 3.1 below

Table 3.1: IKONA WMA respondents’ background characteristics

Background characteristics Frequency (n)

Percentage (%)

Age group

20 – 24 7 3.5

25 – 29 19 9.6

30 – 34 28 14.1

35 – 39 33 16.7

40 – 44 28 14.1

45 – 49 22 11.1

50 – 54 12 6.1

55 – 59 9 4.5

60 – 64 16 8.1

65 – 69 12 6.1

70+ 12 6.1

Education levels

No formal education 38 19.1

Primary education 145 74.4

Secondary education 10 5.1

Vocational training 2 1.0

College education 3 1.5

Marital status

Single 26 13.1

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3.2 People’s Socio-Economic Status

Findings from in-depth interviews and FGDs show that people in the IKONA

WMA consider themselves better off in comparison to their neighboring

communities in terms of their socio-economic status. Although they confirm that

life is tough and that they struggle with poverty, people in the five villages

consider themselves to be better off as aptly put by one of FGD participant:

“…we cannot be compared with communities outside the WMAs

where the situation is worse…” (FGD participant)

The above sentiments reflect their living standards and conditions in the

subsequent sections

3.2.1 People’s Living Standards and Conditions

The baseline survey was also aimed at establishing indicators for the living

standards and conditions of the people in IKONA WMA. Findings show that

people in the five villages cannot be stereotyped in terms of their living standards

and conditions. This is revealed by various indicators of material possessions

namely, ownership of a house, building materials of that house and ownership of

other assets. Other indicators included the source of drinking water and types of

toilets used. These are presented in the subsequent sub sections.

3.2.2 Household assets

Findings show that the majority of the respondents (97%) owned a house. This is the situation among both male and female headed households, in which percentages of household ownership were as high as 97.4% and 96.3%

Married monogamy 105 53.6

Married polygamy 29 14.8

Divorced 13 6.6

Widowed 25 12.8

Household size

5 people or less 107 54.0

6 people or more 91 46.0

Migration status

Born in this village 70 36.1

Born in another village 124 63.9

Duration of stay in this village (Years)

1 – 4 6 3.6

5 – 9 7 4.2

> 9 152 92.1

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respectively. However, the type of houses owned varied, 51.3% were thatched while 49.7% roofed with iron sheet (Plate 1).

16

Plate 1: One of modern houses at Robanda Village in Ikona WMA

Interestingly more female (55.3%) than male (44.3%) respondents said their houses had iron sheet roofing. About half (47.7%) of the houses were reported to have walls made of burnt bricks. Only 18.8% and 27.4% of the respondents confirmed that the walls of their houses were made of mud bricks and mud and poles respectively. Moreover, more than half of the respondents (58.9%) mentioned earth clay as floor material for their houses compared to 39.1% who mentioned cement and sand (see table 3.2). The housing conditions varied across villages where there were more thatched houses at Park Nyigoti, Makundusi-Nyakitono and Nyichoka villages while more houses at Robanda and Natta-Mbisso villages were roofed with iron sheet.

Table 3.2: Respondents’ type of house owned by sex Type of house in terms of

materials Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % N % N %

Floor material

Lime and stone 3 2.60% 1 1.20% 4 2.00%

Cement and sand 44 38.30% 33 40.20% 77 39.10%

Earth clay 68 59.10% 48 58.50% 116 58.90%

Wall material

Cement block

7 6.10% 3 3.70% 10 5.10%

Burnt bricks 54 47.00% 40 48.80% 94 47.70%

Mud brick 14 12.20% 23 28.00% 37 18.80%

Mud and poles

40 34.80% 14 17.10% 54 27.40%

Roofing material

Thatch

64 55.70% 37 45.10% 101 51.30%

Iron sheet/ Metal

51 44.30% 47 55.30% 96 49.70%

17

As far as ownership of means of transportation is concerned, more than half of the respondents (53.8%) own a bicycle and 2.60% own a motorcycle. Only one respondent owned a vehicle. Furthermore, respondents possessed a range of electronic materials ,including radios (60%), mobile phones (53.8%), television sets (9.7%), DVD/VCR’s, and satellite dishes (8.7%).The above findings are presented in table 3.3 below. Worth to note here is the fact that ownership of means of transport did not vary across villages.

Table 3.3: Household assets by sex

Household assets Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % N % N %

House 112 97.40% 79 96.30% 191 97.00%

Bicycle 71 61.70% 34 42.50% 105 53.80%

Motorcycle 3 2.60% 2 2.50% 5 2.60%

Vehicle 1 0.90% 0 0.00% 1 0.50%

Chariot/cat 2 1.70% 2 2.50% 4 2.10%

TV set 12 10.40% 7 8.80% 19 9.70%

DCR/DVD set 10 8.70% 7 8.80% 17 8.70%

Satellite dish 9 7.80% 8 10.00% 17 8.70%

Radio 80 69.60% 37 46.30% 117 60.00%

Refrigerator 3 2.60% 7 8.90% 10 5.20%

Mobile phone 72 62.60% 33 41.30% 105 53.80%

Landline 3 2.60% 3 3.80% 6 3.10%

3.2.3 Type and use of toilet facility

In attempts to further understand the living standards and conditions of people in IKONA WMA, the study enquired about the type and use of toilet facilities. Findings show that the majority of the respondents (92%) have a pit latrine while 3.6% reported to have a flush toilet and 3.0% having no toilet.

18

Figure 3: Type of toilets

3.6

92.4

3 1

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

flush pit latrine none other

toilet facility

respondents' type of toilet facility

Furthermore, 12.4% of the respondents reported that they share a toilet with another household while 87.6% were not sharing their toilets (see table 3.5). The findings partly explain the existence of households which do not own a toilet.

19

Figure 4: Sharing of toilets

11.4

88.6

13.8

86.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

male female

sex of respondents

Respondents sharing toilet facility by sex

yes

no

3.2.4 Main source of drinking water

Many people in the IKONA WMA depend on public well for drinking water as depicted by 60.7% of our respondents. These wells are not reliable, especially during dry seasons when due to extreme temperatures, they frequently dry up. The problem of water availability was highlighted in all of the FGDs we conducted with various groups in the villages. Apart from public wells, public taps also provide drinking water to 23.5% of our respondents followed by river/stream/springs (6.6%) and other sources (5.0%). Only 2% of our respondents mentioned piped water and private well/water reserve as their sources of drinking water (see table 3.6). Important to note here is the fact that drinking water is a problem across the five villages although it is worse at Park Nyigoti, Nyichoka and Makundusi-Nyakitono.

20

Figure 5: Main water sources

0.93.7

23.723.2

2.6 1.2

58.8

63.4

11.4

00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

piped well reserve or

yard

river/stream/spring

source of drinking water

Respondents' main source of drinking water by sex

male

female

3.2.5 Sources of energy

Firewood is still the major source of energy for most of the people in IKONA WMA. This was confirmed by the majority of our respondents (83.0%) followed by those who mentioned charcoal (16.0%) as their source of energy (see table 3.7). No one was using an improved stove. The situation was more or less the same across the five villages. This situation leaves a lot to be desired as most of the forests from which they fetch firewood and logs for charcoal making are within the conserved areas. FGDs and IDI’s with women highlighted the problems they face from the conservation officials.. One of our key informants had this to say;

“…although we are restricted to fetch firewood in the conserved area, we still go there because we do not have an alternative source of energy…” (IDI with women at Robanda village)

21

Figure 6: Main sources of energy

0.9 0

17.513.8

80.7

86.3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

car battery charcoal firewood

source of energy

Respondents' source of energy by sex

male

female

3.3 Socio-Economic Activities of the Households and how they Perform

The study enquired about the socio-economic activities of the households in

IKONA WMA. To start with, respondents were asked to mention their occupation.

Findings show that people in the five villages of IKONA WMA engage in more

than one economic activity. However, the majority of our respondents (87.8%) list

food crop farming as their occupation followed by livestock keeping (40.8%).

Cash crop farming accounted for 20.9% of the respondents followed by small

business (14.3%) and other activities (12.6%). Only 6.6% of the respondents said

they depended on wage employment for their income. Interestingly, more female

respondents (20.7%) than male respondents (9.6%) were engaging in small

business activities. Table 3.8 summarizes the above findings by sex. It is also

important to note the situation varied across villages whereby Robanda and

Natta-Mbiso had more people engaging with small business activities while in

Nyichoka, Makundusi-Nyakitono and Park Nyingoti majority engage with

agriculture and livestock keeping.

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Table 3.4: Occupation of respondents by sex Occupation Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % N % N %

Cash crop farming 30 26.30% 11 13.40% 41 20.90%

Food crop farming 100 87.70% 72 87.80% 172 87.80%

Livestock keeping 49 43.00% 31 37.80% 80 40.80%

Small business 11 9.60% 17 20.70% 28 14.30%

Wage employment 12 10.40% 1 1.20% 13 6.60%

Horticulture 2 1.80% 1 1.20% 3 1.50%

Handcraft 1 0.86 2 2.4 3 1.50

Hunting 2 1.80% 1 1.20% 3 1.50%

Casual work 3 2.60% 1 1.20% 4 2.00%

Other activities 9 12.50% 8 12.70% 17 12.60%

Furthermore, respondents were asked to mention the economic activities that are

important for their households. Again, farming of food, cash crops and livestock

keeping were considered to be the most important activities for households in the

IKONA WMA. The major crops produced by our respondents include, maize

(93.9%), millet (62.1%), cassava (45.4%) and sorghum (31.3%). Small

businesses, particularly in female headed households are also important (see

table 3.9).

The performance of agriculture is variable with good and bad weather seasons.

Findings show that people in the IKONA WMA produce an average of 5 to 6

sacks of food crops in the good season and bad season respectively.

The annual income earned from agricultural activities varied widely between

individuals with the lowest earning mentioned being less than Tshs. 100,000 and

the highest earning being between Tshs 500,000 and above. The situation

varied across villages where Makundusi-Nyakitono and Natta-Mbisso and

Robanda had higher earning from Agriculture compared to other villages. When

asked as to whether the incomes earned were enough to carter for the

household needs, less than half (42.8%) of the people in IKONA WMA perceived

their annual income to be insufficient for household demands. Important to note

here is the fact that more female headed households (50.6%) said the annual

income is not enough compared to male headed households (37.2%).Table 3.9

below presents findings regarding respondents perception of their annual

income.

23

Table 3.5: Respondents’ perception on whether the annual income earned per year is enough by sex

Annual income enough Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % n % N %

Yes 42 37.20% 41 50.60% 83 42.80%

No 71 62.80% 40 49.40% 111 57.20%

Total 113 100.00% 81 100.00% 194 100.00%

In relation to household economics, the baseline study aimed to describe social relations at the household level. In this regard, respondents were asked to state whether men and women have equal decision making responsibilities in households. Findings show that majority of the respondents (83.6%) confirmed that there is equal decision making between men and women at the household although more men (87.7%) than women (77.8%) shared this view. Important to note is the fact that 14.9% of the respondents perceive that men and women do not have equal decision making roles within households. Interestingly this perception was shared mostly by females (18.5%) in comparison to male respondents (12.3%). Table 3.10 presents the above findings.

Table 3.6: Respondents’ perception on whether men and women have equal decision in household by sex

Men and women have equal decision

Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % N %

Yes 100 87.70% 63 77.80% 163 83.60%

No 14 12.30% 15 18.50% 29 14.90%

Don’t know 0 0.00% 1 1.20% 1 0.50%

No response 0 0.00% 2 2.50% 2 1.00%

Total 114 100.00% 81 100.00% 195 100.00%

Furthermore, the study inquired on people’s perception about who makes the final decisions in household expenditures. Findings show that in the five villages of IKONA WMA, husbands make the final decision on household expenditures as depicted by 42.1% of our respondents. On the other hand only 16.4% of the respondents said that wives make the final decision on household expenditure. Forty percent of the respondents were of the view that both wife and husband make the final decision together. The responses in this regard varied by sex whereby more male (50.0%) than female respondents (30.9%) said that husbands make the final decision. Likewise 47.4% of the male respondents perceived that both wives and husbands make the final decision while very few male respondents (2.6%) said that their wives make the final decision compared to 35.8% of female respondents (see table 3.11).

24

Figure 7: Decision making by sex

50

30.9

2.6

35.8

47.4

29.6

0

3.7

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

husband wife both no response

decision maker

Perception of decision makers on household expenditure by sex

male

female

3.3.1 Main Economic Activities Existing in the WMA

Findings from in-depth interviews and FGDs show a diversity of economic

activities to be in existence in IKONA WMA. Throughout the 5 villages,

agriculture, livestock keeping and small businesses economic activities were

mentioned as main economic activities.

3.3.2 Sources, Levels and Types of Income in Selected Villages

Apart from selling food, cash crops, livestock and livestock products, people in IKONA WMA generate income from various other sources that include: fetching and selling firewood; selling thatching materials; selling vegetables and other horticultural products; selling commodities in small shops; gold mining; food vending; wage employment (including Village Game soldiers and casual labor in the tourist camps); gravel making; and furniture making among others. The levels of income for people in IKONA WMA vary widely with the majority earning an average of Tshs. 200,000 to 300,000 per year. People in Natta Mbisso, Robanda and Makundusi-Nyakitono Villages earn more income compared to other villages. According to the Serengeti District Council (2010) the

25

per capita income for an individual in the district is estimated at Tshs 345,000 per year which is higher than the national per capita income of Tshs. 170,733 per year. 3.4 Sources of and Types of Incomes in Selected Villages

a) Access to credit Credit is among the sources of income that enable some of the village members in IKONA WMA to initiate income generating activities and deal with household needs. Findings show that 44.6% of the respondents confirmed that they have access to credit. These included 45.2% of male and 43.8% of female respondents (see table 3.12).

Table 3.7: Respondents’ access to credit by sex Access to credit Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % n %

YES 52 45.20% 35 43.80% 87 44.60%

NO 63 54.80% 45 56.30% 108 55.40%

Total 115 100.00% 80 100.00% 195 100.00%

The baseline study also found that the majority (74.4%) of those who reported to have access to credit confirmed that micro finance institutions were their main source of credit. SACCOS was mentioned by 12.8%, while 8.1% reported relatives as a source of credit (see table). Discussion with community leaders and members from economic groups revealed that Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA), VICOBA and FINCA are among the micro finance institutions lending capital. Women in the IKONA WMA reported to have their own systems of rolling funds which is preferred by many as they are not required to pay interest. COCOBA has been established in all the five Villages with support from Frankfurt Zoological Society.

26

Figure 8: Credit facilities

2 2.9

82.4

62.9

7.8

20

2 2.95.9

11.4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

bank micro

finance

institutions

SACCOS AA Relatives

main source of credit

Respondents' main source of credit by sex

Male

Female

b) Wildlife venture as a source of income

The core of this baseline study is concerned with the assessment of benefits received from wildlife resources in the respective WMAs and how they have been affected by the global economic crisis. , Respondents were asked whether they engage in wildlife ventures and v findings show that few people (10%) from IKONA WMA engage in wildlife ventures such as photographic tourism, tourist hunting, cultural tourism and direct employment (see table 3.14). Discussion with community leaders and representatives of various economic groups in the surveyed villages attributed this situation to the dominance of outsiders who marginalize the local population.

“..we don’t benefit from the opportunities availed by the investments in ours areas, the Maasai and other people from Arusha are the ones who supplies commodities to the tourist hotels and camps….”(Participant in the FGD with vegetable and fruit producers from Nyakitono)

…they say our eggs, fruits and vegetables and other products have no quality...But those who are finally given the opportunity to

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supply, the same people come to buy from us…! Of course with low price… (Participant in the FGD with women from Robanda)

Table 3.8: Respondents’ engagement in wildlife venture by sex

Engagement in Wildlife venture

Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % N %

Yes 15 13.80% 5 6.30% 20 10.60%

No 94 86.20% 75 93.80% 169 89.40%

Total 109 100.00% 80 100.00% 189 100.00%

Moreover, the study enquired about the earnings from wildlife ventures from those who make a living from this industry. It was found that the earnings range between Tshs. 20,000 and more than Tshs. 150,000. However 44.4% of respondents who were engaging in wildlife ventures earned more than Tshs. 150,000. More female (60.0%) than male respondents (38.5%) fell into this category (See table 3.15).

Table 3.9: Respondents’ earning from wildlife venture by sex Earnings in Tshs. Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % n % n %

0 - 20,000 1 7.70% 0 0.00% 1 5.60%

20,001 - 50,000 4 30.80% 1 20.00% 5 27.80%

50,001 - 100,000 2 15.40% 1 20.00% 3 16.70%

100,001 - 150,000 1 7.70% 0 0.00% 1 5.60%

> 150,000 5 38.50% 3 60.00% 8 44.40%

Total 13 100.00% 5 100.00% 18 100.00%

Nevertheless, the study captured the perception of respondents as to whether earnings from wildlife venture were changing. The majority of respondents (80.6%) perceived changes in their earnings from wildlife ventures. Table 3.15 presents these findings.

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Table 3.10: Respondents’ perception on earning trends by sex Are there changes in

earnings Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % n %

Yes 20 83.30% 9 75.00% 29 80.60%

No 4 16.70% 3 25.00% 7 19.40%

Total 24 100.00% 12 100.00% 36 100.00%

It was also necessary to establish the direction of changes as perceived by the respondents. Findings show that more than half of the respondents (61.8%) reported that there had been an increase of earnings from wildlife ventures while 38.2% of the respondents perceived a decrease in their earnings. More female respondents (81.8%) than male (52.2%) reported changes of earnings from wildlife ventures towards a positive direction (see table 3.16 below).

Table 3.11: Respondents’ perception on type of change in earning by sex Perception on earning

trends Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % N %

Increase of earnings 12 52.20% 9 81.80% 21 61.80%

Decrease of earning 11 47.80% 2 18.20% 13 38.20%

Total 23 100.00% 11 100.00% 34 100.00%

The respondents who perceived changes in earning from wildlife ventures were also asked to state when they experienced such changes. Findings show that 67.7% said the changes were experienced between 2006 and 2008 while 19.4% reported 2009 to the present date and 12.9% confirmed to have experienced changes in earning between 2003 and 2005 (see table 3.17)

Table 3.12 Respondents’ perception on the period of change in earnings by

sex Period in years Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

N % n % n %

2003 - 2005 2 9.50% 2 20.00% 4 12.90%

2006 - 2008 13 61.90% 8 80.00% 21 67.70%

2009 - To date 6 28.60% 0 0.00% 6 19.40%

Total 21 100.00% 10 100.00% 31 100.00%

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In this study we also intended to learn the coping mechanisms adapted by those who reported to have experienced a decrease in earnings from wildlife ventures. It was found that the majority of these respondents (75%) mentioned an increased effort while 25% mentioned diversification as coping mechanisms (see table 3.18).

Table 3.13: Respondents’ coping mechanisms following the decline of earnings

Coping mechanisms Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Increase effort 14 66.70% 10 90.90% 24 75.00%

Diversification 7 33.30% 1 9.10% 8 25.00%

Total 21 100.00% 11 100.00% 32 100.00%

3.5 Availability and Quality of Social Service Infrastructure

The status of social services infrastructure in IKONA WMA reflects the existing situation in Serengeti District. As far as social services are concerned, there are 104 primary schools with 53,530 pupils and 23 secondary schools with 8.860 students in Serengeti District. The District has a total of 41 health facilities including 1 designated hospital, 2 rural health centers and 38 dispensaries. The health facility/population ratio is 1: 5,708 and doctor/population ratio is 1: 6,469 while nurse/population ratio is 1: 3,131. The infant mortality rate is 35/1000 while the maternal mortality rate is 174/100,000 (Serengeti District Council, 2010). Moreover, only 43% of the total water requirements in the district are provided. Furthermore, the district has a total of 1189km of road network and on average the roads are passable by 40% during the rainy season. Because of its tourist potentials, Serengeti District has 5 airstrips and plans are in place to upgrade one of the strips into an airport. Available communication networks in the district include TTCL, Zain, Vodacom, Tigo. Fax, internet and radio calls are available at some offices and institutions.

a) Transport infrastructure Transport infrastructure in IKONA WMA is still undeveloped with there only being basic tracks created by hunters and tour operators. The only reliable road network in the area that is passable throughout the year is the public road which connects at Fort Ikoma to Ikoma Gate via Robanda; and Fort Ikoma to Mugumu and Natta-Mbiso. This road is managed by TANROADS as a regional road. However, it was clear from the discussion with community leaders and key informants that most of the IKONA WMA is inaccessible during the rainy seasons. This also applies for those using the Fort Ikoma airstrip as it becomes unusable during heavy rains. This was also echoed by the respondents whereby the majority (77.3%) confirmed that their roads are in bad shape (see table 3.19).

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Table 3.14: Respondents’ perception of road infrastructure by sex

Perception of road infrastructure

Sex of respondents Total Male Female

n % n % n %

Bad

85 73.3 68 82.9 153 77.3

No roads 1 0.9 2 2.4 3 1.5

Good 0 0 1 1.2 1 0.5

Too bad 30 25.9 11 13.4 41 20.7

b) Education

Efforts to improve the education sector are evident in the IKONA WMA. Within some villages, revenue received from the WMA has been instrumental in improving this sector. Participants in FGDs throughout the 5 villages reiterated the fact that some of the funds that their village receives as a share from WMA have contributed to the construction of classroom (Plate 2) and houses for teachers.

Plate 2: Natta-Mbiso Primary School at Natta-Mbiso Village

In Robanda for example some students have been sponsored for their secondary, college and university education using funds from WMAs. However the situation across villages is varied whereby some villages have only one primary school (Robanda and Park Nyigoti) with a shortage of teachers, houses and even teaching facilities. Others (Natta-Mbisso, Nyichoka and Makundusi-Nyakitono) have two primary schools yet with shortage of teachers and facilities (except for Natta Mbisso), other villages in the IKONA WMA do not have a

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secondary school. Robanda and Makundusi-Nyakitono Villages have started the construction of buildings for a Secondary school.

c) Health Facilities

Inadequate health services are one of the major challenges highlighted by our key informants and participants in FGDs in IKONA WMA. Park Nyigoti village has no health facilities but they are currently mobilizing resources to construct a dispensary. Nyichoka and Makundusi-Nyakitono villages have a dispensary each with a serious shortage of personnel and supplies. Robanda village has a dispensary and they have built a maternal ward using some funds from WMA (Plate 3). During the baseline study the village had initiated efforts to upgrade the facility into a health centre. Natta Mbisso village has a health centre which serves the whole ward of Natta.

Plate 3: Newly constructed maternal ward at Robanda Village

d) Water

As stated earlier only 43% of the total water requirement in the district is provided. This is not out of the ordinary in the Villages of IKONA WMA where the majority of the population in these villages relies on public wells for water. However, the problem is more acute at Park Nyigoti where there are only 2 wells and 6 springs (Plate 4). Robanda village has boreholes from which water is pumped using a machine. The village finance the fuel used for this purpose. However according to Village leaders, with the increase of fuel prices and the declining village revenue from investors since the establishment of WMA, it has become difficult to regularly supply the villagers with water. Other villages (Natta-Mbisso, Nyichoka and Makundusi-Nyakitono) depend on a few public wells for water. Discussions with Village leaders at Natta Mbisso revealed that the Village will soon benefit from a World Bank funded water project.

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Plate 4: Water source at Nyichoka Village

e) Electricity

Of the five villages, only Natta Mbisso and a few households in Nyakitono and Nyichoka villages have electricity. Robanda and Park Nyigoti don’t have access to electricity and they consider this a serious bottleneck for their development. Few households make use solar energy to generate electricity.

f) Market Infrastructure

Market infrastructures in IKONA WMA are still undeveloped. FGDs with community leaders and economic groups as well as interviews with key informants show that there is a serious problem with the marketing of various products produced in the five villages. This is despite the fact that several investors have invested in the WMA. People claim that they do not have access to sell their products to the investors and that they are denied such access because the officials working with the investors view their products as being of low quality. However, people who produce fruits and vegetables (Plate 5) have formed an association and built up a market at Natta-Mbiso with support from the Grumeti Fund. Yet still the supply seems to be higher than the demand.

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Plate 5: Horticultural products at Natta-Mbiso Village

Another finding from our baseline study confirms that many people in the five villages of IKONA WMA perceive that there is no place for selling local products. This was reported by 69.2% of our respondents while another 21.7% of the respondents said the market infrastructure is bad (see table 3.17)

Table 3.15: Perception of market infrastructure Perception of market infrastructure

Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % n % n %

BAD 23 19.8 20 24.4 43 21.7

GOOD 5 4.3 9 11.0 14 7.1

NO PLACE TO SELL 84 72.4 53 64.6 137 69.2

LOW CROP PRICES 4 3.4 0 0 4 2.0

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3.6 Socio-Economic Threats and Opportunities Related to NRs in WMA Villages

Increasing pressure on the available land for agriculture and grazing is one of the

concerns raised during the discussions with community leaders and our key

informants. This is regarded as a two-fold threat since it affects not only the

livelihood of the people but also hinders efforts to conserve wildlife in the WMA.

Robanda Village has even attempted to redefine its boundaries and pull out

some of its land from the WMA claiming that its population is on the increase and

there is a shortage of land. Serious concerns were voiced in Nyichoka village

where there is an increase of immigrants from Tarime who come with big herds

of cattle. These dynamics are likely to create shortages of land for agriculture

and grazing and consequently demands for land from the WMA.

Furthermore, it is was reported in FGDs and in-depth interviews that the

increasing investments in the WMA areas have resulted into inflation of prices for

commodities such as sugar and other consumer goods. In Villages like Natta

Mbisso where more immigrants have settled as they are able to gain employment

from the Grumeti Reserves very close to the village.

On the other hand, the fact that there are investors in the WMA, means that

villages have the potential to tap into the opportunities offered. For instance,

there is a good market for cultural tourism but it will require careful arrangements

to ensure that tourists come to the villages as opposed to the current situation

where they stay in camps located in the protected areas near the villages. Direct

employment in hotels and tourist camps is another opportunity for improving

livelihoods but villages will have to ensure that youth gain education or are

trained to take advantage of the available opportunities. Makundusi-Nyakitono

village has started a programme of sponsoring young people to pursue hotel

management courses.

Other opportunities lie in the agricultural sector, where the availability of grants

and investors in the Ikona WMA area allow the possible development of

vegetable, fruits, sunflower and poultry ventures. These opportunities are

currently being utilized within some villages, though only to a minimal extent.

3.7 Other Resources Available and their Uses

Apart from wildlife resources, IKONA WMA is gifted with arable land for agriculture and livestock keeping. Since the majority of the population in the WMA does not engage in wildlife ventures, they heavily utilize the available land for agriculture and livestock activities. Findings from the baseline survey show

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that most of the respondents (76.5%) confirmed that they own livestock that included cows, goats, sheep, poultry and few had donkeys (see table 3.18).

Table 3.16: Respondents’ ownership of livestock by sex Have Livestock Sex of respondent Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Yes 86 79.60% 54 72.00% 140 76.50%

No 22 20.40% 21 28.00% 43 23.50%

Total 108 100.00% 75 100.00% 183 100.00%

Likewise, the majority of the people in IKONA WMA own a shamba (land for farming) as confirmed by 98.4% of the respondents (see table 3.19). The major crops cultivated include maize, beans, sorghum, millet, simsim and paddy among others.

Table 3.17: Respondents’ ownership of a shamba by sex Own a shamba Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % N % n %

Yes 110 97.30% 80 100.00% 190 98.40%

No 3 2.70% 0 0.00% 3 1.60%

Total 113 100.00% 80 100.00% 193 100.00%

The study also established that more than half (51%) of the people in IKONA WMA owned between 5 and 10 acres of land for farming. About thirty percent (30.2%) of the respondents reported that they own more than 10 acres of land. More males (40.5%) compared to females (16.0%) own more than 10 acres of land. Discussion with community leaders shows that Robanda and Nyichoka villages are likely to experience land shortage in the near future.

Table 3.18: Respondents’ size of land owned by sex Land owned by respondents in

acreage

Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

< 1 3 2.70% 5 6.20% 8 4.20%

2-4 11 9.90% 17 21.00% 28 14.60%

5-10 52 48.80% 36 56.80% 88 51.00%

10+ 45 40.50% 13 16.00% 58 30.20%

Total 111 100.00% 81 100.00% 192 100.00%

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Ikona WMA is also endowed with mineral deposits such as limestone at Nyichoka

village where the mining is currently privatized to an individual. There is also

gypsum and red ochre in Robanda village which is underutilized.

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CHAPTER FOUR

EXPENDITURE PATTERNS IN THE WMA

4.1 Expenditure Patterns in Villages forming WMA

Expenditure is one of the key variables for measuring socio-economic status of

individuals or households in a particular community. The baseline study in Ikona

WMA documents the daily expenditure of households by sex of the respondents.

Findings show that more than half of the respondents (62.6%) expend more than

Tshs. 4000 per day for various household expenditures. There are more male

(67.3%) than female (56.1) respondents in this category (see table 4.1). We also

noted that 15% of the respondents allocate 20% of their expenditure to education

while 48.2% of the respondents confirmed that they use 10% of their expenditure

was allocated to health.

Table 4.1: Households’ daily expenditure by sex

Daily expenditure in Tshs.

Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % n % n % < 1000 1 0.90% 2 2.40% 3 1.50%

1000 – 1500 3 2.70% 10 12.20% 13 6.70%

1501 – 2000 3 2.70% 2 2.40% 5 2.60%

2001 – 2500 3 2.70% 2 2.40% 5 2.60%

2501 – 3000 6 5.30% 8 9.80% 14 7.20%

3001 – 3500 12 10.60% 6 7.30% 18 9.20%

3501 – 4000 9 8.00% 6 7.30% 15 7.70%

4001+ 76 67.30% 46 56.10% 122 62.60%

4.2 Sources of Revenue and Type of Investments in WMA Villages

Except for Robanda and Makundusi-Nyakitono villages (who receive concession

fees and bed fees from the investors in their villages), the rest of the villages in

Ikona WMA depend on the WMA, District Council and individual villager

contributions as their major sources of revenue.

Robanda village, for example, expected to collect a total of Tshs. 417,913,000 for

the year 2008/2009. Approximately Tshs. 270,358,000 was to be collected from

investors in the area in terms of concession fees, bed fees and charges for water

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supply. However, it was noted that the village could get more revenue from bed

fees if it was able to monitor the number of tourists staying in the village. Table

4.2 shows the source of funds for Robanda village.

Table 4.2: Sources of revenue for Robanda Village Source of revenue Amount in Tshs

Concession Fee 96,860,000

Bed fee from tourist camps 173,498,000

Levies from stone mining and collection 400,000

Funds from the District council 1,000,000

Revenue from the village mills 1,200,000

Contributions from villagers and stakeholders 1,000,000

Fines for infringement of by laws 500,000

Donor funding 100,000,000

Tractor project 4,000,000

Ikona WMA 5,000,000

Harvest of forest product 50,000

Lime making project 50,000

Other levies from water users and debtors 33,210,000

Interest from Bank 1,000,000

Total 417,913,000

Source: Robanda Village report, 2010

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Table 4.3: Estimates of revenues collected from investors in Robanda village, 2008/2009

Investor Concession fee (Tshs)

Bed fee(Tshs)

Thomson Safaris Ltd “B” 2,400,000 9,8690,000

Ngome Safari camp 2,400,000 15,504,000

Tanzania 2000 Advanture 2,400,000 19,380,000

JMT (Acc East Africa 2,400,000 15,504,000

IKOMA SAFARI CAMP 2,400,000 -

VODACOM 4,860,000 -

Thomson Safari Ltd “A” 2,400,000 36,000,000

Moivaro Investment Sengo safari limited 6,840,000 52,000,000

Zara Tanzania Adventure 4,560,00 52,000,000

Rough Tracks Ltd 50,000,000 -

KEMLOKI 4,560,000 -

Mt. Kilimanjaro safari Club 6,840,000 -

Task and tours safaris 2,400,000 -

Grumeti Reserves Ltd 2,400,000 -

Wasira 2,400,000 -

Source: Robanda Village Report, 2010

Table 4.4: Estimates of revenue collection from investors in Robanda Village, 2009/2010

Investor Concession fee(Tshs)

Bed fee (Tshs)

Water charges(Tshs)

Thomson safari Ltd B 2,520,000 9,690,000 2,520,000

Ngome safari camp 2,520,000 24,504,000 2,520,000

Tanzania 2000. Adv 2,520,000 19,380,000 2,520,000

JMT ( Acc East Africa) 2,520,000 15,504,000 2,520,000

Vodacom 4,860,000 -

Ikoma safari Cam (1sc) & MGroup

- 3,420,000

Thomson Safar “A” 630,000 - 1,890,000

Morvare 756,000 50,000,000 1,260,000

Zara Tanzania Adventure 5,040,000 - 2,520,000

Rough Tracks Ltd 20,000,000 - -

Task tours 3,780,000 - -

Grumet Reserve 2,400,000 - -

Total 47,546,000 122,498,000 15,750,000

Source: Robanda Village Report, 2010

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4.3 Economic and Ecological Status of the WMA

Economically, the Ikona WMA has three visitor facilities in Robanda village land

whose concessions were made through the village initiatives and Serengeti

National Park outreach programme. The Ikoma Bush Camp facility run by Sengo

Safaris is located close to Ikoma Gate and Serengeti National Park, east of the

WMA. Thomson Safaris have a facility north of Robanda village in the reserve

area but is not part of the WMA. There is also A&K Camp located in the South of

Robanda Village. The Grumeti Fund is another big investor in the WMA who runs

a guard post to protect wildlife resources in hunting blocks located in the

Grumeti/Ikorongo Game Reserves. Grumet Fund pays all the necessary hunting

fees and has opted for non-consumptive utilization in the area. Other areas of the

WMA are not yet developed.

According to the executive secretary of the Ikona AA, there are about 8 active investors currently working in the Ikona WMA out of which one investor (Grumet Reserves Limited) work in the tourist hunting zone and 7 investors work in the photographic tourist zone. It was also noted that of the 8 investors only 4 have contracts with the IKONA WMA. The remaining investors are still on contracts with Villages that were entered into before the establishment of the WMA. An important note from the AA executive secretary is the fact that some of the investors prefer signing contracts with villages because they pay less compared to those in contract with the WMA.

Ecologically, Ikona WMA and its surrounding areas are endowed with beautiful

landscape and scenic views that boast open grasslands, forests, hills kopjes and

rivers that are scattered throughout the area. The area is rich in wildlife species

including lions, leopards, roan antelope, cheetah, buffaloes, lesser and greater

kudu. Others are the hartebeest, klipspringer, zebra, warthog and wildebeest.

Groups of elephants and various bird species also inhabit the area. This diversity

of wildlife especially in Robanda areas has attracted investments in photographic

safaris and tourist hunting in the WMA. The area also provides a good habitat for

wildebeest migration in Western Serengeti especially between June and July.

Furthermore, efforts towards conserving the wildlife resources in the Ikona WMA

are progressing well. For example, although there are incidences of poaching in

the area as confirmed by 65.3% of the respondents, findings also show that

poaching incidences are decreasing as reported by 86.6% of our respondents

(see table 4.5).

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Table 4.5: Respondents’ perception on poaching incidences, frequency and trends by sex

Responses Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % N % N %

Any poaching incidences

Yes 91 70.00% 37 56.10% 128 65.30%

No 35 26.90% 20 30.30% 55 28.10%

Don’t know

4 3.10% 9 13.60% 13 6.60%

Frequency of poaching > 3 20 18.90% 2 4.30% 22 14.50%

Thrice 11 10.40% 6 13.00% 17 11.20%

Twice 28 26.40% 14 30.40% 42 27.60%

Once 35 33.00% 17 37.00% 52 34.20%

Never happened

12 11.30% 7 15.20% 19 12.50%

Trend of poaching Increasing 7 5.50% 2 3.00% 9 4.60%

Decreasing 114 89.10% 54 81.80% 168 86.60%

Don’t know 7 5.50% 10 15.20% 17 8.80%

From the table above, 70.0% of male and 56.1% of female respondents said that

there are poaching incidents. Data also demonstrates that a greater percentage

of respondents (34.2%) said that they witnessed only one poaching incident in

the year before the survey.

Moreover, 37% of the respondents reported that there was no fire incidences in

the year before the survey while 23.2% said that fire incidence occurred only

once in their areas. About 16% of the respondents confirmed that two fire

incidences occurred in their areas and 15% said there were more than three fire

incidences in their areas (see table 4.6).

Table 4.6: Frequency of fire in the last year by sex Frequency of fire last year Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

N % N % N %

> 3 22 17.10% 7 10.80% 29 14.90%

Twice 8 6.20% 8 12.30% 16 8.20%

Thrice 21 16.30% 10 15.40% 31 16.00%

Once 32 24.80% 13 20.00% 45 23.20%

Never happened 46 35.70% 27 41.50% 73 37.60%

4.4 Contribution of WMA on Village Revenues and their Common Expenditure

Ikona WMA equally distributes 50% of the total revenue collected to its members. Fifteen percent (15%) of the remaining funds go to the Serengeti District Council

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and 35% remains with the AA to carter for operational costs. The following table shows the amount of money that each member of the Ikona WMA has received since 2007.

Table 4.7: Amount received by each of the WMA village (in Tshs) Year Amount received in Tshs.

2007 1,650,000

June, 2008 5,108,264

December, 2008 8,500,000

June, 2009 10,100,000

December, 2009 16,142,217

June, 2010 15,000,000

FGDs with community leaders, especially in Natta Mbisso, Nyichoka and Park Nyigoti, show that the WMA has become their major source of revenues. However, in Robanda the situation is different because the amount received from the WMA is less compared to what the village used to collect from the investors prior to the establishment of the WMA.

“..we used to collect up to Tshs100 million from the investors in our village….mind you almost all tourist camps in the Ikona WMA are investing in our village and yet we end up getting less than Tsh.30 million per year from the WMA just like any other village…”(FGD participant from Robanda village)

4.4.1 Expenditure of the revenues from WMA

Funds from the WMA are meant to facilitate development projects in the villages. Indeed, this is the case in all villages of Ikona WMA whereby the funds have been injected into development projects such as education projects that include the construction of classrooms, teachers’ houses, and even the sponsorship of students to pursue secondary and college education. Health projects have also benefited from WMA funds with some of the villages like Park Nyigoti currently constructing dispensaries, and Nyichoka and Robanda villages are building maternal wards in their villages. Furthermore, WMA funds have been contributing to water projects as found in Natta Mbisso with Tshs.10 million having been contributed to the village to the World Bank water project. It is important to note at this point that funds from the WMA to the villages have relieved the villagers from having to contribute in cash to every development project in their village. This was evident in most of the FGDs, with community leaders and other groups reiterating that with WMA funds, their personal contribution requirements had decreased. Due to this fact, respondents were more readily able to identify WMA financed projects. (see table 4.8)

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Table 4.8: Respondents’ awareness of the project financed by WMA by sex

Development project Sex of respondents

Male Female

N % N %

Building of schools 51 73.9 20 57.1

Water project 5 7.2 5 14.3

Paying school fees 14 20.3 13 37.1

Building village office 6 8.7 2 5.7

Others 39 56.5 15 42.9

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CHAPTER FIVE

KNOWLEDGE AND AWARENESS OF CBNRM PROGRAMME AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS

5.1 Knowledge, Awareness and Attitudes Towards WMA

The manner in which people perceive the aspects of natural resource

management can be related to their attitudes, interactions and relationship with

the managers of the natural resources. Findings from this study show that most

people in Ikona WMA believe that they directly and indirectly benefit from the

WMA initiative. It is arguable that there would not be anyone living in the area

without the existence of the natural resources making it increasingly necessary

for the individual to get involved in the conservation processes.

People in Ikona WMA are aware of the existence of this initiative. From the

respondents, it was obvious that the some aspects of the WMA are discussed in

their general meetings where the majority (94.9%) attend (See table 5.1 below).

Table 5.1: Respondents’ attendance to the village general meeting Attend village meeting Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % N %

Yes 122 93.80% 63 96.90% 185 94.90%

No 8 6.20% 2 3.10% 10 5.10%

Number of meeting attended

One 23 18.30% 17 26.20% 40 20.90%

Two 27 21.40% 19 29.20% 46 24.10%

Three 26 20.60% 9 13.80% 35 18.30%

Four 49 38.90% 19 29.20% 68 35.60%

Five 1 0.80% 1 1.50% 2 1.00%

In these meetings they discuss resource use conflicts, investment contracts,

benefits sharing, annual plans, budget approvals, as well as resources

conservation (See table 5.2).

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Table 5.2: Main discussion topics in village general meetings Main discussion topic Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Resource use conflict 19 15.10% 12 18.80% 31 16.30%

Investment contracts 12 9.50% 5 7.80% 17 8.90%

Benefit sharing 27 21.40% 16 25.00% 43 22.60%

Annual Planning and budget 46 36.50% 16 25.00% 62 32.60%

Resource conservation 21 16.70% 12 18.80% 33 17.40%

Others 1 0.80% 3 4.70% 4 2.10%

On the matter of respondents’ awareness of the operation of the WMA, results

from this survey indicate that people in the Ikona WMA are aware about the

WMA. This was evidenced by 89.5% of male respondents and 85.9% of female

respondents confirming that they discuss the WMA in the village meetings (see

table 5.3)

Table 5.3: Discussion of WMA in village meeting by sex WMA discussed Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n % Yes 111 89.50% 55 85.90% 166 88.30%

No 13 10.50% 9 14.10% 22 11.70%

People in the Ikona WMA understand the WMA as a resources conservation

initiative (53.8%), community participation initiative (24%) and a benefit sharing

initiative (7.1%). However 14.8% of the respondents were not aware of the WMA.

More female respondents (28.8%) than male (7.7%) were not aware as to what

the WMA is doing. (See table 5.4).

Table 5.4: Respondents’ Understanding of WMA by sex Understanding of WMA Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n % Community participation 36 27.70% 11 16.70% 47 24.00%

Benefit sharing 7 5.40% 7 10.60% 14 7.10%

Resource conservation 76 58.50% 29 43.90% 105 53.60%

Others 1 0.80% 0 0.00% 1 0.50%

Don’t know 10 7.70% 19 28.80% 29 14.80%

It is generally accepted by the Ikona WMA community that WMA is a good and acceptable initiative. There was an expectation that the proposed Wildlife Management Area (WMA) - Ikona would bring the community far greater value

46

from wildlife and natural resources than they were receiving but this has yet to happen.It was also made clear by key informants that there are some problems, especially within the general operations of the WMA’s Authorized Authority (AA) that need to be resolved amicably rather than the current situation where district leaders at the council use threats to manage the authority.

“You know we have a serious problem here with the District

Commissioner and the district councils… and some people have

even opened the civil case at the high court in Mwanza against the

their eviction from representing their fellows in the AA…” (IDI

member from Park Nyigoti)

When asked whether they benefit financially from the WMA initiative, a greater

proportion of respondents said that they do not benefit. In Robanda village, 41%

of the respondents stated that they receive financial benefits, in Natta-Mbisso

village his figure was 29%, and in Nyichoka village, 48%. For the most part the

benefits gained were not on an individual basis. For the majority, any benefits

were seen to come from commercial arrangements made between hunting

companies and the Authorized Authority. These were seen to typically net

between Tsh 5 and 16 million/= and are still rising on the whole. They usually

relate to a percentage cut from the profits of the hunting concession operating

locally in the village in game controlled areas. Notably, Robanda respondents did

not report any benefits from the WMA initiative.

5.2 People’s Views on Community Participation in Conservation of Natural Resources

The opinions and perceptions of local communities are central issues in the

conservation of natural resources in Wildlife Management areas (WMA). The

baseline study in Ikona WMA documented the opinions of local people about

their participation in the conservation of natural resources.

FGDs and IDIs conducted in this survey with the local leaders in the five villages

forming the Ikona WMA, indicated that residents living in close proximity to the

conservation areas in Ikona had positive and negative opinions about natural

resource conservation. Some regarded conservation as something that might

reduce employment and incomes and others had positive perceptions of natural

resources conservation. Based on their opinions about natural resources

conservation, it follows therefore that negative opinions and a lack of

commitment to the planning process may hinder local communities’ participation

in the conservation of natural resources.

47

5.3 People’s Views and Perception on the Benefits of WMAs

The majority of the respondents felt that the WMA initiative was a good idea and

that it only needed to be well managed and run better. Some respondents were

of the opinion that the WMA initiative has not helped much even though they do

receive some money. In some villages they said that there had been projects

financed solely by money from the WMA.

However, there were also those who gave it an average ranking: they thought

that the WMA initiative was a good idea but that it has been politically

manipulated so that only a few (especially leaders at the Authorized Authority

(AA) and district councils) benefit from it. Those who ranked the initiative below

average believed that the initiative has caused their villages’ revenues to decline

and that these fund shortages compromised a number of their project

implementations.

“We were collecting from the investors almost 600 million per year

before the WMA initiative. But now, it’s a shame! We for example

received from the WMA 6 million last year and this year only 16

million will be paid to the village! So for us here the WMA initiative

has affected us negatively…” (FGD participant, Robanda)

Table 5.5: Respondents’ perception of benefits from WMA Benefit from WMA Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Yes 90 69.20% 32 50.00% 122 62.90%

No 28 21.50% 14 21.90% 42 21.60%

Don’t know 12 9.20% 17 26.60% 29 14.90%

No response 0 0.00% 1 1.60% 1 0.50%

48

Most of the respondents (62.9%) were of the opinion that the WMA initiative is beneficial. More male (69.2%) than female (50%) respondents said that the WMA is beneficial to them or their area while 21.5% of male and 21.9% of female respondents said that the WMA is not beneficial to them or their area. So generally, it seems that the WMA is beneficial to the people and their areas. In most cases people referred to the revenues their villages receive from the WMA and the direct employment of 4 people from each village who have been recruited as Village Game Soldiers. It is also noted that the WMA initiatives have some impact on the wildlife as shown in the table 5.6 below.

Table 5.6: Impact of WMA on wildlife resources Benefit from WMA Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Increase abundance 45 38.80% 19 44.20% 64 40.30%

Provide reproduction grounds 3 2.60% 1 2.30% 4 2.50%

Stop destruction of habitat 64 55.20% 21 48.80% 85 53.50%

Bring species back 4 3.40% 2 4.70% 6 3.80%

From the table above, 38.8% of male and 44.2% of female respondents said that the WMA has increased the wildlife abundance; 2.6% of male and 2.3% of female respondents said that the WMA has provided mating grounds for the wildlife; 55.2% of male and 48.8% of female respondents said that the WMA initiative has stopped the destruction of the habitat, 3.4% of male and 4.7% of female respondents said that the WMA has had some impact on the wildlife in that it has assisted in bringing some near extinct species back.

Table 5.7: Impact of WMA on community by sex Benefit of WMA to community

Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Increased income 58 61.70% 23 67.60% 81 63.30%

Reduced poaching 12 12.80% 4 11.80% 16 12.50%

Resource conservation 12 12.80% 1 2.90% 13 10.20%

Reduce conflict 2 2.10% 0 0.00% 2 1.60%

Improved livelihood 5 5.30% 3 8.80% 8 6.30%

Others 5 5.30% 3 8.80% 8 6.30%

Other benefits mentioned of the WMA was increased income (61.7% of male and 67.6% of female respondents), 12.8% of male and 11.8% of female respondents said that it had reduced poaching, 12.8% of male and 2.9% of female

49

respondents said that it had assisted in resource conservation, 2.1% of male respondents said that it had reduced conflicts, 5.3% of male and 8.8% of female respondents said that it had improved livelihoods, and 5.3% of male and 8.8% of female respondents said that it had other benefits to them and their areas. On benefits sharing and the WMA impact on livelihoods, the respondents’ opinions are presented on table 5.8 below. Table 5.8: Respondents perception on WMA benefits sharing and perceived

Impact on livelihood Perception Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Benefit sharing fair

Yes 84 66.10% 28 58.30% 112 64.00%

No 43 33.90% 20 41.70% 63 36.00%

Impact on livelihood

Decreased 12 9.40% 4 6.20% 16 8.30%

No change 20 15.70% 8 12.30% 28 14.60%

Increased 84 66.10% 27 41.50% 111 57.80%

Don’t know 11 8.70% 26 40.00% 37 19.30%

WMA good for business

Yes 82 63.10% 30 46.20% 112 57.40%

No 32 24.60% 10 15.40% 42 21.50%

Don’t know 16 12.30% 25 38.50% 41 21.00%

As shown in the table above, 66.1% of male and 58.3% of female respondents said that the benefit sharing in the WMA was fair while 33.9% of male and 41.7% of female respondents said that it was not fair. Although the majority were of the opinion that the benefit sharing was fair, it was evident that in some villages (especially Robanda and Makundusi-Nyakitono) the majority felt that the system was not fair. This is because revenue accrued from investors in some villages has decreased especially in Robanda while the same has increased in other villages without investors in their village.

Generally, the WMA initiative is being perceived by the Ikona community as good for business as confirmed by 63.1% of male and 46.2% of female respondents. However it also has its challenges having led to various disputes or conflicts as reported by 82.9% of male and 68.3% of female respondents (See the table 5.9 below).

50

Table 5.9: Respondents’ perception of conflict or disputes due to WMA by sex

Perception Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Presence of conflicts

Yes 107 82.90% 41 68.30% 148 78.30%

No 22 17.10% 19 31.70% 41 21.70%

Type of conflict

Village boundaries 22 20.40% 11 23.40% 33 21.30%

Wild animal attack 16 14.80% 4 8.50% 20 12.90%

Animal destroy crops

42

38.90%

22

46.80%

64

41.30%

Village versus investors 18 16.70% 3 6.40% 21 13.50%

Disagreement on benefit sharing 6 5.60% 5 10.60% 11 7.10%

Other 4 3.70% 2 4.30% 6 3.90%

Respondents were also of the opinion that the WMA has caused disputes over

village boundaries, wild animal attacks, animals destroying crops,

misunderstandings between the village and investors, disagreements on benefit

sharing, and various others. 20.4% of male and 23.4% of female respondents

said that there were village boundary disputes. This was also raised during the

FDG at Robanda village with village leaders where the members said that they

wanted to re-plan their village land use plan but the Authorized Authority of Ikona

WMA had rejected the idea causing disputes.

About 15.0% of male and 8.5% of female respondents said that there were wild

animal attacks conflicts. In-depth interviews further confirmed this type of conflict

and added that the conservation authorities put more value in the animals than

the people. One of our key informants had this to say in this regard…

“It’s surprising that if a person kills a wild animal, you will see a lot

of officials and government vehicles patrolling the area. But if a

person is killed, it will take days for the police to come! ...The other

day an elephant was killed here, the game officials patrolled the

area over night! (IDI respondent from Robanda)

The respondents also said that there are disputes over animals destroying crops

(38.9% of male and 46.8% of female respondents said that). The members

especially at Robanda and Nyichoka are very disappointed as they can’t engage

in cultivation as the crops are all destroyed by wild animals. Despite the efforts of

the government Wild Animals Department and non-governmental organizations

51

like Frankfurt Zoological Society, the animals especially elephants are almost

unstoppable.

Another dispute that arises as a result of the WMA is the misunderstanding

between villages and investors as reported by 16.7% of male and 6.4% of female

respondents. For example the villages around the Grummet Reserves of

Robanda and Makundusi during the FDGs and IDIs reported conflicts between

them and the investor, on matters such as that the investor is keeping crocodiles

in the dams where their livestock take water causing deaths to their animals who

are killed by these crocodiles.

There are also conflicts that arise from disagreements on benefit sharing among

the Ikona WMA members as confirmed by 5.6% of male and 10.6% of female

respondents. For example members from Robanda village were not comfortable

with the equal sharing of benefits; they prefer members to benefit depending on

what they contribute to the WMA e.g. land size and number of investors in the

village land.

The survey documented peoples’ expectations from the WMA from when it

started. Findings show that more than half of the respondents (50%) expected to

gain wage employment. There were also other anticipations with regard to

productive activities as shown in the table 5.10 below.

Table 5.10: Respondents expectation from WMA by sex Anticipated productive activities

Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n %

Cash crop farming 17 14.50% 10 23.80% 27 17.00%

Food crop farming 17 14.50% 12 28.60% 29 18.20%

Small business 13 11.10% 7 16.70% 20 12.60%

Wage employment 67 57.30% 13 31.00% 80 50.30%

Horticulture 1 0.90% 0 0.00% 1 0.60%

Game meet business 1 0.90% 0 0.00% 1 0.60%

Tour guide 1 0.90% 0 0.00% 1

0.6%

Respondents anticipated that the WMA initiative would also come along with

productive activities: 14.5% of male and 28.6% of female respondents said that

they anticipated the WMA initiative to stimulate cash crops farming; 14.5% of

male and 28.6% of female respondents said that they anticipated increased food

crops farming; 11.1% of male and 16.7% of female respondents said that they

52

anticipated increased small businesses; and 57.3% of male and 31% of female

respondents said that they anticipated an increase in wage employment.

However, it was obvious that none of their anticipations had happened to date.

This is mainly because the tourism activities had not expanded to the villages

with tourists staying in camps on reserved areas separate from the villages.

Like any other initiative, respondents reported that the WMAs also have their

shares of problems that affect the communities as shown in the table

5.3.7.below.

Table 5.11: Respondents’ perception of major problems behind the WMA by sex

Major problems Sex of respondents Total

Male Female

n % n % n % Too many regulations 21 24.70% 12 34.30% 33 27.50%

Regulations not enforced 5 5.90% 1 2.90% 6 5.00%

Reduced benefit 11 12.90% 5 14.30% 16 13.30%

Causes conflict 11 12.90% 5 14.30% 16 13.30%

Traditional authority eroded 3 3.50% 1 2.90% 4 3.30%

Inequity 10 11.80% 3 8.60% 13 10.80%

Others 24 28.20% 8 22.90% 32 26.70%

From the table above, 24.7% of male and 34.3% of female respondents said that

the WMAs among others had too many regulations, 5.9% of male and 2.9% of

female respondents said that the WMAs problems included regulations

enforcement, 12.9% of male and 14.3% of female respondents said that the

WMAs has reduced benefits, 12.9% of male and 14.3% of female respondents

said that the WMAs caused conflicts, 3.5% of male and 2.9% of female

respondents said that the WMAs had eroded traditional authority, 11.8% of male

and 8.6% of female respondents said that the WMAs had caused inequity while

28.2% of male and 22.9% of female respondents said that the WMAs had

caused other problems.

5.4 People’s Perception and Willingness to Participate in Cash-for Work Programmes

A need to change strategy from the usual focus on donor-designed programs for interventions to innovative approaches of community participation in project implementation is essential. It is generally felt that the involvement of community members in cash for work programs would be beneficial. However, the willingness of the community to participate is important if these projects are to be successful.

53

The community members in all the villages that form Ikona WMA are willing and ready to participate fully in cash for work programs:

“Even if the projects are to start today, there a number of youths here who are ready for such activities. For developmental projects we are used to participate fully as our contribution for the project since we sometimes can’t contribute in monetary form so we contribute our labour. In short we are ready and the concept of cash for work in itself is even a motivation…” (FGD with community leaders at Nyichoka Village)

54

CHAPTER SIX

SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AT VILLAGE LEVEL

6.1 Population characteristics

Chapter three, four and five above discuss socio-economic parameters at WMA level with some insights on villages. This chapter analyzes data at village level on some major key parameters including village population sizes (Table 6.2). The villages discussed and analyzed here are Natta-Mbiso, Makundusi-Nyakitono, Nyichoka, Park Nyigoti and Robanda. As usual women appeared to exceed the number of men, except in Nyichoka village where the number of men (1928) is slightly higher than that of women (1758). The villages of Makundusi-Nyakitono, Natta-Mbiso and Nyichoka have relatively close total population sizes. Park Nyigoti has the lowest population size (Figure 8) followed by Rbanda

Figure 9: Comparison of village population sizes

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Natta-Mbiso Makundusi-

Nyakitono

Nyichoka Park Nyigoti Robanda

6.2 Main economic activities

It is quite important to note that economic status varied across villages whereby Robanda and Natta-Mbiso had more people engaging in small businesses while in Nyichoka, Makundusi-Nyakitono and Park Nyingoti,

55

majority of them engage in agriculture and livestock keeping. Throughout the 5 villages, agriculture, livestock keeping and small scale economic activities were mentioned as main economic activities (Table 6.2).

6.3 Expenditure patterns

There is a slight difference in household expenditures across villages whereby for Makundusi-Nyakitono and Natta-Mbisso, the average expenditure per day reaches T.Shs. 4000 compared to T.Shs. 3250 at Robanda and T.Shs. 3000 at Nyichoka and Park Nyigoti (Figure 9).

Figure 10: Expenditure levels across villages

4000 4000

3000 30002806

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

Natta-Mbiso Makundusi-

Nyakitono

Nyichoka Park Nyigoti Robanda

6.4 Income patterns

People in Natta-Mbiso, Robanda and Makundusi-Nyakitono villages earn more household incomes on average compared to the other two villages. Similarly, housing conditions are reflected in average household incomes, whereby low income households had their houses poorly built and thatched with grasses at Park Nyigoti and Nyichoka (Figure 10 and Plate 7). On the other hand, the villages of Makundusi-Nyakitono, Robanda and Natta-Mbiso had relatively more houses in good conditions and roofed with iron sheet, as so do their incomes.

56

Figure 11: Average household income levels

650,000

550,000

400,000

350,000

600,000

0

100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

500,000

600,000

700,000

Natta-

Mbiso

Makundusi-

Nyakitono

Nyichoka Park

Nyigoti

Robanda

Plate 6: Some of poorly built houses at Park Nyigoti Village in Ikona WMA

57

6.5 Entrepreneurship groups

While conducting the study, it should be clearly understood that, getting information on incomes and revenues that accrue from various businesses was not a simple task. The reluctance of some business owners to reveal their actual incomes or revenues was an ambiguous agenda; interestingly though, tax evasion and secretive trading deals - including selling illegal or expired products, could be among many reasons behind. And indeed, finding someone at a shop or bar who is not the owner of the enterprise, one couldn’t expect to get actual information or perhaps get no information at all. This was the case encountered across all areas and villages surveyed. In few cases where we were successful, diplomatic language and assurance of confidentiality as stipulated in the consent forms was but one factor to get some data collected. Therefore, just and only some groups provided average annual incomes of their businesses (Table 6.1). Natta-Mbiso village is the only place where tourist products are sold because it is surrounded by tourist lodges. The largest income earning business was found to be transport whereby buses commuting between Robanda and Mugumu had average annual income of T.Sh 9,000,000 per bus (Table 6.1). People from all 5 villages depend on buses found at Robanda village to get to Mugumu, the head quarters of Serengeti District. The group of women involved in selling vegetables and fruits were also seen to earn substantial annual income in the same village as they get T.Sh 3,000,000 per year, far more than Makundusi-Nyakitono and Nyichoka where annual incomes are T.Sh 1,500,000 and T.Sh 700,000 respectively. Grain milling machines are a productive entrepreneurship as were found to generate annual incomes ranging from T.Sh 2,000,000 at Nyichoka village to T.Sh 7,000,000 at Robanda village. Although Robanda was seen to be fast growing but it had less entrepreneurship groups as compared to Natta-Mbiso, that lacks only transport. Table 6.1: Entrepreneurship groups and their annual income levels (T.Sh)

Village

Annual income levels of entrepreneurship groups

Vegetables Eco-tourist

products

Shops/

kiosks

Bar Grain

milling

machine

Food

vending

(Mama

Lishe)

Commuter

buses

(Robanda to

Mugumu)

Natta-Mbiso 3,000,000 3,700,000 5,500,000 7,000,000 6,000,000 7,000,000 -

Makundusi-

Nyakitono

1,500,000 - 2,000,000 3,000,000 6,000,000 700,000 -

Nyichoka 700,000 - 1,200,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 800,000 -

Park

Nyigoti

- - 700,000 - 4,000,000 500,000 -

Robanda - - 2,700,000 6,000,000 7,000,000 2,000,000 9,000,000

58

Table 6.2: Key Parameters at Village Level in Ikona WMA

Vil

lag

e

Population Size Main economic activities

Social services available

Ave

rag

e

an

nu

al

inc

om

e p

er

ho

use

ho

ld

Ave

rag

e

da

ily

ex

pe

nd

itu

re

pe

r

ho

use

ho

ld

Type of business/production groups

Total Female Male

Natt

a-M

bis

o

3757 2378 1379 Agriculture ( millet, cassava, maize, sorghum) livestock keeping, small business enterprises, small scale industries and casual labour

Two primary schools, One Secondary school, health centre, few public wells, electricity

650,000 4000 Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA). Association of fruits and vegetable producers. Cooperative Society for Sunflower producers owning a machine. More female engage in small business than men, livestock keeping mostly involve men than women

Ma

ku

ndu

si-

Nyakito

no

4000 2039 1961 Agriculture ( millet, cassava, maize, sorghum) livestock keeping, small business enterprises, gardening and casual labor

Two primary schools, dispensary, public wells

550,000 4000 Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA), vegetable producers and Women mills cooperative society owning a machine. More female engage in small business than men, livestock keeping mostly involve men than women

59

Nyic

ho

ka

3686 1758 1928 Agriculture ( millet, cassava, maize, sorghum) livestock keeping and small business enterprises

Two primary schools, dispensary, few public wells,

400,000 3000 Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA), vegetable producers and women support groups. More female engage in small business than men, livestock keeping mostly involve men than women

Pa

rk N

yig

oti

1692 940 752 Agriculture ( millet, cassava, maize, sorghum, cotton) livestock keeping, small business enterprises

One primary school ,two wells, six springs

350,000 3000 Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA), VIKOBA, more female engage in small business than men, livestock keeping mostly involve men than women

Rob

and

a

2808 1503 1305 Agriculture ( millet, cassava, sorghum) livestock keeping, small business enterprises, hunting, small scale industries and casual labor

One primary school, dispensary, bore holes,

600,000 3250 Community Conservation Bank (COCOBA), VIKOBA, More female engage in small business than men, livestock keeping mostly involve men than women

The total population size of Ikona WMA villages is 15,943; out of which women are 8,618

60

CHAPTER SEVEN

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions A diverse range of natural resources in the areas with WMA projects prompts two significant conservation activities. The first is the widening of sustainable wildlife-based economic opportunities for local communities in order to promote a sense of belongingness among the local people. However, extensive conservation training programs that are blended with entrepreneurship skills are necessary in terms of building the capacity of local people, and unlocking their creativity and innovation to initiate natural resources-based income-generating activities in the WMAs. The second activity is promoting the harmonization of resource utilization schemes. In the guidelines for the designation and management of the WMAs, the Wildlife Division of Tanzania pointed out that the authorized associations (AAs) may allow resource utilization in the WMAs based on the regulations of the respective resource management authorities. This creates a confusion with differing conservation obligations that AAs must understand and meet, and there is a need for such utilization regulations to be harmonized and simplified at the grassroots level. 7.2 Recommendations The formal employment sector is very low in the villages forming Ikona WMA: most people rely on livestock keeping and farming to survive both in terms of subsistence and income generation. The food produced is usually for consumption and thus none is saved. Increased private sector investment opportunities and training and education programmes will be essential to economic growth and consequently to increased employment prospects. Women and young people especially are forming self-help, business and loan groups like COCOBA but these require considerably more support if they are going to have an effect on economic growth on a broad scale. Support would be best provided in the form of increased accessibility to credit, however this would first require training in financial management skills for many. Agricultural production is limited by climatic seasonality, notably a reliance on rainfall, soil fertility and land size. The incomes generated from such production are minimal however. For this to increase farmers need a mix of the following: access to capital; better tools and technology; improved transportation to markets; better means of pest control; better varieties of seeds; access to inputs; irrigation of some form or an improved water supply; better education about

61

planting regimes, soils, variations, monoculture and polyculture; and support from agriculture education officers. Livestock production is also limited by climatic seasonality, notably a reliance on good pastures and drinking water. A lack of capital, water, pasture, poor quality livestock services, inadequate trained staff, lack of transport for such staff, and problems with wildlife (disease transmission) are the main limitations to production. Grain storage facilities are uncommon in all study villages, and where they are present they are hardly used. A lack of proper storage (as well as lack of other incomes) means that crops are always sold near harvest time, whatever the going rate. A programme of support in developing village storage facilities would be useful but only if carried out with a programme of increasing agricultural production. The advantages of providing secure storage facilities are that villagers would be able to sell when prices are high, reduce price fluctuations and make it easier for buyers to access harvests. The absence of capital investment and poor access to credit make it difficult for people to develop any one particular livelihood to a highly profitable degree, and most people only raise enough income to break even. Livelihood activities are usually restricted in their growth. Education on small businesses and financial management will be key to encouraging the growth of secondary activities. Markets are limited for both agricultural and livestock produce as well as for those engaged in secondary income generating activities. A lack of infrastructure and limited capital towards increasing production and quality of yields of products keeps prices low and market sizes small. Markets will be increased if a greater circulation of capital can be stimulated. Because primary schools are now free to attend and are found in every village, the majority of primary school age children go to school. Getting to secondary school is more of a problem because of the associated costs. However, for both levels, the number of pupils attending school is seen to be increasing year by year. Important to note is that schools in general still lack adequate numbers of teachers, equipment and quality of teaching. Human-wildlife conflict is a highly significant problem. Increasingly, people are settling in wildlife areas in search of land for cultivation or pasture. At the same time, less land is available for subsistence agriculture as more land is privatized for commercial camping, photographing, and hunting or nationalised for conservation. Crop raiding is the greatest problem that farmers face across all villages forming the Ikona WMA.

62

Facilities for access to water for the vast majority of respondents are still very basic, and people rely on natural sources, namely rivers and seasonal springs for their water supply, as well as simple water infrastructure such as wells and pumps. This has implications for people’s health as well as for the ecology of the area with risks of pollution of water courses. Market infrastructures are severely lacking. Most people sell their agricultural produce within their own village. Others take them into town on market days. At Ikona WMA, the main market is at Mugumu- the district township. The advantage of such an arrangement is the lack of a need to transport the produce but the disadvantage is that there is little means of negotiating prices which tend to be dictated by the buyer. This is a slightly surprising situation because demand far exceeds supply and if there were more buyers the producers would be in a better position to dictate terms. Unfortunately for the producers, there are not. Conversely at Ikona WMA villages there is a lack of demand which keeps prices low. For all these villages on varying degrees, lack of transport is a major limitation factor in terms of accessing markets as well as an inability to increase production because of a lack of investment capital. Lack of demand keeps prices low, especially at periods when there is a flux of supply, such as during drought or the spread of disease. Sustainable natural resource management practices are limited although awareness of the means to manage natural assets is high. Greater work is required in turning knowledge of sustainable practices into action. This would need to incorporate a greater degree of access to the benefits of the natural resources which would then encourage a sense of ownership of these resources.

63

REFERENCES

Emmanuel Sulle and Fred Nelson, “Biofuels, land access and rural livelihoods in Tanzania” Prepared by Tanzania Natural Resource Forum, August 2009. Fred Nelson, Emmanuel Sulle and Peter Ndoipo, “Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania: A Status Report and Interim Evaluation”, Prepared by Tanzania Natural Resource Forum, August 2006. Namibian Association of Community-Based Natural Resource Management Organizations (NACSO): Proceedings of the Regional Community-Based Natural Resource Management Conference, “Sharing Best Practices for future”, Windhoek, Namibia, March 2003. United Republic of Tanzania: Ministry of Natural Resource and Tourism, The Wildlife Conservation Act, 2009 United Republic of Tanzania: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Wildlife Division, “Assessment and Evaluation of the Wildlife Management Areas in Tanzania”, Unpublished Report carried out by Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania. 2007. United Republic of Tanzania: Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, “Wildlife Policy of Tanzania”, 1998. United Republic of Tanzania: Wildlife Conservation Act, 1974, “Wildlife Conversation (Wildlife Management Areas) Regulations”, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania, September, 2005.

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Appendix 1

Structured Questionnaire

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE STUDY IN SELECTED WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS (WMAs)

HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE

IDENTIFICATION

Questionnaire Identification Number……………………………………………………………………………….

Region…………………………………………………____________________________________________

District…………………………………………………____________________________________________

Division ………………………………………………_____________________________________________

Ward………………………………………………….._____________________________________________

Village……………..…….…………………………… _____________________________________________

Name of WMA……………………………………….._____________________________________________

[ ]

………………[ ]

………………[ ]

………………[ ]

………………[ ]

………………[ ]

………………[ ]

65

ADMINISTRATION

INTERVIEWER VISITS

1 2 3 FINAL VISIT

DATE INTERVIEWER’S NAME INTERVIEWER NO RESULT***

_______________ ________________ ________________ ________________

____________________ ____________________ ____________________ ____________________

______________ ______________ ______________ ______________

DAY [ ] [ ] MONTH [ ] [ ] YEAR [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] INTERVIEWER [ ][ ] RESULT [ ]

APPOINTMENTS: NEXT VISIT: DATE TIME

_______________

_______________

____________________

____________________

TOTAL NUMBER OF VISITS [ ]

RESULTS CODE

1.COMPLETED 2. POSTPONED/INCOMPLETE 3. ABSENT FOR SHORT PERIOD OF TIME 4. REFUSED 5. LANGUAGE BARRIER/INCAPACITATED 6. OTHER ___________________________________

You have to return

You have to return

FIELD SUPERVISOR/EDITOR

NAME _________________ DATE__________________

OFFICE EDITOR

NAME______________ DATE______________

ENTERED BY (1ST ENTRY)

NAME_______________ DATE_______________

ENTERED BY (2ND ENTRY)

NAME_______________ DATE_______________

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After the informed consent has been read, understood, and agreed, record the time the interview starts [ ][ ] [ ][ ] No. Question and filters Coding categories Skip to

SECTION A: SOCIO - DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

A1 Sex of the respondent 1 Male

2 Female

A1 [ ]

A2 In what year, month and date were

you born?

A2 Date of birth [DD/MM/YYYY]

A2-1

1 Don’t know year

2 No response

A2 Day [ ]

Month [ ]

Year [ ]

A2-1[ ]

A3 How old are you? (At your last

birthday)

Age in completed years ___________________

1 Don’t know

2 No response

A3 [ ]

A4 What is your marital status?

1 Single

2 Married(Monogamous)

3 Married(Polygamous)

4 Divorced

5 Widowed

6 Cohabiting

A4 [ ]

A5 What is the highest

education level you have

attained?

1 No formal education

2 Primary education

3 Secondary education

4 Vocational training

5 College(Diploma/Certificate)

6 University (Degree)

A5 [ ]

A6 Were you born in this

Village ?

1 Yes

2 No

A6 [ ]

A7

If you were not born in this

village mention your place

of birth

A7 Mention village and district_____________

A7 [ ]

A8 How long have you lived in

this village? (Mention

duration in years)

1.Less than one year

2.1-4 Years

3.5-9 Years

4.More than 10 Years

A8 [ ]

A9 Why did you move to this

Village?

1 Farming

2 Business

3 Employment

4 Family and friends

5 Policy( Villagelization policy)

6 Others (specify)

A9 [ ]

A10 What is the main activity you do for

a living?( That is what is your main

1 Cash crop farming

2 Food crop production

A10 [ ]

67

occupation that brings you an

income?)

3 Livestock keeping

4 Small business

5 Wage employment

6 Horticulture

7 Handcraft for sale (curio goods seling)

8 Hunting

9 Game meat business

10 Tourist business

11 Casual worker

12 Others (mention)____________

HOUSEHOLD SIZE AND COMPOSITION

Now please tell me about the people who live in your household i.e. people who eat from the

same pot and have been here at home. Start by mentioning the head of household and others after

him/her.

S/No Initial

(Name)

Relationship

1.Head

2.Spouse 3.Child

4Reletive 5.Others

(Age in yrs)

Is .. Male (1)

Or Female (2)

Is .. independent

Economically?

1 Yes 2 No

Is .. in

school?

1 Yes 2 No

Why is.. not in school?

1 Lack of security

2 Financial reasons 3 Needed for domestic work

4 Cultural reasons 5 Other_________________

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

SECTION B : RESPONDENT’S SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS – BY LOOKING AT

HOUSEHOLD ASSETS AND FACILITIES

B12 Do you own, rent or live freely in

this house?

1 Own

2 Rent

3 Do not rent but live freely under

agreement with landload

4 Do not rent just staying with friends

5 No response

B12 [ ]

B13 What kind of toilet facility does

your household use?

1 Flush toilet

2 Pit latrine

3 No facility

4 Others

B13 [ ]

68

B14 Do you share toilet facility with

another household?

1 Yes

2 No

B14 [ ]

B15 What is the main source of

drinking water for members of

your household?

1. Piped into residence/yard

2. Public tap

3. Well in residence/yard

4. Public well

5. River/Stream/Spring

6. Bottled water

7. Pond/lake

8. Water tanker or water seller

B15 [ ]

B16 What can you say concerning the

availability of water from this

source?

1 Available all the time

2 Available most of the time

3 Sometimes available

4 Hardly available

5 No response

B16 [ ]

B17 How much time does it take for

someone to go to fetch water and

come back?

1 Mention minutes/hours_________

2 No response

B17 [ ]

B18

What is the main source of energy

in your household

1 Generator

2 Car battery

3 Electricity

4 Charcoal

5 Firewood

6 Animal dung

7 Kerosine

8 Others (specify)

____________________

B18 [ ]

B19 Does your household have

assets?

B19-1 1 Yes 2 No TV

B19-2 1 Yes 2 No VCR/DVD

B19-3 1 Yes 2 No Satellite dish

B19-4 1 Yes 2 No Radio/cassette player

B19-5 1 Yes 2 No Refrigerator

B19-6 1 Yes 2 No Mobile phone

B19-7 1 Yes 2 No House landline phone

B19-8 1 Yes 2 No Others (specify)

B19-9 Do not have

B19-1 [ ]

B19-2 [ ]

B19-3 [ ]

B19-4 [ ]

B19-5 [ ]

B19-6 [ ]

B19-7 [ ]

B19-8 [ ]

B19-9 [ ]

B20 Does your household own

among the following transport

facilities?

B20-1 1 Yes 2 No Bicycle

B20-2 1 Yes 2 No Motor cycle

B20-3 1 Yes 2 No Vehicle

B20-4 1 Yes 2 No Oxen/Donkey cart

B20-5 1 Yes 2 No Other – Specify___________

B20-1 [ ]

B20-2 [ ]

B20-3 [ ]

B20-4 [ ]

B20-5 [ ]

B21 Roof material

1 Thatch

2 Metal

3 Tile

4 Other (specify)_______________

B21 [ ]

B22 Floor material

1 Lime and stone

2 Cement and sand

3 Earth /Clay

4 Tiles

5 Other ____________________

B22 [ ]

69

B23 Wall material

1 Cement block

2 Burnt bricks

3 Mud and poles

4 Sheet metal

5 Wood

6 Thatch

7 Mud bricks

B23 [ ]

SECTION C: SOCIO-ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF HH AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS C24 What is the main economic activity of the

household?

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

C25 In case of agriculture production please

mention the type of crops that you grow

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

C26 What is the estimated annual income of each

economic activity mentioned in C- 24 above?

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

C27 Is this income enough for your household

needs?

1 Yes

2 No

C27 [ ]

C28 If no how do you supplement your household

income?

Mention activities used to supplement income

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

C29 In your opinion, do you think men and women

share equally processes of decision making in

the household?

1 Yes

2 No

3 Don’t know

4 No response

C29 [ ]

C30 Who usually determines how income generated

by household should be spent?

1 Husband

2 Wife

3 Both

4 Don’t know

5 No response

C30 [ ]

C31 Do you or a member of your

household engage in any wildlife

venture for a wage

If not go to section D

1 Yes

2 No

C31 [ ]

C32 How much do you earn from

wildlife ventures/activities? 1.Photogafic Tourism [ ]

2.Hunting Tourism [ ]

3.Curio goods selling [ ]

4.Direct employment [ ]

1 0 – 20,000

2 20,001 – 50,000

3 50,001 – 100,000

4 100,001 – 150,000

5 150,000 and above

C32 [ ]

C33 Do you experience changes in

earnings from wildlife

ventures/activities

1 Yes

2 No

3 Do not know

C 33

[ ]

C34 If yes, what are the changes 1 Increased earning

2 Decreased earning

C 34

[ ]

C35 When did the changes start?

1 2003-2005

2 2006-2008

3 2009 to date

C 35

[ ]

70

C36 What do you consider to be the

cause of these changes (PROBE)

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

C37 In case of declining earnings what

are your coping mechanisms

1 Increase effort

2 Decrease effort

3 Dispose assets

4 Migration

5 Diversification of livelihood activities

6 Others(specify)_____________

C37

[ ]

SECTION D: PEOPLE’S ATTITUDES, PERCEPTIONS AND VIEWS TOWARDS EXISTING

CBNRM PROGRAM/WMA.

D38 What do you understand about

WMAs

1 Community participation

2 Benefit sharing

3 Resource conservation

4 Others

5 Don’t know

D38 [ ]

D39 Do you attend the Village

General meetings?

1 Yes

2 No

D39 [ ]

D40 If Yes how many times have

you attended the meetings last

year?

1.Once

2.Twice

3Thrice

4.Four times

5.Never had a meeting

D40 [ ]

D41 If yes in what did you discuss

about?

1 Resource use conflict

2 Investment contracts

3 Benefit sharing mechanisms

4 Approval of annual plans and budgets

5 Resource conservation

6 Others (specify)

D41 [ ]

D42 Have you discussed about the

operation of WMA in village

assembly?

1 Yes

2 No

D42 [ ]

D43 Are you aware of any project in

your village that has benefited

from income from the WMA

Mention________________________________________

_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________

_______________________________________________

D44 Are there poaching incidences

in this village?

1 Yes

2 No

3 Don’t know

D44 [ ]

D45 If yes in the last year, how

often did you have poaching

1 More than three times

2 Thrice

D45[ ]

71

incidences in this village?

3 Twice

4 Once

5 Never happened D46 In your opinion are poaching

incidences increasing or

decreasing?

1 Increasing

2 Decreasing

3 Don’t know

D46 [ ]

D47 Have ever experienced any

disputes and conflicts related to

wildlife management in this

village?

1.Yes

2. No

D47 [ ]

D48 If yes,what type of disputes and

conflict are related to wildlife

management in your village?

1 Village boundaries

2 Wild animal attack

3 Destruction of crops by wild animals 4 Misunderstanding between Villagers and investors

5 Disagreement on benefit sharing

mechanism

6 Others (specify)

D48 [ ]

D49 With the establishment of

WMAs what are the potential

productive activities did you

anticipate WMA? Would bring

to the village?

1 Cash crop farming

2 Food crop production

3 Small business (food-vending,)

4 Wage employment

5 Horticulture

6 Handcrafts for sale

7 Water vending

8 Game meat business

9 Tourist guide

10 Others

D49 [ ]

D50 Has the WMA had any impact

on the condition of the wildlife

in your area?

1 Increase abundance (in situ)

2 Provides reproduction grounds

3 Stop habitat destruction

4 Bringing species back

D50 [ ]

D51

In the last year, how often did

you have fire incidences in this

village?

1 More than three times

2 Three times

3 Two times

4 Once

5 Never happened

D51 [ ]

D52 In your opinion has WMAs

been beneficial to you or to

your area?

1.Yes

2.No

3 Don’t know

4.No response

D52 [ ]

D53 If yes, what benefits? 1 Increased incomes

2 Reduced poaching incidences and

practices

3 Conserves resource for future

D53 [ ]

72

generations

4 Reduces conflicts

5 Improves livelihood 6 Provides access/security to resources(property rights)

7 Other

D54 Do you think the system of

sharing the benefits accrued

from WMAs is fair?

1 Yes

2 No

D54 [ ]

D55 Overall, how has WMA

impacted your livelihood?

1 Decreased

2 No changes

3 Increased

4 Don’t know

D55 [ ]

D56 Overall, do you think that

WMA has been good or bad for

businesses?

1 Yes

2 No

3 Don’t know

D56 [ ]

D57 In your opinion, what are some

of the problems with WMA?

1 Too many regulations

2 Regulations not well enforced

3 Reduce benefit

4 Causes conflicts

5 Erodes traditional authority

6 Inequity

7 Other

D57 [ ]

D58 Mention the infrastructural

problems among the following

in your village?

1 Road

2 Schools

3 Dispensary

4 Markets

Taja________________________________

___________________________________

___________________________________

____________________

D58 [ ]

SECTION E: LEVELS OF INCOME AND MAIN EXPENDITURE PATTERNS. E59 How many members of your

household currently earn some

income (from a job and/or

business and/or part-time

work)?

Number of people_________________

E59 [ ]

E60 Do you have livestock 1 Yes

2 No

E60 [ ]

E61 How many of the following

livestock do you own?

Livestock Number of livestock

Cattle ___________________________

73

Sheep ___________________________

Goats ___________________________

Pigs ___________________________

Rabbits ___________________________

Chicken and other poultry ___________________________

Donkey ___________________________

Others (specify) ___________________________

E62 Do you have a farm?

1 Yes

2 No

E62 [ ]

E63 If yes,how much land does the

household own?

2 Below 1 acre

3 Between 1 and 2 acres

4 Between 3 to 5 acres

5 Between 6 to 10 acres

6 More than 10 acres

7 No response

E63 [ ]

E64 Do you think this size of land

suffices your household needs

1 Yes

2 No

E64 [ ]

E65 If no, how much land would be

adequate for your household

needs?

Mention No of acres ________

E65 [ ]

E66 If yes indicate the quantities of

crops harvested

Crops Quantity in good season Quantity in bad

season

Green Vegetables

Tomatoes

Sunflower

Simsim

Pigeon pea

Maize

Beans

Onions

Cassava

Paddy

Others(Specify)

E67 Is the household own space for

grazing land in your area?

1 Yes

2No

3 Do not know

E67 [ ]

E 68 Do you think this grazing land

is enough?

1Yes

2No

3Do not know

E 68[ ]

E69 On average how much do you

74

spend for household need per

day?

1 Less than 1000 Tsh

2 1000- 1500Tsh

3 1501- 2000Tsh

4 2001-2500Tsh

5 2501-3000Tsh

6 3001-3500Tsh

7 3501-4000Tsh

8 4000 Tsh and above

E69 [ ]

E70 Can you roughly explain to us your

percentage of income expenditure among

the following?

1.Education

2Health

3 Food 4 Others(Specify)

E71 What is the pattern of expenditure among

men/women(depends on whom you are

interviewing)

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________

_________________________________________________ E72 Do you have access to credit?

1 Yes

2 No

E72 [ ]

E73 If yes, which of the following

are the main sources of credit?

1 Bank

2 Micro finance institutions

3 SACCOS

4 AA

5 Relatives and friends

6 Others (specify)

E73 [ ]

Now we have come to the end of our conversation, Thank you very much for your cooperation.

75

Appendix 2

Focus Group Discussion Guide

MUONGOZO WA MAJADILIANO YA VIKUNDI (FGDs)

Katika utafiti huu, lengo kubwa la majadiliano ni kuelewa hali ya maisha ya wana vijiji kwenye maeneo ya hifadhi ya wanyamapori (WMAs). Tunataka kujua hali yao kiuchumi, shughuli zao za kiuchumi, mapato, matatizo ya kijamii na kiuchumi wanayoyakabili na jinsi wanavyojitahidi kuyatatua, dhana yao ya umaskini, mikakati wanayoitumia ili kuondoa umaskini, wanafanikiwa wapi na wanakwama wapi na kwa nini. Pia tunataka kujua uelewa wao wa umilikaji wa malihai (WMA) na dhana ya hifadhi ya jamii ya maliasili (Community Based of Natural Resources Management). Ili kuendesha vizuri majadiliano ya vikundi, lazima awepo mwezeshaji wa majadiliano (Facilitator) na mwandishi (Note-Taker or Recorder).

Name of Moderator (Mwezeshaji)

Name of Recorder (Mwandishi)

Date of the FGD (Tarehe ya Majadiliano)

Name of WMA (Jina la WMA)

Name of the Village (Jina la Kijiji)

Duration of the FGD( Muda wa Majadiliano)

Number of participants(Idadi ya Washiriki)

Sex (Jinsi) Male: Female:

76

Maswali ya kawaida kuhusu jamii

1. Baada ya kujuliana hali au kusalimiana, anza majadiliano kwa kuwauliza watu kuhusu jamii yao. Maswali yanaweza kulenga kwenye mambo yafuatayo:

Ukubwa wa jamii, aina ya watu, aina ya taasisi za elimu na afya, shughuli kuu za kiuchumi, umbali

kutoka wilayani au mji wa karibu. Dadisi kuhusu: Historia ya kijiji, aina ya wenyeji kama ni wahamiaji au la. Idadi ya kaya, idadi ya

wanawake, wanaume, vijana, wazee, walemavu nk. Je, kwa kawaida nani huwa wakuu wa kaya? Wanaume au wanawake? Je, katika kaya zenu nani huwa anatoa maamuzi kuhusu shughuli za uzalishaji mali? Ni nani anayetoa maamuzi kuhusu namna ya kutumia rasililmali za kaya? Ni shughuli zipi ambazo huwa hupendelewa kufanywa na wavulana na wasichana? Je, kuna mgawanyo sawa wa rasilimali kati ya wavulana na wasichana katika jamii yenu?

2E 2. Waruhusu watu waeleze mabadiliko muhimu yanayotokea kwenye kijiji chao

Mathalani, dadisi mambo yafuatayo:

Mabadiliko ya kijamii na kiuchumi yaliyojitokeza kijijini kwao katika miaka kumi iliyopita. Je kuna maendeleo? Je, hali inakuwa bora au imebaki vilevile au imekuwa mbaya zaidi?

Je, huduma za kijamii kama elimu, afya na barabara zikoje tangu miaka kumi iliyopita? Je, zimekuwa nzuri au zinazidi kuwa mbaya? Waeleze mabadiliko yaliyojitokeza kwenye huduma

hizi. Kwa ujumla hali ya maisha ikoje? Je, vipi hali ya makazi - hali nyumba zao? Je, kuna maji, umeme? Je, wanadhani makazi yao yamekuwa yakiendelea na kuwa bora au hakuna mabadiliko? Dadisi

ili watoe sababu za majibu yao. Je, wanakijiji wanatumia vyanzo vipi vingine katika shughuli mbalimbali, kama vile kupikia?

3. Maswali kuhusu hali ya uchumi, mapato na matumizi: Waruhusu washiriki wa majadiliano waeleze matatizo makubwa yanayowakabili hapo kijijini kwao.

Waeleze matatizo ya kijamii, kiuchumi nk. Ni shughuli zipi za kiuchumi zinafanyika hapo kijijini? Waeleze ni shughuli zipi zina umuhimu zaidi kwao. Kama ni kilimo waeleze aina ya mazao na wayapange kufuatana na umuhimu wake. Ni shughuli zipi za kibiashara zinafanyika hapo kijijini? Je, ni zipi zinahusiana na utalii? Je, biashara ya utalii ni muhimu hapo kijijini? Nani anamiliki sana biashara za kitalii? Je, kijiji kinapata faida gani na biashara hizi? Wana kijiji

au wageni? Je, kijiji kinatoza kodi ya aina yoyote kwa hawa watu? Je, mnadhani watalii wameongezeka kwenye haya maeneo yenu au wamepungua au wamebakia palepale? Je, kwa wastani shughuli zote za kiuchumi zinawaletea mapato ya kiasi gani kwa familia au kwa kijiji? Je, mapato yenu yatokanayo na shughuli za kiuchumi hutumika vipi? Je, mnadhani watu

wanayatumia mapato yao vizuri? Toeni sababu za majibu yenu.

77

Je, hali ya umaskini ikoje hapa kijijini kwenu? Njia zipi mnazitumia ili kutatua tatizo hili? Je kuna mafanikio?

4. Uelewa kuhusu maeneo ya hifadhi ya wanyamapori (WMAs) Waruhusu watu wajadili kwa kirefu kuhusu dhana hii ya WMAs. Je, wanaijua? Je, wanahusika vipi? Kwa nini kijiji chao kilijiunga na WMA? Je, watu wanapata faida gani? Waeleze faida au hasara ya kuwa wanachama wa WMA iliyo kwenye maeneo yao. Waeleze kuhusu uongozi wa WMA na namna jinsi viongozi wanavyochaguliwa. Je, hali ya maisha yenu yamebadilika tangu ilipoanzishwa hii WMA? Je, kuna matatizo gani

mnayapata kwenye WMA yenu? Mnayatatua vipi? Ni shughuli zipi wananchi au kijiji kinazifanya zinazohusiana na WMA? Je, mapato ya kiasi

agani hutokana na shughuli hizo? Nini mngependa kifanyike ili kuboresha faida/manufaa ya WMA kwenu? Je, nini mngependa

kifanyike ili kuboresha biashara za kiutalii katika eneo hili? Toeni sababu za majibu yenu. Je ujangili upo katika maeneo yenu? Je, unaongezeka au unapungua? Una maoni gani

kuhusu ujangili? Kijiji kinafanya nini ili kuzuia ujangili? Je, WMA imesaidia kupunguza ujangili? Toa sababu za majibu yenu. .

5. Mawazo ya jamii kuhusu jinsi ya kuleta maendeleo ya kijiji/jamii Waulize washiriki mambo yafuatayo:

Jitihada zipi wanazifanya ili kuleta maendeleo hapo kijijini Wanafanya nini au miradi gani ili kuondoa umaskini. Je, wako tayari kufanya nini na

wangependa serikali au mashirika ya hiari na mengine yawasaidie nini? Je, wako tayari kushiriki kwenye miradi kama ya ujenzi wa miundo mbinu, barabara au

miradi inayolenga kuleta maji safi kijijini? Je, wako tayari kushiriki vipi kwenye miradi hiyo? Je, wanafikiri wangependa waletewe miradi ipi ya maendeleo. Waeleze kwa kufuata

kipaumbele. Je, katika hiyo miradi wanayoitaka, wao wako tayari kufanya nini na nini wanataka

wasaidiwe?

78

Appendix 3

In-Depth Interview Guide

MUONGOZO WA MAHOJIANO YA KINA (IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS)

Katika utafiti huu, lengo kubwa la majadiliano ni kuelewa hali ya maisha ya wana vijiji kwenye maeneo ya hifadhi ya wanyamapori (WMAs). Tunataka kujua hali yao kiuchumi, shughuli zao za kiuchumi, mapato, matatizo ya kijamii na kiuchumi wanayoyakabili na jinsi wanavyojitahidi kuyatatua, dhana yao ya umaskini, mikakati wanayoitumia ili kuondoa umaskini, wanafanikiwa wapi na wanakwama wapi na kwa nini. Pia tunataka kujua uelewa wao wa umilikaji wa malihai (WMA) na dhana ya hifadhi ya jamii ya maliasili (Community Based of Natural Resources Management). Ili kuendesha vizuri majadiliano ya vikundi, lazima awepo mwezeshaji wa majadiliano (Facilitator) na mwandishi (Note-Taker or Recorder).

Name of Interviewer (Jina la mdodosaji)

Aina ya Mhojiwa (Katibu wa Kijiji nk.)

Date of the Interview (Tarehe ya Mahojiano)

Name of WMA (Jina la WMA)

Name of the Village (Jina la Kijiji/Wilaya)

Duration of the Interview (Muda wa Mahojiano)

Sex (Jinsi) Male: Female:

79

Maswali ya kawaida kuhusu jamii

2E 2. Waruhusu watu waeleze mabadiliko muhimu yanayotokea kwenye kijiji chao Kwa mfano dadisi mambo yafuatayo kwa viongozi wa vijiji na wataalamu mbalimbali waishio hapo kijijini:

Mabadiliko ya kijamii na kiuchumi yaliyojitokeza kijijini kwao katika miaka kumi iliyopita. Je kuna maendeleo? Je hali inakuwa bora au imebaki vilevile au imekuwa mbaya zaidi?

Huduma za kijamii kama elimu, afya na mabarabara zikoje katika miaka kumi iliyopita? Je zimekuwa nzuri au zinazidi kuwa mbaya? Waeleze mabadiliko yaliyojitokeza kwenye huduma hizi.

Kwa ujumla hali ya maisha ikoje? Je vipi hali ya makazi-Hali nyumba zao? Je kuna maji, umeme? Je wanadhani makazi yao yamekuwa yakiendelea na kuwa bora au hakuna mabadiliko.-Dadisii ili watoe sababu za majibu yao.

4. Maswali kuhusu hali ya uchumi, mapato na matumizi: Waruhusu washiriki wa majadiliano waeleze matatizo makubwa yanayowakabili hapo kijijini kwao.

Waeleze matatizo ya kijamii, kiuchumi nk. Ni shughuli zipi za kiuchumi zinafanyika hapo kijijini katika kipindi hichi? Waeleze ni shughuli zipi zina

umuhimu zaidi kwao. Kama ni kilimo waeleze aina ya mazao na wayapange kufuatana na umuhimu wake.

Ni shughuli zipi za kibiashara zinafanyika hapo kijijini? Je ni zipi zinahusiana na utalii? Je biashara ya utalii ni muhimu hapo kijijini?

Nani anamiliki biashara za kitalii? Je kijiji kinapata faida gani na biashara hizi? Wana kijiji au wageni? Je kijiji kinatoza kodi ya aina yoyote kwa hawa watu? Mhojiwa aeleze aina ya rasilimali za kiuchumi zilizoko hapo kijijini-na jinsi zinavyotumika.

Je biashara ya utali imeongezeka au kupungua au imebakia palepale. Je kijiji kinafaidika vipi? Je kwa wastani shughuli zote za kiuchumi zinawaletea mapato ya kiasi gani kwa familia au kwa kijiji?. Je mapato yenu yatokanayo na shughuli za kiuchumi hutumika vipi? Je mnadhani watu wanayatumia

mapato yao vizuri? Toeni sababu za majibu yenu. Je yapo masoko ya kutosha kwa bidhaa zenu? Je ni masoko ya aina gani? Ni mazao gani hayana

masoko? Kwa nini? Je hali ya umaskini ikoje hapa kijijini kwenu? Njia zipi mnazitumia ili kutatua tatizo hili? Je kuna

mafanikio?

4. Uelewa kuhusu maeneo ya hifadhi ya wanyamapori Mruhusu mhojiwa akueleze dhana yake ya WMA kwa kirefu. Je wananchi wanaijua kikamilifu dhana hii? Je wanahusika vipi? Kwa nini kijiji chao kijiunga na umilikaji wa mali hai (WMA)? Je, watu wanapata faida gaini? Aeleze faida au hasara ya kuwa wanachama wa WMA iliyo kwenye maeneo yao. Aeleze kuhusu

uongozi wa WMA na namna jinsi viongozi wanavyochaguliwa. Je hali ya maisha yao imebadilika tangu walipoanzisha hiyo WMA? Je kuna matatizo gani

mnayapata kwenye WMA yenu? Mnayatatua vipi? Ni shughuli zipi wananchi au kijiji kinazifanya zinazohusiana na WMA? Je mapato ya kiasi hutokana na shughuli hizo? Nini ungependa kifanyike ili kuboresha manufaa ya WMA kwenu? Je nini ungependa kifanyike ili

kuboresha biashara za kiutalii katika eneo hili? Toeni sababu za majibu yenu.

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Je, ujangili upo katika maeneo yao? Unaongezeka au unapungua? Una maoni gani kuhusu ujangili? Kijiji kinafanya nini ili kuzuia ujangili? Je WMA imesaidia kupunguza ujangili? Toa sababu za majibu yenu. Je, unadhani ni hatari zipi za kijamii na kiuchumi zinazoweza kuhatarisha hali ya mali asili kwenye

eneo lenu? Je, kuna miradi ipi au huduma zipi hapa kijijini ambazo zimetokana au zimetokana na kuwepo kwa

WMA? Je, miradi hiyo ni ya kipato gani? Je, WMA zimeleta kipato cha kiasi gani? Je, kinatumika vipi?

5. Mawazo ya jamii kuhusu jinsi ya kuleta maendeleo ya kijiji/jamii Muulize mhojiwa mambo yafuatayo:

Jitihada zipi wanazifanya ili kuleta maendeleo hapo kijijini? Wanafanya nini au miradi gani ili kuondoa umaskini? Je, wao wako tayari kufanya nini na je,

wangependa serikali au mashirika ya hiari na mengine yawasaidie nini? Je, wako tayari kushiriki kwenye miradi kama ya ujenzi wa miundombinu - barabara au miradi inayolenga kuleta maji safi kijijini? Wako tayari kushiriki vipi kwenye miradi hiyo?

Je, wanafikiri wangependa waletewe miradi ipi ya maendeleo? Aeleze kwa kufuata kipaumbele. Je, katika hiyo miradi wanayoitaka, wao wako tayari kufanya nini na nini wanataka wasaidiwe? Kwa ujumla kijiji kinataka nini kwenye masuala ya maendeleo na wako tayari kuchangia nini?

(Wape mifano ikiwezekana) Je, wako tayari kushiriki katika kutengeza barabara, kuchimba mitaro ya maji, kujenga mashule, kufyatua tofali au kusomba mchanga na mawe?

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Appendix 4

Checklist for 5 WMA Studies

A. GENERAL INFORMATION 1. Data and Information to be collected from Village/ District office 2. Ethnic Composition i.e. see the tribes in the village/WMA 3. Village Population & number of Households 4. Number of villages forming WMA. Mention them 5. Available social services in the villages forming WMA such as Hospitals/Health

Centers/dispensaries, education/schools, transport and communications roads (land lines/internet/markets etc.

B. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

6. Available resources such as wildlife, village forest, minerals, water sources, etc 7. Main economic activities i.e. agriculture, businesses, pastoralist etc e.t.c 8. Available investments in the village/WMA i.e tented camps/lodges/hotels/etc 9. Number of investors in the village/WMA 10. Number of visitors both for hunting, tourism and photographic tourism

C. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE 11. What types of revenue does the village collect? e.g from hunting tourism (direct

contribution from the hunting companies or the 25% quota from the (Wildlife Department) WD as well as Photographic tourism (tented camps, hotels, game drive).

12. Revenue Expenditure patterns. i.e. how is the revenue earned from the tourism sector used in the village/WMA

D. CONSERVATION

13. Conservation efforts: how do community participate in conservation activities in the village?

14. Are there any incidences of poaching and fire outbreak in your village?

E. AVAILABILITY OF INSTITUTIONS and CSOs 15. Presence of CSOs and CBOs 16. Presence of SACCOS/VICOBA