may | june 2012 international aquafeed

Volume 15 I s sue 3 2 012

the international magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

Transfering Vitamin C from fish to embryos

Oxygenation technology– poised to transform aquaculture worldwide

Ornamental fish and invertebrates for home aquaria

Brewers’ yeast as a supplement in aquaculture

Volume 15 / Issue 3 / May-June 2012 / © Copyright Perendale Publishers Ltd 2012 / All rights reserved

WHO CARES...…If profits in the aquaculture industry are as appetising as a sea bass dinner?

As feed prices soar and formulation moves towards sustainability, aquaculture producers must maximise feed efficiency to stay on the menu.

In all phases of the fish’s life, proper nutrition will improve health. With decades of dedicated research, the “Alltech Aqua Advantage” programme responds to the challenges of today’s aquaculture producers

through nutritional innovation, addressing issues such as growth and performance, feed efficiency, flesh quality and immunity.

So, when asked who cares about your profitability? Remember

DOES!

alltech.com | facebook.com/AlltechNaturally | @Alltech

Silver Sponsor of

XV International Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Feeding

Molde, Norway • 4-7 June 2012

An internAtionAl mAgAzine for the AquAculture feed industryCONTENTS

aquaI n t e r n a t I o n a l

feed

Volume 15 / Issue 3 / May-June 2012 / © Copyright Perendale Publishers Ltd 2012 / All rights reserved

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2012 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

Aqua News

4 Claimofsalmonvirusdenied4 SupplierFocus:Norel5 Auniqueidentificationsystem-onecode,fasttraceable,safeandhealthy6 Dardenplanstobuildworld'slargestlobsterfarm6 BIOMINMycotoxinSurveyProgram20117 InternationalAquafeedMagazinetosponsorFIGAP’sAquaPavilion

Features

8 TransferingVitaminCfromfishtoembryos

12 Oxygenationtechnologypoisedtotransformaquacultureworldwide

16 Theoriginofintroducedrainbowtrout(Oncorhynchus mykiss)intheSantaCruzRiver,Patagonia,Argentina

34 Ornamentalfishandinvertebratesforhomeaquaria

40 Brewers’yeastasasupplementinaquaculture

Regular items

22 EXPERTTOPIC-TROUT42 CLASSIFIEDADVERTS43 THEAQUACULTURIST44 THEAQUAFEEDINTERVIEW46 INDUSTRYEVENTS

WHO CARES...…If profits in the aquaculture industry are as appetising as a sea bass dinner?

As feed prices soar and formulation moves towards sustainability, aquaculture producers must maximise feed efficiency to stay on the menu.

In all phases of the fish’s life, proper nutrition will improve health. With decades of dedicated research, the “Alltech Aqua Advantage” programme responds to the challenges of today’s aquaculture producers

through nutritional innovation, addressing issues such as growth and performance, feed efficiency, flesh quality and immunity.

So, when asked who cares about your profitability? Remember

DOES!

alltech.com | facebook.com/AlltechNaturally | @Alltech

Silver Sponsor of

XV International Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Feeding

Molde, Norway • 4-7 June 2012

www.perendale.co.uk

EditorProfessorSimonDaviesEmail: [email protected]

Associate EditorsProfessorKrishenRanaEmail: [email protected]

AliceNealEmail: [email protected]

Editorial Advisory Panel•Abdel-FattahM.El-Sayed(Egypt)•ProfessorAntónioGouveia(Portugal)•ProfessorCharlesBai(Korea)•ColinMair(UK)•DrDanielMerrifield(UK)•DrDominiqueBureau(Canada)•DrElizabethSweetman(Greece)•DrKimJauncey(UK)•EricDeMuylder(Belgium)

•DrPedroEncarnação(Singapore)

Subscription & CirculationTutiTanEmail: [email protected]

Design & Page LayoutJamesTaylorEmail: [email protected]

International Marketing Team

DarrenParrisEmail: [email protected]

LeeBastinEmail: [email protected]

Latin American Office

IvànMarquettiEmail: [email protected]

More information: International Aquafeed7 St George's Terrace, St James' SquareCheltenham, GL50 3PT United Kingdom

Tel: +44 1242 267706Website: www.aquafeed.co.uk

AwarmwelcometoourspringeditionalthoughintheUKwearebattlingrainandflooding after a very warm March that promised so much more. However weneedthewatertoaddresstheseveredroughtconditionsthataffectsmuchofEastEnglandandwhichhascausedseriouswatershortagesinourreservoirsandalso

manytroutfarmsinthesouthoftheUK.

Trout in particular need fast flowing water and goodexchangerates toprovideoxygen for life supportandmeet high production capacity as we have reportedrecently in IAF.Several trout farmershavehadtoholdback their stock/ stockingdensitiesand reduce feedingin southern England to minimise stress and the othernegativeconsequencesofflowconstraintsandturnover.This reminds us only too well that aquaculture is somuchdependentonnature’sgoodwillinadditiontothequalityofthediet.Indeed,feedmanagementiscrucialtotheoptimisationof growth rates andproduction. I ampleasedtosaythatintheUKwemaybeemergingfromtheseproblemsgiventhecontinueddownpoursoflateandmanyareasarebacktonormal.WehaveatimelyfeaturethereforefromGermanyonoxygentechnology,crucialtotherequirementsofintensivelyrearedfish.

Onthesubjectoftrout,wehaveamajorfeatureontroutproductioninmanyregionsanddevel-opmentsforthisimportantaquaculturefinfishsector.TroutareoneofmyfavouritefishspeciessinceIspentsomuchtimeworkingontheminmyPhDdegreebackinStirlingUniversityintheearly1980’s. Iwasalwaysfascinatedwithsalmonidsandbecameveryinterestedinthebiologyofbrowntrout,nativeseatrout(SewininWales)andofcourseAtlanticsalmonwhichtodayisthemostsuccessfulfarmedfishinScotland,NorwayandChile.Mostofourfeedandknowledgeoffishnutritionderivesfromthesespeciesandtherainbowtrouthasbecomethemoststudiedsalmonidbecauseof itsabundance intermsof inlandfish farmsandamenabilitytobeingheldundercontrolledlaboratoryconditions.Wereportonrainbowtroutproductionthroughouttheworldwithinanewexperttopicfeaturetakinganin-depthlookatvariousspeciesformingthemainaquacultureoutput.

Anotherareawhichwearenowconcentratingourinterestsistheornamentalaquariumsectorand inthiseditionweturnourattentiontotheir tradeand legislation issueswhich isamajorprerequisitetothedevelopmentofasuitablefeedindustrytosupportthisexpandingindustry.

Asafishnutritionscientist, Iamvery interestedinvitaminC(ascorbicacid)andmostfishareunabletodenovosynthesizethisvitalmicronutrientmakingthemsosimilartohumans.VitaminChasbeenshowntobeabsolutelyimportantinfishhealthandresearchhasdemonstrateditsroleinfry,growerandbroodstockwithclearmetabolicfunctionsrangingfromskeletaldevelopment,skinandfinintegrityandalsoimmunecompetencewithregardtodiseaseresistance.Wepresentan interestingarticleonvitaminC supplementationof feedsbasedonaUSperspectivewithchannelcatfish.

Theuseofabrewersyeastproductinfishnutritionisalsoreviewedwithnotablehealthpromot-ingattributesduetothecomplexcharacteristicsofthismostnaturalofingredients.

Until our next issue, please enjoy our latest features and we are always grateful for yourcontributions.

Professor Simon Davies


Croeso (Welcome in Welsh)

Hello, from the latest addition to the International Aquafeed teamI am really excited to be working on such a long-established andwell-respected industry title and working under Editor ProfessorSimon Davies. My background is in journalism and I have lots ofideasforwaystoimproveandexpandthemagazine.WorkingwiththeEditor&marketingteam,I'vealreadyputoneideaintopractice

for this issue, the Expert Focus section. This eight-page special focuses on one speciesfromaglobalperspective.Ifyou'vegotanyideasorfeedback,pleasegetintouch,[email protected]


24 -25 October - Fishmonger’s Hall - London – UK

Marine Bio-Resources(ingredients, aquaculture, aquafeed, cosmetics, nutraceuticals

cleantech, biotech, and pharmaceuticals)

• Unique venue• 8 Think-tank sessions and 2 reporting sessions

• 12 Company Presentations

• 2 Networking lunches

• A Networking dinner

• Closing gala dinner• Opening key note session

• Closing key note session

• One-to-one meetings

A world of Business opportunities to explore:Seats are limited: Only 250 attendees (Executives and CEOs)

24 -25 October - Fishmonger’s Hall - London – UK

Marine Bio-Resources(ingredients, aquaculture, aquafeed, cosmetics, nutraceuticals

cleantech, biotech, and pharmaceuticals)

• Unique venue• 8 Think-tank sessions and 2 reporting sessions

• 12 Company Presentations

• 2 Networking lunches

• A Networking dinner

• Closing gala dinner• Closing gala dinner• Opening key note session

• Closing key note session

• One-to-one meetings

A world of Business opportunities to explore:Seats are limited: Only 250 attendees (Executives and CEOs)

Book now at: www.BioMarine.org

AD_Biomarine_210x297+3.indd 1 05/01/2012 11:17

In April the Victoria TimesColonist,Canadareportedthatsalmonfarmersandofficialsare

counteringclaimsbyabiologistbythe name ofAlexandra Mortonwhosaysanewly identifiedvirusiscausingadebilitatingdiseaseinfarmedCanadiansalmon.

He's accused of sensation-alising unscientific findings andcausing unfounded concernsafter declaring that tests onsupermarket salmon, that foundevidenceofpiscinereovirus(PRV)werelinkedtoheartandskeletalmuscleinflammation(HSMI).

Mary EllenWalling executivedirectorofBC'sSalmonFarmersAssociationsaid,"Theactionsthatreturned thesepositive tests arehighly unscientific and the infor-mationreleasedalongsidethemisconsiderablyspeculative.It'sreallyunor thodox. We don't knowwhere these fish came from orhowtheyweretreated.There'sahuge opportunity for cross-con-tamination."

Alexandra Mor ton is an

o p p o n e n t o fsalmon farmedi n open ne tpens. She wasnot given accessto farm f i shfor testing sosent BC fish-farmedsalmonsamples takenfrom super-mar ke t s tothe Atlant icVe t e r i n a r yC o l l e g e i nPrince EdwardI s l a n d a n d aNorway laborator yfor testing. Both laboratoriesreportedpiscinereoviruspresentin44outof45fish.

HSMI has never been foundin BC farmed salmon, saidMary EllenWalling. Meanwhile,Depar tment of Fisheries andOceans spokesman F r ankStanek said the link betweenPRV and HSMI has not beenverified.

"GovernmentofCanadascientists

havenotconfirmedthepresence of this virus in

Canadian fish, despite exten-sivemonitoringandtesting.EveryindicationshowsCanadiansalmonarehealthyandsafe,"hesaid.

Gary Marty, BC provincial fishpathologist, said, "If the fishwereinfectedwithadeadlyvirus, theywould not have survived to beharvestedorsold."

HSMIandPRVdonotposeanyrisktohumanhealth.

A full report can be found onwww.timescolonist.com

Claimofsalmonvirusdenied

Supplier Focus: Norel by Minerva Pujol, Norel, Spain

Norel is a Spanish company whose business isfocused on the development, manufacture andtradeofadditivesandrawmaterialsfornutritionofbothaquaticandterrestrialanimals.

Withmorethan30yearsexperienceandsalesinmorethan50countries,Norelisheadquarteredin Spain and has different plants and offices inMexico,Egypt,IndiaandSingapore.

In addition, the company has in Spain tworesearch laboratories for biotechnological, chemi-cal,andbiologicalstudiesaswellasananimalteststation for the development and control of ourproducts.

Norel's laboratories and experimental activi-tiesarealso reinforcedwith researchagreementsand joint projects with recognized national andinternational research institutes and consultants.This research approach, along with a close com-municationandcollaborationwithcustomersandpartners,providesNorelwithinnovativeandprac-ticalproductsandsolutions,positioningusamongthe leading feed additive companies in Europe,LatinAmericaandAsia.

The main products targeted to aquatic species are:Ecobiol Aqua: Sporulated probiont-bacteriacharacterizedbyhighsurvivalratethroughprocess-ingaswellasfastactivationandhighmultiplicationrate of the vegetative form. Ecobiol Aqua leadsto enhanced immunity, digestibility, growth, andreducedmortality.Gustor Aqua: Organic acid salts being gradu-allyreleasedalongthegastrointestinaltractoffish,resulting in reduced microbial competition andimproveddevelopmentandbarrierintegrityattheintestinalepitheliumlevel.GustorAquapromotesmaximumperformancewhile increasingthe inclu-sionofvegetableingredientsintheration.Glymet Mix Aqua: Blend of different traceminerals using methionine and glycine as organicligands. Glymet Mix Aqua maximizes intestinalabsorptionandisspecificallyformulatedfortropicalfish,coldwaterfish,andshrimp.

4 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | May-June 2012 May-June 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 5

Aqua News

The Industry

view

AQUACULTURE

Kim Pagh, Andritz Feed & Biofuel, Austria

No matter where you are – we are just around the corner

AndritzFeed&Biofuelisaglobalsuppliertotheaquatic,animal,petfood,biofuelandwasteindustry.Alargegrowthwithinfishfarminginallregionsoftheworldmeansacorrespondinggrowthinthedemandforaquaticfeed.

Successinbreedingfishrequirescorrectlyadaptedfeedformulaswithcontrolledhomogeneouscontentandexactphysicalproperties.Theextruderaccountsforthekeyprocessinthiscomplexproductionline,whichconsistsofallprocessesfromthereceiptofrawmaterialstothefinishedproduct.

AndritzFeed&Biofuelisbehindthedevelopmentofuniqueextrusionprogramsfortheproductionofallkindsoffishfeedandshellfishfeed.TheproductionequipmentsuppliedbyAndritzFeed&Biofuelarebasedoncompleteprogramsofwell-provenprocessmachineryandequipmentincombinationwithintegratedITsolutions,whichensureeasyoperation,highplantefficiencyandfullprocesstraceability.


Aqua News

"Inour industrycustomersat-isfactionismorethanjustthequalityofthefishbought.Itis

alsoaboutbrandingandcustomerrelationships."That'sthemessageNorwaybroughttotheEuropeanSeafood Exposition 2012 inBrussels inApril when it held apress conference announcing anewprojectonlabeling.

Attending the launch of theprojectwastheNorwegianMinisterof Fisheries, Mrs Lisbeth Berg-Hansen, alongwith senior industry

representativessuchastheCEOofMarineHarvest,AlfHelgeAarskog,Gro Dyrnes from InnovationNorwayandtheCEOofNorwegianSeafoodFederation.

Modernconsumersexpectsus-tainable and healthy products,products made to suit their life-style at the best quality:priceratio.The 'story' behind seafoodmustthereforebeavailabletotheconsumer, to the retailer and toallactorsinthesupplychain.

Today,most seafoodproducersgive information about theseafood and label the productsasbestastheycan.There isnostandard - national or interna-tional- inoperationonhowtolabel the fish crates andpallets,and what information shouldfollow the seafood from oceanorfishfarmtotheconsumer.

The consequence is that theconsumer, the retailer, the fish-mongeroryourwaitermaylackinformationaboutthequalityoftheseafoodtheysell,andwhereitiscomingfrom.

Information is often trans-ferred by fax, phone and theinternet, or manual ly andpunched into IT systems.Thistakes time and time is essen-tialwhenhandlingfreshseafood.Lost time results in a shortershelflifeinstores.

Norway,astheworldleadingseafood supplier, has there-fore funded a project whichwill solve this problem forall actors in the industry andsupply chain - for the con-sumers'benefit.

The project Innovation Norway has funded

aprojectwhichwill increase thequality and productivity in theSeafood Supply Chain, and forthebenefitoftheconsumer:Theproject has been strongly sup-portedbyallplayersinthesupplychain: producers, fish farmers,processors, logistic companies,exporters,importers,retailchainsandFoodandHealthAuthorities.And by the Ministry of FisheriesandCoastalAffairs.

The innovationprojectconsistsofthreemainactions:

• Developing a new Standardfor labeling fish crates andpallets, including electronicreading and what infor-mation should follow theSeafood from producer toconsumer.Responsiblebody:StandardNorway

• A pilot project for testingof the labeling system fromproducer to the seafoodcounter. Responsibility hasbeen given to the logis-tics company DB Schenkerin Norway, in cooperationwith the producers andexpor ters Hallvard LerøyAS and Nordic GroupASand Norway's largest foodretailchain,NorgesGruppenASA

• An implementation project,for finding the needs andchallenges for the seafoodindustry to star t using thenew standard. Developingthetools, system integrationandsupportsystemtoimple-

ment the standard amongall the seafood producersand processors at lowestcost possible. Responsiblebody: Norwegian SeafoodFeder at ion (FHL) andthe Norwegian SeafoodAssociation(NSL)

The Standard The Standard defines the

minimum size of the label andprescribes the information tobe printed, of which a set ofcore data will be in electronicreadable form, forexample,barcodes.The Standard is inde-pendentforuseofdatacapturetechnologies.Two dimensionalbar codes or RFID technolo-giescanbeusedassoonasthesupply chain can utilize thesetechnologies.

Each fish cratewill have itsownanduniqueidentification.Whenfishcrates are loaded on pallets, thepallets will get a label identifyingwhichcratesareonthepallet.

The Standard describes theinformation that shall followthe seafood during all logistics.Included, is information that isrequiredbythedifferentauthori-tiesinthedifferentcountriesandthe EU. It will include informa-tion the different players in thesupply chain need in order toincrease their productivity andquality,andtooptimizetheirownprocesses.

The labeling system on fishcratesandpalletswillalsobethesourceofinformationforefficienttracingandtracking.

A UNIQUE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

INFORMATION FOR ADVERTISERS

Withcirculationofthe

printedmagazinetokey

industrydecisionmakers

andheavypromotionatkey

industryevents,working

alongsideouronline

distributionstrategies-

InternationalAquafeedisthe

idealplacetopromoteyour

productsaimedattheglobal

aquacultureindustry.

Calltheteamtodaytohear

howwecanhelpyouachieve

yourmarketinggoals

-onecode,fasttraceable,safeandhealthy

Or l a n d o b a s e dDarden Resturantsa r e p l a n n i n g t o

create the wor ld ' s la r gestlobster farm.This wil l al lowthe company to sel l lobsterinAsiaandsupplythemtoitschainsuchasRedLobster.

ThefarmwillhelpDardentopar tiallyshielditselffromrisingseafood costs well creating anew revenue stream. Lobsterfarmingisinitsinfancyanditis

extremelydifficultwhichcouldkeep pr ices lower for con-sumers and increase pressureonfishermenduetothecom-petition.

" I f t he re ' s a way to dolobster thisway, it increasesthe supply of lobster, " sa idM a r k K a l i n ow s k i , a r e s -t aur an t ana ly s t fo r J anneyCapita l Markets . " I t doesn'tn e c e s s a r i l y i n c r e a s e t h edemand for lobster.Al l else

equa l , the cos t o f lobs te rdrops."

D a r d e n b e l i e v s i t sf a c i l i t y w i l l b e t h ew o r l d ' s f i r s t c o m -m e r c i a l l o b s t e r f a r m .T h r o u g h a s u b s i d i a r yc a l l e d Da r den Aqua f a r m ,thecompanywi l l wor kwitha Malays ian group to bui ldthe 23,000-acre product ionfac i l i ty.Thefarmwi l l employ12 ,000 wor ker s and even-

t u a l l y c h u r nou t 40 m i l l i on pounds o fl ob s te r s each yea r. Tha t ' sabout US$1 b i l l i on (€765mi l l ion)wor th.

Dardenplanstobuildworld'slargestlobsterfarm

Thiscomprehensivesurveydocuments the occur-rence of mycotoxins in

samples taken throughout2011in different regions.One thingremainsclear– theglobalprev-alenceofmycotoxins ina rangeof common feed commoditiesunderscorestheneedforqualityfeedmanagementstrategies.

Since2005,BIOMINhasbeenconducting extensive studiesdocumenting the occurrenceofmycotoxinsworldwide.TheBIOMIN Mycotoxin SurveyProgram2011, themost com-prehensivereportonthemarket,details thedistributionofmyco-toxinsaccordingtotheirregionoforiginandcommoditytype.

Morethan4,300sampleswerecollected fromvariouscountriesover a 12-monthperiod fromJanuarytoDecemberand13,854analyses were carried out toinvestigatetheoccurrenceofafla-toxins(Afla),zearalenone(ZON),deoxynivalenol (DON), fumoni-sins (FUM)and/orochratoxinA(OTA)inthedifferentregionsandfeedmaterials.

More than 70 percent ofthe samples were analyzedby High Performance LiquidChromatography (HPLC),followed by Enzyme LinkedImmunosorbentAssay (ELISA)and the thin-layer chromatog-raphy(TLC)method.

Sampleswere classified firstlyaccordingtotheirregionoforigin,mainlyby theAsia-Pacific (37%),Europe,AfricaandtheMiddleEast(35%), theAmericas (27%),andsecondlybymeansofcommoditytypes,ranging fromrawmaterials

likecorn(33%),wheat(9%),barley(7%)andsoybean(5%)tofinishedfeed(25%),silage(8%)andotherfeedingredients(13%).

Theresults showthataveragecontaminationlevelswereslightlylower in 2011 comparedwith2010,whereas thepercentageofmycotoxindistribution foundat themaximum levels remainssimilar to last year’s forZON,DONandFUM.ItwasfoundthatcontaminationwithAfla,ZON,DON,FUMand/orOTAaffected27, 40, 59, 51 and27percentof the4,327 samples collectedworldwide,respectively.

Besides providing a world-widegeographical and statisticalanalysis,thereportalsodetailstheregionalbreakdownforcommonmycotoxin occurrences, typesof commoditiesassociatedwiththe different mycotoxins, andthe corresponding maximumand average levelsof contami-nationperregionforeachtoxin.It alsohighlights the commodi-tieswiththehighestriskofcon-tamination,basedon the testedsamples.

Attentionshouldalsobegivento the potentially harmful syn-ergisticeffectsonanimalsarisingfrom the presence of morethanonemycotoxin in the feed.Giventheubiquitouspresenceofmycotoxinsworldwide,aneffec-tivemycotoxinriskmanagementprogram iscritical topreventingadditionalcosts in farmmanage-mentandeconomiclossesduetosub-paranimalperformance.

More inforMation: Website: www.biomin.net

BIOMINMycotoxinSurveyProgram2011


Aqua News

The Industry

view

AQUACULTURE

Pedro Encarnacao, Director Business Development Aquaculture, BIOMIN, Austria

BIOMIN Insights: Aquaculture in Asia

IhavebeeninvolvedintheAsianaquacultureindustryformorethansixyearsnowand

thegrowthandtransformationI’veseenintheindustryacrosstheregionduringthisperiodhasbeenremarkable.

Vietnamisanexcellentexampleofthat.DuringmyfirstvisittoVietnamin2006,thepangasiusindustrywasjuststartingtoboom,andVietnamwasstillproducinglessthan400,000tonsayear.Farmerswerealreadyabletoproduce200tons/hathenbutmanywerestillfeedingtheirfishfarm-madefeeds.

Overthenextthreeyears,the

industryexpandedtremendously,reachingatotalproductionof1.2milliontons.Thiswasduetoanincreaseinthenumberoffarmsandthewidespreaduseofcommercialfloatingfeedwhichallowedsomefarmerstoproduceatupto600tons/ha.Suchquickgrowthbroughtsomeproblemstotheindustrywithmorediseases,decliningpricesandrisingproductioncosts,whichledtotheexitofmanysmallfarmers.

Wearenowseeingshiftsintheproductionpracticesoftheindustryandatransformationtowardsamorematureandprofessionalindustry.Thefocushasshiftedfromincreasesinproductiontobetterproductqualityandsustainability.

Aspartofmyactivitiesintheregion,Ihavebeenworkingactivelywithfeedproducersandfarmerstoimprovenutritionalfeedqualitywhilemakinguseofmoresustainablefarmingpractices.Initialworkwasdonetocreatetheawarenessoftheneedtosupplyfishwithpropernutritionsothattheycangrowtotheirfullpotential.

ThelatestfocusisonreducingFCRbymakinguseofavailablefeedingredientsincombinationwithfunctionalfeedadditiveslikephytogenics,acidifiersorenzymes.ByreducingFCR,wearenotonlyaimingtoincreasetheprofitabilityofthefarmerbutalsotoreducewasteoutput.Thiswillreducetheimpactontheenvironmentandimprovetheimageoftheindustry,whichhasoftenbeenwronglyaccusedofunsustainablepractices.

AsweallknowFIGAP/VIVisthemostimportantforuminMexicoandoneofthebest

in thewholeLatinAmericanregionthatbrings togethercompaniesandprofessionals from all corners oftheworldandsectorssuchus live-stock,pig,poultry,machineryandfeedindustries,butthisyearanewsectorwilladded…Aquaculture.

Asaresult,Figap/VIVandPerendalePublishers,editoroftheInternationalAquafeed Magazine, signed animportantagreementwith theaimofpromoting such important andgrowing sectorof the agribusinesswithinFIGAP/VIVandencouragingaquaculture in LatinAmerica andspeciallyinMexico.

Aquaculture in Latin America

From1970to2006LatinAmericaregisteredthehighestrateofaverageannual growth inaquaculture–22percentperyear,orthreetimestheworld rateof8.8percent.This sur-passedother regionswith impor-

tant growth rates such astheMiddleEast(20percentannual) andAfrica (12.7percent), and even sur-passedChina’saquacultureproduction, which grewat an average annual rateof 11.2percentoverthesameperiod.

Incontrast toother regions,LatinAmericacurrentlyhas thegreatestpotentialintermsofavailableareaforfutureexpansionofaquaculture.

Largest producing countries in Latin America

In Mexico, aquaculture holdsgreat potential as it currentlyrepresents only 0.1percent ofGDP.70percentofnationalpro-

duction is concentrated inMexico's nor thern Pacificzone.

Thismeans that the restof thecountry is practically virgin terri-tory for thedevelopmentofaqua-culture.

Asaresult,theaquacultureindustryshould be promoted. FIGAP/VIVcan serve as the opportunity toshowcaseandpromotenew tech-nologiesforthisindustry.

Mexicoholds greatpotential foraquacultureproduction,due to itswater resources, favorable climateand geographic location with

respect to international markets.Commercial fish farming inMexicohas been undertaken since 1964,

however itdidnotbecomeprofit-able(3.5ton/ha/year)until20yearslater(1984).

PerendalePublishers through theInternationalAquafeedmagazine isOfficial Sponsor of FIGAP’sAquaPavilionandexclusivesellersof thestands.

In the event you're inter-ested in purchasing one of thebooths for Figap/VIV 2012 feelfree to contact InternationalAquafeed.

InternationalAquafeedMagazineto sponsor FIGAP’s Aqua Pavilion

aquaculture production (tons)

aquaculture % share of

national fish production

aquaculture production

(tons)

Commercial fishing % share of national fish

production

2009 284,000 16.4% 1,482,000 83.6%

2010 285,000 16.1% 1502,000 83.9%

2011 285,000 15.8% 1,521,000 84.2%

2012* 325,000 16.8% 1,532,000 83.2%


Aqua News

VIVChina2012

www.viv.net

September 23 - 25, 2012

Your portal to China’s Feed to Meat trade

Beijing, China

www.viv.net

Register now for free entrance!

Beneficial effects of ascorbic acidsupplementationtobroodstockofaselectaquaculturespeciesiswelldocumented.Atthepresentlevels

offeeding,dietarymeansofvitaminCdoesnot meet the requirements for maturation,reproduction and needs of early life stagesoflarvae.

Inaddition,thisnutrientiswatersolubleand readily gets accumulated by otherorgans before reaching the ovary. Forpractical reasons, it is not possible toattain the desired level of a nutrient by

conventional methods, hence innovativeapproachesareneeded.Masstransferofnutrientsvia injection intobroodstock isanovelmethod.

TworoutesofmaternaltransferofvitaminC in mature channel catfish (Ictalurus punc-tatus) prior to hormone-induced spawningwere explored as a strategy to incorporate

the vitamin and to determine its effect onreproductionandprogenyperformance.

The results of this study suggest injectingvitaminCpriortohormone-inducespawning,invokes transfer to eggs, improves repro-

ductive performance, and may subsequentlyimproveontogenyperformance.

However, the effect of vitamin C dimin-ishedwithageandalsoinmorenaturalcondi-tions. Our goal was to achieve predictablefish production of robust quality for healthy,efficient,highersurvivingandabletoadapttocommonstressorsandpathogens.

Improvements can be madein this area by new knowledge-based advances in nutrient deliv-ery systems thatmay create largeimprovementsintermsofproduc-tion, feed conversion and survivalinaquacultureproduction.

Importance of vitamin CAscorbic acid is an essential

micronutrientinthedietofteleostfish, which do not have gulonol-actone oxidase activity. VitaminC is needed for post-translato-ry hydroxylation of proline andlysine moieties in collagen, min-eralmetabolismto improvestressresponseandimmunity,detoxifica-tionreactions,steroidsynthesisandvitellogenesis.

Egg ascorbic acid depositionlevels may easily be tailored byfeeding broodfish with elevatedlevels of ascorbic acid before andafter vitellogenesis. The accumula-tion of essential nutrients in eggsis dependent on the nutrientreserves in the female fish andthereforeon thedietary intakeofbroodfishintheperiodpreceedingand during gametogenesis.Hence,broodfish nutrition consisting of

essentialnutrientsisimportant.The earliest steps in embryonic develop-

mentaredependentonanddrivenbymater-nal factors deposited in the oocyte duringoogenesis.Maternalfactorsarestoredinthe

table 1: Mass transfer of Vitamin C from broodfish to eggs/embryos

SpeciesMass trasfer strategy Dose reference

Rainbow trout Diet 1000 mg/Kg Sandness et al. (1984)

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Tilapia Diet 1250 mg/Kg Soliman et al. (1986)

Oreochromis mossambicus

Atlantic Cod Diet 500 mg/Kg Mangor-Jensen et al. (1994)

Gadus morhua

Rainbow trout Diet 500 mg/Kg Blom and Dabrowski (1995)

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Channel catfish Diet 500 mg/Kg Zuberi et al. (2011)

Ictalurus punctatus

Rainbow trout Immersion 1000 mg/l Falhatkar et al. (2006)

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Rainbow trout Immersion and Diet 1000 and 500 mg/Kg Falhatkar el.al. (2011)

Oncorhynchus mykiss

Japanese eel Injecting broodfish 50 mg/Kg Yoshikawa, 1998

Anguilla japonica

Japanese eel Injecting broodfish 1ml* /Kg Furuita et al. 2009

Anguilla japonica

Channel catfish Injecting broodfish 1 ml*/Kg Chatakondi et al. 2010

Ictalurus punctatus

*Vitamin emulsion was prepared by dissolving Sodium ascorbate in 0.9% naCl Solution

Transfering

by Nagaraj G. Chatakondi PhD, National Warmwater Aquaculture Center, USA

Vitamin Cfrom fish

to embryos

8 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | May-June 2012

FEATURE

May-June 2012 | InternatIonal AquAFeed | 9

formofspecificmRNAs,proteins,hormonesandotherbiomolecules.Ateggactivationandfertilization, these factors become availableforembryogenesis,sometimesafteraprocessof activation involving translation or proteinmodification.

IthasbeendocumentedthatvitaminCorascorbicaciddeficiencyinlarvalfishhasbeenassociated with hyperplasia of collagen andcartilage, scoliosis, lordosis, internal hemor-rhages, resorbed opercules and abnormalsupport cartilage in gills, spine and fins withdeformitiesofthejawandsnout.

Basedonrecentresearch,vitaminCneedsfor reproduction and early life stages of fishare10timestherecommendeddoseforrais-ingyoungadultfish.Thesehighlevelscannotbemetbydietaryadministrationtobroodfishbecause the nutrient is water soluble andreadily absorbed / utilized by other organsduringoocytedevelopment.

Ithasbeendemonstratedinseveralspeciesthatnutrientsinbroodfishdietaretransferredto oocytes through uptake of extra-ovariansubstances from the maternal blood. Also,therewasuptoa82.4percentlossofascor-bic acidof the prepared commercial diet.A3.8–8.3-foldincreaseofvitaminCinthedietgenerallyresultsin56to71.9percentincreaseoftotalascorbicacidintheeggsrespectively.

The fry produced frompar-ents fedwithelevated levelsof vitamin C tend to havehigher growth performanceas compared with controlgroups. Thus, there is aneed in enhance ascorbicacid in the broodfish. Adiet with vitamin C contentadequate fornormalgrowthmay not be sufficient forbroodfish when the goal isto transfer ascorbic acids toembryos.

Reproduction and arval performance

Broodfish diet has amajorinfluenceonfecundityandeggquality.Ithasalsobeendemonstrat-edthatthenutritionalstatusofbroodfishcanaffectoffspringquality.The accumulationofessentialnutrientsineggsisdependenton1)thenutrientreservesinthefemalefishand2)the dietary intake preceding gonadogenesis.VitaminC is needed formaturation, repro-ductionandlarvalmetamorphosis.Beneficialeffects include increased fertility, fecundityandeggquality.

Nutrients in broodfish diet are trans-

ferred to oocytes through uptake of extra-ovarian substances from thematernalblood.Immersion enrichment of eggs is anotherapproachtointroducecompoundsandnutri-ents into eggs. Immersion enrichment fol-lowedbyfeedingfrywithvitaminCenhancedfeed was also found to be an effectivemethod.

Injecting vitamin C in to broodfish duringartificial- induced maturation improved repro-duction and progeny performance. Efforts are

"Based on 2011 data, approximately 335

million pounds of catfish were processed,

a reduction of over 50 percent compared

to the best production in 2003


FEATURE

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underway to develop procedures to effec-tivelyandstablyaccumulatevitaminCineggsbybroodstockinjections(Table1).

Vitamin C needs of channel catfish

Channel catfish is the single largestaquaculture fish species cultured in the

United States. Based on 2011 data,approximately 335 million pounds of cat-fish were processed, a reduction of over50percentcomparedtothebestproduc-tion in 2003 (2012 USDA NASS). Theindustry is currently struggling to keeppacewiththeincreasingcostoffeed,fuel,production inefficiencies, foreign importsand economy. Adopting hybrid catfish(channel catfish female x blue catfish, I.

furcatus male), hybridisation can be usedto improve productivity immediately byproducingfishthatexhibithybridvigor.

Based on numerous laboratory and fieldtrials, hybrid catfish are superior in growthrate, feedconversion, survival, seinability andprocessing traits compared to commonlyraisedchannelcatfish.

Adecadeago,produc-ing commercial quanti-ties of hybrid catfish wasbelieved to be unattain-able.Naturalhybridisationisrareandartificialspawn-ing of channel catfish hasbeen historically low andwithnoeffectiveovulatingagentsavailable.

However, in the last10 years, consistent andmarked improvementswere made in all thephasesofartificial spawn-ingandthehatcherypro-duction of hybrid catfishembryos. Improved pro-duction and consistentsuperior performance ofhybridcatfish incommer-cial earthen productionponds has rejuvenated

the industry with unprecedented optimism.Presently,athirdofcatfishfarmersraisehybridcatfishinproductionpondsandhybridcatfishaccount for approximately 25 percent of allthetotalcatfishprocessedin2011.

Our goal is to achieve predictable fishproduction of robust quality for healthy,fast growing, survival and adapt to commonstressorsandpathogensand tovaryingenvi-ronmental conditions. Improvements can be

made in this area by new knowledge-basedadvances in live food production or nutri-ent delivery systems that may create largeimprovementsintermsofproduction,survivalandprocessingyield.

Preliminary findings Broodstock preparation is the primary

requisite for hormone-induced spawning ofchannelcatfishintheproductionofchannelxbluehybridcatfish.Hence,broodfishmanage-ment techniques must be geared towardsattainingmaximumproductionofhigh-qualityeggs and larvae because variable egg qualityis one of the limiting factors in fish hatcher-ies. Broodstock diet has been consideredasoneof the factorsaffecting fecundity,egg,and larval quality in fish. The accumulationof essential nutrients in eggs are dependenton the nutrient reserves in the female fish,and consequently on the dietary nutrientinputof broodstock in theperiodprecedinggonadogenesis. When eggs absorb water, itis possible to introduce compounds such asvitamins andminerals into theeggswith thewatersolutionbeforewaterhardening.

It was hypothesised that injecting femalebroodfish prior to hormone-induced spawn-ingwouldresult inmasstransferofnutrientstoimprovematuration,ovulation,andsubse-quentprogenyperformance.Preliminarystud-ies confirmed accumulation of vitamin C inovariantissueandinvokedapositiveresponseto ovulation, fecundity and egg quality.Masstransfer of vitamin C to the eggs improvedgrowth and reduced mortalities followingEdwardseillaictaluridiseasechallenge.

It appears that mass transfer of vitaminCtoeggs isattainedby injectingbroodfishprior to hormone-induced spawning toimproveprogenyperformance. ■

"A decade ago, producing commercial quantities of hybrid

catfish was believed to be unattainable.

- Presently, a third of catfish farmers raise hybrid catfish in production ponds and hybrid

catfish account for approximately 25% of all the total catfish processed in 2011"

"It appears that mass transfer of vitamin C

to eggs is attained by injecting broodfish

prior to hormone-induced spawning

to improve progeny performance"


FEATURE


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Interest is burgeoning in a unique newlow-pressure oxygenation system thatis poised to transform the world ofaquaculture.

Theuniquenessofthetechnologyisbasedonitsabilitytoperformthreecriticalfunctionsin one system— dissolving oxygen in thewater, producing the correct hydrodynamicsand stripping out potentially harmful inertgases like nitrogen—via a very lowenergyrequirement. Moreover, the system is easilyinstalled,includingasaretrofittoexistingfishtanks,andisvirtuallymaintenance-free.

SOLVOX® OxyStream, developed byLindeGasand launched inAugust2011,hasbeenproventoimprovethelivingconditionsoffishinsidethetank,allowingforasignificantincrease in fish production volume, optimisefish meat quality and considerably improveoperationsfromanenvironmentalstandpoint.

Aquaculture,alsoknownasaquafarming,isthedisciplineofcommerciallyfarmingaquaticorganisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscsandaquaticplants..Aquaculture involvescul-tivating freshwater and saltwater populationsunder controlled conditions – in contrast tocommercialfishing,whichistheharvestingofwildmarinefish.

TheLindetechnologyhasbeendevelopedinresponsetoaprogressivetrendthatissee-

ing aquaculture production being transferredfrom sea cages to land-based sites for thefull duration of a marine fish’s lifecycle. Thischangehas confronted the industrywith thechallengeofoxygenating large fish tanks thatcanaccommodate fish stock from infancy tomaturity.

Theground-breakingpatentedSOLVOX®OxyStream is a combined oxygenation andflow system which not only dissolves theoptimalamountofoxygen inthe inletwaterflow,butalsodistributesitevenlyatanadjust-able flowpattern through the tank, ensuringfish stock benefit from the physical exercise

involvedinswimmingagainstthecurrent.Theflowregimecanbefullytailoredaccordingtofish size, stock density and fish species, suchas salmon or cod. The system comprises astandaloneunit and is installed individually ineach tank, sowater flowandoxygendosingcanbeindividuallycontrolledforeachtank.

Themicro-bubblescreatedbySOLVOX®OxyStream have the additional benefit ofhelping to reduce the concentration of dis-solved inertgasessuchasnitrogenorargon.Inparticular,oversaturationofnitrogen,evenin relatively small quantities, can endangerthe wellbeing of fish stock, slowing growthand increasing the possibility of disease, andultimately,evenmortality.WiththeinstallationofSOLVOX®OxyStream,externaldegassing

units to prevent inert gas build-up will, inmanycases,becomeobsolete.

Depending on the application, pumpingpressuresaslowas0.05to0.2bararenormal-lysufficienttooxygenatetheincomingwater,stripnitrogenandcreateoptimaltankhydro-dynamics.Thislowoperatingpressuremakesthe system very energy efficient.OxyStreamalsorequiresverylowmaintenance,becauseitisnotassociatedwithanyancillaryequipmenttomanagewaterpressure.

Producing fish in captivityAquacultureusingseacagescameinto its

ownas recentlyas the1980s,when the fishindustry recognised it would be more costeffective to produce fish in captivity in theoceanratherthantotrawlforwildfish.Todayaquaculture is moving to on-land farming,withthemostsignificant inroadsbeingmadeinNorway,wherethereisamassivedemandforsalmonandcod.Thisplacesanenormousburden on farmers to produce fish moreefficientlyandcosteffectively.

Thelimitationwithaconventionalon-landtankistheamountofoxygenavailabletothefish.Watercanonlyprovideacertainamountofoxygen,whichisquicklyrespired,sothereis aneed toprovideanadditional sourceofoxygen.

SOLVOX® OxyStream is able to effi-

Oxygenation technology poised to

transform aquaculture worldwideby Stefan Dullstein, Head of Industrial Segment Aquaculture & Water Treatment, Linde Gases Division, Germany

BOC, a member of the Linde Group, leads the

SOLVOX OxyStream from a UK perspective.


FEATURE


cientlyoxygenateseawaterandcanaddi-tionally be used during the fresh waterphase of salmon. This allows fish farmerstooperate a singleoxygenation system inlarge tanks which can run on both freshwater and sea water. This significantlyreducescostscomparedwithrunningsep-arate saline and fresh water oxygenationsystems.

Thiscapabilitywasrecentlydemonstratedduring trials conducted atMarineHarvest inNorway,theworld’slargestsalmonproducer.Results showed that SOLVOX® OxyStreamwastheonlyoxygenationsourcesuitableforrearingyoungsalmonhatchedintanksrunningon freshwater,beforegradually transitioningthemtoseawater.Thiscreatesanoptimumenvironment inwhichtorearsalmon,ensur-ingthecorrectoxygen levelsthroughouttheentire production period and keeping fishstresslevelstoanabsoluteminimum.

By precisely predicting flow velocitySOLVOX®OxyStream is able to adjust thisvelocity in the circular on-land tanks. Thefish, depending on their age and size, needacertainwatervelocity foroptimumgrowthconditions,soifthevelocityisincorrect,thefishwon’texercise,soit’s importanttoapplythecorrectwatervelocityineachapplicationto keep them ‘workingout’ against a robustcurrent.

Parallel developmentTypically,aquaculturefarmershavegrown

salmonfromeggstoabout100ginweightinsmall to mid-sized tanks. Once the fish areacclimatisedtoseawaterconditions,theyareusuallytransferredtoseacages.

This method has been constrained bysome major challenges as there is alwaysthe potential for break-outs, allowing valu-ablestocktoescape,whilethehighdensity

of fish in this natural environment has thepotential to foster diseases. So it makessense to govern the entire lifecycle onland, where the health of the fish and theenvironment can be managed with morecontrol.

Although themethodwasmootedas farbackas tenyearsago,at that timethecostswere prohibitive owing to the high energyrequired to pump water through the dis-

"Interest is burgeoning in a unique new low-pressure oxygenation system that

is poised to transform the world of aquaculture. The uniqueness of the

technology is based on its ability to perform

three critical functions in one system— dissolving

oxygen in the water, producing the correct

hydrodynamics and stripping out potentially harmful inert gases like

nitrogen — via a very low energy requirement"


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solversoperatedathigherpressureintolandtanksanddissolveoxygeninthewater.TodaySOLVOX®OxyStream,withitsunprecedent-edlowenergydemand,makesthispossible.

Furthermore, new legislation imminent inNorway will allow farmers to develop fishtoasizeof1000gonland,meaningawholenew market has opened for us. Research isalready underway to investigate the on-landdevelopmentoffishupto4to5kg,harnessingourtechnology.

The largest tank equipped so far withSOLVOX® OxyStream is 15m in diam-eter, but aquaculture farmers are looking toincreasethesizeoftanks–uptoaround20to25mindiameter.

Immense interestThe industryhas responded to the intro-

ductionofthissystemwithimmenseinterestand the Linde team currently has about 20units piloting at customer sites, with manymore proposals out there. It has fieldedenquiries from North America, the UK,Norway,FranceandevenfromSaudiArabia.

Withinterestlevelssohigh,Lindehashadto accelerate its activities to meet customerdemand. As a customised solution, it is nota simplematterof ‘plug andplay’. Each cus-tomer application needs to be approachedfrom a unique perspective, needing profes-sional,tailoredinput.

To showcase its technology in action,LindeisconstructingabrandnewtestcentreinNorwaywhere customerswill be able tosee SOLVOX® OxyStream in action as itoperates in windowed tanks. Training andequipment testing will also be carried outusingthenewcentreasabase.

EnvironmentWiththeocean’sreservesoffishsteadily

depletingand thedemand for fishproductsontheincrease,addingmoreseacagesalongthe world’s coastlines is not an adequatesolution.

In this scenario not all the fish feeddeployed to the sea cages is converted tofishmeat—thereisalotofwastage.Atthesametime,alargeamountoffishexcrementreleased in a specific area tends to over-fertilisetheecosystem.

By comparison, the producing frominfancytomaturityinon-landtankshassig-nificant environmental benefits. The waterflowing through fish tanks can be recycledto a high extentwith excrement and feedresidues filtered out effectively. As such,pollution to the marine environment andthe possible spread of disease to wild fishisprevented.

Diseases canbeproperlyhandled in landbasedtanks.Fishfarmersusingseacagesmayneed to chemically treat the fish to get ridof sea-lice and this is prejudicial both to theenvironmentandtothefishthemselves.Sea-licearenotan issue inrecirculationtanks,astheseparasitescannotget intothesysteminthefirstplace.

There are other advantages. Fish bred inaquaculture are, in many cases, geneticallydifferenttowildfish,sowhenthereisabreak-outandfishescapeintotheocean,thiscouldhaveanimpactonthegeneticsofnaturalfishpopulation.

AtechnologylikeSOLVOX®OxyStreamwas unquestionably needed to ensure thefuture success of the growing land-basedaquaculture industry. However, it’s not

the end of the story. Although it is themost advancedequipment available to thisindustry at this time, Linde is convincedthat it can improve the technology evenfurther and research anddevelopmentwillbe ongoing to maintain their position as aleaderinthefield.

The futureEnvisaging a bright future for SOLVOX®

OxyStream,Lindebelievesthevigorousinter-estbeingshownbyaquaculturefarmersisjustthetipoftheiceberg.

Norway’s fish farming industry, whichis the most industrialised in the world,but by no means the biggest, producesabout onemillion tons of salmon a year,butglobaltonnage–includingallfishspe-cies, molluscs, croustades, and others, isashighas50mtonsperyear.The largestaquaculture industry is in China, whichproducesabout70percentoftheworld’sfarmedfish.

However, the industry in China tendsto comprise many small, family ownedcompanies, using a low levelof technology.Therefore, from a cost perspective alone,soonerorlaterChinawillbegintoindustri-aliseitsaquacultureindustry. ■

"The industry has

responded to the

introduction of this system

with immense interest

and the Linde team

currently has about 20

units piloting at customer

sites, with many more

proposals out there. It

has fielded enquiries

from North America, the

UK, Norway, France and

even from Saudi Arabia"

More inforMation:For further information from BOC, please contact Keith Nicholson, on +44 1844 253195 or email [email protected]


FEATURE


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Salmon and trout have been trans-planted to habitats throughout theworldandself-sustainingpopulationshave been successfully established

globally, with the exception of Antarctica(MacCrimmon 1971; Quinn et al. 1996;Nielsen 1996). Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)wasfirstintroducedintoArgentineanPatagonia,thesouthernmostregionofSouthAmerica,attheturnofthetwentiethcenturyandeventuallybecamethemostconspicuousfreshwaterspeciesinmajorriverbasinsoftheregion(Pascualetal.2002b).

Like all other known introduced rainbowtrout around the world, typical Patagonianfish remain in fresh water throughout theirentire life cycle, with a life history similar tothatofresidentpopulationsinriversandheadlakes in western North America (WydoskyandWhitney1979).TheSantaCruzRiver inPatagonia (50°S) is the only drainage in theworld where introduced rainbow trout areknown to have developed partially migratorypopulationscomposedofindividualsexhibitingamarinemigratoryphase,so-calledsteelhead,andstrictlyfreshwaterfishthatremainresidentintheirnativestream(Pascualetal.2001).

As in many other salmonid populationswith this dual anadromous–nonanadromouslife history, theway and extent towhich thetwoecotypesintermingleintheSantaCruzisuncertain.Geneticanalysesbasedonmicrosat-ellite loci revealed that theanadromous formis genetically indistinguishable frommain-stemresidenttrout(Pascualetal.2001),suggestingthat significantgene flowoccursbetween thetwoforms.

Whethertheintroducedfishwereineffectanadromousoranadromyaroseinsituremainsunknown(Behnke2002;Pascualetal.2002a).

Wealsoignorethespecificmechanismsunder-lyingtheexpressionofalternativelifehistoriesin the Santa Cruz, i.e. a genetic polymor-phism,ageneticallydetermineddevelopmentalthreshold (i.e. the link between individualgrowth performance and anadromy or non-anadromy;Thorpeetal.1998),oranentirelyenvironmental effect. At this point, there arecritical aspects regarding the environmentalversus genetics bases of life history variationinSantaCruzRiverrainbowtroutthatwedonotknow.

A logical first step to start elucidating thebases of life history variation in Patagonianrainbow trout, in particular, the developmentof anadromy, is to assess their genetic legacythroughtheidentificationoftheparentalsourc-es. Poor historical bookkeeping and complexancestryhavemade itdifficult to address thisissuefromtransplantrecordsalone.

The SantaCruzRiver, aswell as all otherriversthroughoutPatagonia,receivedrainbowtroutfromtwomainsourcesatdifferenttimes.Between 1904 and 1910, rainbow trout ovawere imported from the United States (US),most likely derived from rainbow trout andsteelheadfromlocationsinnorthernCaliforniaorsouthernOregon(Pascualetal.2001,2002a;Behnke 2002). After the 1930s, and par-ticularly after the1950swhen fish transplantswithin the region became more common, allrainbow trout plantings were based on newstocksimportedfromGermanyandDenmark(BaigúnandQuirós1985).However,theSantaCruzRiverhashadahistorylargelyindepend-ent from that of more northerly Patagonialocations, with only occasional introductionsafter1920(Pascualetal.2001,2002a).Thus,presumably,wildpopulationsinthisriverweremostlyderivedfromtheearlyshipmentsfromtheUnitedStates.

MitochondrialDNA(mtDNA)hasprovenvery successful for identifying the origins ofseveral introduced salmonid populations andforassessinggeneticdifferencesbetweencon-temporary wild and introduced populations(Quinnetal.1996;Burgeret al.2000). In thispaper, we use mtDNA sequence variationto identify the founding populations of SantaCruzRiverrainbowtrout.Westartbyanalys-ing mtDNA sequences of both resident andmigratory fish.We include in the analysis fishfromalocalhatchery,whichwasfoundedwithEuropean trouts widely stocked around theregionafter1950.

We then build and apply a probabilisticmodel of random survival and reproductionof individual fish to calculate the likelihoodthatwildSantaCruzfishhadoriginatedfromacollectionofcandidateNorthAmericanstocks.Finally,wediscussthemeritsofthetechniquesapplied to evaluate the relative contributionof pre-1950 transplants from US stocks andpost-1950 transplants from Danish stocks towildpopulationsof rainbowtrout throughoutPatagonia.

Transplant history From1904 to1910, several consignments

ofrainbowtroutembryosarrivedinArgentina,mainly from the United States, with onlyoccasional imports from European countries,such as France and Germany (Tulian 1908;Marini and Mastrarrigo 1963; Behnke 2002).Between 1906 and 1910, a total of 105,000rainbow trout ova collected in the UnitedStateswereshipped to theSantaCruzRiver.25,000 in 1906, 30,000 in 1908, and 50,000in 1909. The 1908 shipment was completelylost, but the other two consignments weresuccessfully hatched and planted in the river,withcomparable lossesthroughout(about65

The origin of introduced rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in the Santa Cruz River, Patagonia, Argentina, as inferred from mitochondrial DNA

by Carla M. Riva Rossi, Enrique P. Lessa, and Miguel A. Pascual. Centro Nacional Patagónico (CONICET), Uruguay


FEATURE


percent; Tulian 1908; Marini and Mastrarrigo1963). For practical purposes, the numberofeggs from theparentalpopulations giving risetotheSantaCruzstockwas75,000.

ThemostlikelyoriginoftheseeggswastheBairdStationontheMcCloudRiver,California(Pascual et al. 2001). However, they may aswell have come from steelhead and rainbowtrout in alternative northern California andsouthern Oregon locations (Behnke 2002;Pascualetal.2002a).Rainbowtroutintroduc-tionsintoArgentinaintensifiedafter1950,thistime based on stocks from Denmark (Pillay1969;MacCrimmon1971)andmaintainedbyBariloche.

Northern Patagonia hatcheryBy that time, Bariloche became the main

centerofsalmonidpropagationinArgentineanwaters,contributingtothedistributionofthesenewstocksthroughoutthe1950s,1960s,and1970s. Danish stocks of rainbow trout havea complex ancestry; multiple lineages fromCalifornia, Michigan, Canada, New Zealand,and France appear to have contributed totheir foundation (MacCrimmon 1971). Small

consignments of these fish(<2000 embryos)arrivedattheSantaCruzRiverfromBarilocheinthe1970sandwereplantedinsecond-to-third order tributaries flowing into the upperbasin(Fig.1).

Finally,in1991,thePiedraBuenaHatcherywasbuiltonthelowerSantaCruzRiver(Fig.1).The fishusedto foundthishatchery’sbrood-stockalsocamefromDanishfish,asthosekeptbytheBarilocheHatchery.

Althoughfishofthishatcheryarenotusedfor stocking the river, escapes are likely, sothat some introgression with wild fish mightoccur(Pascualetal.2001). Inanycase, thesefishprovidea representative groupof known

Danishoriginwithwhichtocontrast the genetic struc-tureofSantaCruz

River wild fishThe upper Santa Cruz

basin is dominated bytwo large glacial-fed lakes,Viedma and Argentino,that form the Santa CruzRiver. The main stem riverhas an average flow of690 m3·s–1 and extendsfor 382 km across thePatagonian plateau drainingintotheAtlanticOcean(Fig.

1). Landlocked populations of rainbow troutinhabit most of the second- to third-ordertributariesthatfeedtheheadlakes;fewspringsandsmalltributariesenterthemain-stemriver,noneofthemsignificantfromthepointofviewoftheirtroutpopulations.

We restricted our analysis to the main-stemriverpopulations,which,asrevealedbyatelemetrystudy, isthedomainoftheanadro-mousrainbowtroutandoftheresidentfishto

whomtheyaremostlikelyrelated(RivaRossiet al. 2003). Adult anadromous and residentrainbow trout were caught by hook and lineand by gill nets between 2000 and 2002 inApril and September along the main-stemSantaCruzRiver(Fig.1).

Samplinglocationswerebasedonspawningand fishing abundances documented in previ-oussurveysandconsistedoftworiverreacheslocatedintheuppercourse('PrimerLaberinto'and 'Segundo Laberinto'), one in the middlecourse ('Ea.RincónGrande'), andone in thelowercourse('Cte.L.PiedraBuena'City).

At each locality, tissue samples wereobtained from fish of each ecotype. From atotal of 182wild fish captured, 20were suc-cessfully sequenced: five individuals of eachecotypefromtheuppercourse,threeresidentfishfromthemiddlecourse,andthreeanadro-mous and five resident fish from the lowercourse. Direct inspection of external charac-teristicsandscalepatternanalysiswereusedtodistinguish anadromous fromnonanadromousfish (Pascual et al. 2001). Also, fin clips wereobtained from five spawners from thePiedraBuenaHatcherybroodstock.

DNA techniquesWholegenomicDNAwasextractedfrom

alcohol-preservedfintissuebymeansofasodi-umchlorideextractionofproteinsfollowedbyispropylicalcoholprecipitationofDNA(Milleret al. 1988). The polymerase chain reaction(PCR)wasused to amplify a segmentof themitochondrialgenomecontaining188basepairs(bp)oftheO.mykisscontrolregionand5bpoftheadjacentphenylalaninetRNAgeneusingprimers S-phe (5′-TAGTTAAGCTACG-3′)andP2(5′-TGTTAAACCCCTAAACCAG-3′)(Nielsenetal.1994).

Nomenclature for mtDNA control region

Fig 1: Location of Santa Cruz River and tributaries in Southern Patagonia, Argentina, including the localities discussed (Primer Laberinto, Segundo Laberinto, Ea. Rincón Grande, and Piedra Buena).


FEATURE

haplotypesfollowthosegiveninNielsenetal.(1997a,1998).Amplificationswereconductedinatotalvolumeof50µLcontaining1×retype(ST1, Nielsen et al. 1994; details in Results),suggesting either that they descended froma monomorphic population, that the popula-tion became fixed for haplotype ST1 duringestablishmentandcolonization,orthatnotallpopulationhaplotypeswererepresentedinoursample.Wethusdevelopedanadhocmodeltoevaluatethelikelihoodofendingwithanall-ST1samplegiventhatthestockoforiginwasnonmonomorphic.

We consider three processes that, start-ing with a nonmonomorphic maternal stock,could lead toanall-ST1sample: thesamplingof females from the donor population thatproduced theeggs imported (foundereffect),themortality between eggs and reproductivefish contributing to establish the new stock(postfoundingdrift),andthechanceofmissingpopulation haplotypes during our samplingprocess(samplingeffect).

Each of these three processes can beviewed as sampling from a finite population,which ismost properlymodeledby a hyper-

geometricdistribution.Forthesamplesizesandprobabilitiesused inouranalysis, thebinomialdistribution approximates the hypergeometricwell. We therefore opted for computationalsimplicityandmodeledthefoundationofSantaCruzpopulationsasachainofthreebinomialprocesses.

The number of donor females, differentfemales that could have contributed to theSantaCruzRiverstock,F,iscalculatedas

1 F=F/fecwhereE is thenumberof eggsimported and “fec” are putative valuesfor average female fecundity. Assumingthatthematernalfemaleswererandomlydrawn from a particular population, wemodeledthenumberofST1eggseffec-tivelyextractedfromitandimportedintoArgentina,EST1,asabinomialprocess:

2EST1≈ fec ·Bin(F,φ)whereφ is thefrequency of the ST1 haplotype in theoriginalpopulation.Thepost-introductionmortality fromeggsto founding fish,W,i.e.fishthateffectivelycontributedtotheSantaCruzstock,issimplymodeledas

3 W= surv ·Ewhere “surv” areputativevalues of survival rate from eggs tofoundingfish.ThenumberofST1fishinthisfoundingstockis

4where EST1/E is the proportion of ST1eggs effectively imported as modeledineq.2.ThenumberofST1 fish in thesample taken from the present popula-tion(SST1)is

5 where n is the sample size andWST1/W is the proportion of ST1individuals among the founding fish.It is assumed that the frequencyofST1currently observed in the population iswellrepresentedbythatofthefoundingfish. In other words, we assumed thatthere was a single, primeval bottleneckassociated with initial establishment,after which the population expandedrapidly enough for the frequency ofST1 to remain reasonably unchanged.The probability of obtaining and all-ST1samplefromthepresentpopulationis

6 Finally, forgiven founding stock (φ is thefrequencyofST1inthematernalpopula-tion), average fecundity (i.e., or numberofdonorfemales(eq.1)),eggtofoundingfish survival (i.e., or numberof foundingwildfish(eq.3),andsamplesize(n),theprobability of obtaining an all-ST1 sam-

ple is given byintegratingeq.6overallpossibleoutcomes ofeqs.4and2:7 The numberof eggsimported,E,wasset to 75 000.We used anarray of values

for “fec” between 500 (low fecundity)and 4500 (high fecundity), considering2800 to be an average fecundity fortypical Sacramento River rainbow troutstocks (Carlander 1969). These valuescorrespondtoarangeof17–150donorfemales.Weusedvaluesof φ consistentwith the frequencyof haplotype ST1 indifferentcandidatedonorpopulationsofSantaCruzRiverfish(Table1).

Weusedvaluesof“surv”between0.00006and0.0029,correspondingtofoundingpopula-tion sizesof5 (very low survival) to215 fish(high survival). Finally, we used a sample sizenof20,thenumberofwildfishsequencedinthisstudy.

We did not consider in our model thechanceofmissinglow-frequencypopulationhaplotypes during our sampling process.Whilethisprobabilitymaynotbeunimpor-tant for sample sizes of less than 10 indi-vidualsandfrequenciesof0.85, itbecomeslow for sample sizesof 20 individuals.Wetherefore preferred to accept a small biasand avoid the need for the much moreintensive calculations demanded by includ-ingthreenestedconditionalprobabilitiesinourmodel.

ResultsSequencedatarevealedthatallSantaCruz

Riverfish,bothanadromousandresident,hadtheST1haplotypedescribedbyNielsenetal.(1994).Hatcheryfish,ontheotherhand,weregenetically different from wild fish. Only oneof the five fish examined had haplotype ST1,while the remaining four fish had haplotypesST3 and ST9 in similar proportions. Each ofthese haplotypes differed by only a singletransitional base change from haplotype ST1(G φ A) at positions 1109 (ST3) and 1147(ST9). All of these mtDNA haplotypes werepreviously reported by Nielsen et al. (1994,1997b, 1998) and Bagley and Gall (1998) inrainbowtroutpopulationsfromCaliforniaandbyMcCuskeretal.(2000)inpopulationsfromBritishColumbia.

Mitochondrial DNA haplotype ST1 isdominant in steel-head populations fromthe Sacramento and Eel rivers in northernCalifornia but among the putative parentalstockswasfoundtobemonomorphiconlyinthe McCloud River rainbow trout (Table 1)and intheRíoSantoDomingorainbowtroutpopulations from Baja California (Nielsen etal.1997b, 1998, 1999). We discard this laststockasacandidatesourceofPatagonianfishbecauseBajaCaliforniatroutdidnotcontributetofishcultureatthetimeoftheintroductions.

HaplotypeST3 is rare in steelheadpopula-tions fromnorthernCalifornia but is commonin coastal populations from the San FranciscoBayareaanddominant inresidentpopulationsfromtheupperSacramentoRiverandtheKernand Little Kern rivers (Nielsen et al. 1997b,1998; Bagley and Gall 1998). Haplotypes ST1and ST3 were found inequal frequencies insteelhead populations from central California(Table 1) (Nielsen 1996). Haplotype ST9 israre (<2 percent) in coastal populations fromCalifornia (J. Nielsen, US Geological Survey,Alaska Biological Science Center, 1011 EastTudorRoad,Anchorage,AK99503,USA,per-sonalcommunication),but it ismorecommonininlandsteelheadpopulationsfromtheSnakeRiverinIdaho(KuceraandArmstrong2001)andininlandpopulationsfromtheupperColumbiaRiverinCanada(McCuskeretal.2000).

Toexplorethehypothesisthatamonomor-phicsampleofSantaCruzwildfishcouldhaveoriginatedthroughhaplotypelossandsamplingbias, as opposed to a truly monomorphicorigin in the McCloud River, we applied ourprobabilisticmodeltotwoextremealternativescenarios: a central California type parentalstock,with aminimum40 percent frequencyoftheST1haplotype,andanorthernCaliforniatype stock, with a maximum of 83 percentfrequencyofST1(Figs.2aand2b,respectively).

As expected from first principles of abinomialsamplingprocess,theprobabilityofhaplotypefixationincreasesasthenumberofdonorfemalesandfoundingfishconsidered,indicating that it ishighlyunlikely thatSanta

"Sequence data revealed that all Santa Cruz

River fish, both anadromous and resident, had

the ST1 haplotype described by Nielsen et

al. (1994). Hatchery fish, on the other hand,

were genetically different from wild fish"


FEATURE


CruzRiverfishoriginatedfromsuchastock(Fig.2a).

When a northern California type parentalstock is considered, results are less clearcut,with probabilities ranging between 3 percentand45percentdependingonthevaluescho-senfordecreases(lowerleftinFigs.2aand2b).

When a central California type parentalstock is considered, the probability of an all-ST1 sample remains very low (<1 percent)for practically all values of donor femalesand founding fish average fecundity and initialsurvival(Fig.2b).Thisledustoscrutinizetheseparameters inmore detail. Individual rainbowtroutcanhavefecunditiesaslowas500andashighas13,000eggs(Carlander1969).

Weusedarangeof500–4500toaccom-modateprobablevaluesforindividualmothersofSantaCruzriverfish,butaveragefecunditiesreported for Californian wild populations arecloser to the lower half of this range. Forexample,Hallocketal.(1961)reportedameannumber of 2808 eggs for larger SacramentoRiverstrippedfemales.Perhapsmorerelevantto our case, Wales (1939) reported thatfemalerainbowtrouttrappedatGreensCreek,thetrappingsiteofthefirstegg-takingstationofrainbowtroutontheMcCloudRiver,weighed2lbonaverage,withameanfecunditybetween1000and2000.Averagefecunditieslowerthan2500 (at least 30 donor females) result in aprobabilityofsamplingonlyST1fishoflessthan10 percent (Fig. 2), unless the survival fromeggstofoundingfishwasverylow(<0.00033or<25foundingfish),inwhichcasethisprob-abilitybecomesgreater.

In summary, unless a small number ofparticularlylargefemales(<17)hadbeenusedtoproducetheeggsshippedtotheSantaCruzRiverand(or)averysmallproportionof theimported eggs survived to become foundingfish(<25individuals),theprobabilityofobtain-inganall-ST1sampleof20 individuals fromanorthernCalifornia typeparental stock is lessthan10percent(Fig.2).

DiscussionOur analyses allowed us to establish the

most likely origin of Santa Cruz River main-stem fish as well as to advance our generalknowledgeontherelativecontributionofdif-ferent parental stocks to rainbow trout inPatagonia. As previously suggested by micro-satelliteanalyses(Pascualetal.2001),mtDNAdata reinforce the idea that anadromous andnonanadromousSantaCruzfishdonotconsti-tuteindependentlineagesbuthaveacommonancestry.

Wild fish are clearly differentiated fromhatchery Danish stocks widely propagatedin the region after 1950, providing strongevidence for an origin of Santa Cruz popula-tionsinCalifornianrainbowtroutimportedtoArgentinaduringthefirstdecadeofthetwenti-ethcentury.Additionally,theseresultsindicate

that the intro-gression fromhatchery fishinto the wildpopulation hasnot been signifi-cant.

Although ithasbeenwidelyaccepted thatearly transplantsofrainbowtroutfromtheUnitedStates to loca-tionsaroundtheworld, includ-ing Argentina,came from theMcCloud River(Scott et al.1978; Busackand Gall 1980;Pascual et al.2002a), histori-calrecordsalonewere insuf-ficient to verifythis, conferringsome credenceto the idea thatother locationsin northern California and southern Oregoncould have potentially contributed fish totheseearlytransplants(Behnke2002).ThefactthatSantaCruzRiverwild fishanalyzedweremonomorphic for haplotype ST1, togetherwith the results fromourprobabilisticmodel,provides additional support to the view thatthesourceofthesepopulationswasindeedtheMcCloudRiver.

It must be noted, however, that ourapproach does not consider some complexscenarios that couldmuddle the identificationofparental stocks.First,SantaCruz fishcouldhavebeenderivedfromamixtureoffishfromthe McCloud and other northern Californialocations, leading to a larger probability ofhaplotypefixationthanpurportedbyoursce-narios.Second,thefoundingpopulationcouldhave experienced multiple bottleneck eventsinsteadofthesingleeventattheonsetoftheintroduction that we modeled, increasing aswelltheprobabilityofhaplotypefixation.Sincetherearenoconceivableboundsontheexer-cise of conjecturing combinations of parentalstocks or bottleneck sequences, we did notattemptadditionalanalyses,leavingitsimplyasaprecautionarynote.

The clear differences found between wildandhatcherySantaCruzfishpointatmtDNAanalysis as a powerful tool to elucidate theancestral geneticmakeupof rainbow trout inPatagoniaataregionalscaleandtodeterminetherelativecontributionofstocksusedbeforeand after 1950. The occurrence of ST3 in

hatchery stocks may suggest a Californianorigin, most likely a genetic heritage derivedfrom the Sacramento River rainbow trout,whilehaplotypeST9,whichisrareinCalifornianwild stocks, hints at a complex ancestry ofstocks imported from Europe, with prob-ablecontributionsofnon-Californian fish(e.g.,BritishColumbia,whereST9ismorefrequent).However,weanalyzedonlyahandfulofhatch-eryfishandlargersamplesfromdifferenthatch-erystockswillberequiredtofullycharacterizethegeneticmakeupofthisstock.

Atpresent,thesedatamakenosuggestionastowhatextentanadromyandresidency intheSantaCruzRiveraremerelyrecreatingthepreexistent variation or have been modifiedin response to thespecific selectivepressuresof the novel environment. Nevertheless, theidentificationofthegeneticrootsofSantaCruzfishprovides relevantbackground informationtoguidefutureresearchabouttheoriginoflifehistoryvariationinthisriver.

Regardless of the specific processesunderlyinglifehistoryvariation,ourresultsindicatethattheSantaCruzRivermaywellconstitute a unique, secluded reservoir ofthose ancestral McCloud fish widely dis-tributedaround theworldduring the latenineteenth and early twentieth century,whichintheirnativerangehavebeensub-stantially affected by habitat modificationand introgression from hatchery stocks(Busby et al. 1996; Nielsen et al. 1999;McEwan2001). ■

table 1: Haplotype distribution in rainbow trout populations throughout California

Stock life history ecotype HaplotypeHaplotype

frequency (%)

MCCloud redband trout

resident (anadromous

ancestry St1 100

northern California

eel and Sacramento rivers Coastal Steelhead St1 83

St3 9

St5 4

St8 4

Central California coast

russian river Steelhead St3 41

St1 40

St5 15

St8 4

Upper Sacramento river Steelhead St3 62

St1 21

St2 14

St5 3

resident StH3 60

Note: Only those populations regarded as the putative parental sources for Santa Cruz River rainbow trout are included. Frequency data taken from Neilson (1996) and Neilson et al. (1994).


FEATURE


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TROUTEXPERT TOPIC

Welcome to Expert Topic, a new feature for International Aquafeed. Each issue will take an in-depth look at a particular species and how its feed is managed. To kick off the first Expert

Topic, trout takes centre stage. Over the next pages you'll find, amongst other things, a feature on the trout value chain in Peru, a glimpse behind the scenes at Bibury Trout Farm in

the UK and an overview trout culture and feed in Turkey. First of all, industry experts from around the world give the inside track feed and management in their country. Enjoy.

Peru1

by The Peruvian Aquaculture Company, Peru

The highest industrial aquaculture center in the world islocated in Peru's central Huancavelica department, 4,600meters above sea level. Peruvian Aquaculture Company(PACSAC) was founded in 2007 for the development of

industrialaquaculture,anactivitythatisemergingworldwideasthemainproteinsourceforthenearfuture.

Tomeet this goal, PACSAC integrates social andenvironment carewiththeuseofmoderntechnologiesthatmakepossibletoprovidequalityproductstointernationalmarkets.Atthisstage,PACSACisraisingrainbowtrout.AswellasbeignthehigesttroutfarminPeru,thecompany'sfacilitiesarealsothelargestindustrialaquaculturesiteinthecountry.

According to an article published by FIS.com, the companyuses the same technologies applied in fish farming by the majorproducersofsalmonandtrout,likeNorway,ChileandtheUnitedKingdom.

However,thistechnologyhasbeenadaptedtoitsuniqueenviron-mentandanindividualmodelhasbeendevelopedforthehighAndes.Thenaturalenvironmentandthepurityofthewaterinthismountainrangeisthegreatestassetofthecompany,whichallowsmakingaqua-cultureasustainableactivity.

Allproceduresusedbythecompanyareenvironmentallyfriendly,andasaresult,thePeruvianAquacultureCompanyimplementsnormsISO14001:2004.PACSACalsodevelopsregularenvironmentalwatermonitoring toassesquality and sediment.The fishare fedexclusivelywith extruded fishmeal specially formulated for trout.After reachingtherequiredmarketsize the troutareharvestedand transported totheprocessingplant.

Turkey2

by Prof Dr Belgin Hossu, Faculty of Fisheries, Ege University, Turkey

According to the latest parametres from theTurkishStatistics Office, rainbow trout production is around85.244 tonnes inTurkey and is increasing each day.Farmsaremostlyonlandanddamedlakeswithasmall

amountinseacages.

Rainbow trout production in Turkey can be divided in to twoparts.The reason for this is thecontinously changing costof feeddueto fishmealand fishoilprices.Unstablepricesof fishmealandfishoilhas forced the farms toproduce their feed themselves.Asa result, the feed sector has to be seen as commercial feedmillsandself-feedproducers.Feedproductionforrainbowtroutisdone

totally in Turkey. Foreign feed mills have built fish feed plants inTurkeybecauseofincreasingdemandbyfarms.Troutfarmschoosefeedmillsaccordingtotheirpricesandpaymentease.

Rainbowtrouthavedifferencesbetweenthembecauseofgeographicconditions of the country. Depending on these changing conditions,FCRisbetween0.84-0.97.Themainproteinsourceoffeedisfishmeal.Fishmeal sources are foreign countries and sardine and anchovy fromBlackSeaaccordingtothefishingseasons.Proteinrateoffeedisaround44 percent at growing ages. In addition to fishmeal, vegetable proteinsourceshavebeenusedtodecreasethecostofthefeed.Thesearesoy-beanmeal,cornmealandwheatmeals.Addingofcaroteneidsgenerallyhappensatsalmonbreedingormaturedfishoftrout.

Thefeedmanufacturingsystemisextruder.Todecreasewaste,floatingfeedisprefered.

Generally,thecolourofthemeat isn’t importantbecausetroutisconsumedbothfreshandfrozen.Ontheotherhand,yellowcol-ouredmeat isn'tpreferablebecauseit indictaeshighlevelsofcornandsoybeanmeal.

Perspectives on trout farming and aspects relating to fish feed


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Poland3

by Anna Pyc, Aller Aqua, Poland

Trout farming in Poland is situated mainly in the northernpartofthecountrywithitsmainspecies–rainbowtrout.ItisrelativelyyoungpartofthePolishaquaculturereaching14 thousand tons of annual production in 2010 with a

value of approximately €40m.The farms are modern, many usingpartiallyrecirculatedsystemsandtechnologyreducingenvironmentalimpact. Over 200 trout farms employ approximately 1000 people.Thelocationoffarmsinruralareasmakesthemimportantforlocalemploymentlevels.

TroutfarmsinPolandusehighqualityfeedspurchasedfromleadingfeedproducers inEurope.41.5percentof themarketsharebelongsto Aller Aqua (2010), in the second place is Biomar (34.6 percent)and third isSkretting (12.3percent).AllerAqua is theonly fish feedcompanywithaproductionplantinPoland,whichmakesthecompanycompetitiveregardingdeliveryconditions.

TroutfarmsinPolandareinmostcaseswellmanagedandtherefore

the approximate FCR reaches valuesof starter feeds at0.72 and, infingerlingsproduction0.88.Inrecentyearstherehasalsobeeninvest-mentinautomaticfeedingsystemstoimprovefeedingeffectiveness.

Very strict regulations inPolish law regarding theenvironmental impactofsalmonidsproductionalsorequirethatfeedsthatmeetcertainstandards.Accordingtoindividualfarmwaterconditionsthefeedischoseninrespectofitscaloricvalueandotherproperties.Manyofthefarmshavetheirownhatcheries,wherestarterfeedsareused.Thesefeedsareespeciallyimportantforhavinghighsurvivalrateandfishingoodconditionasabasisforfastgrowth.

Fishfeedisthe largestcostcomponentoftroutfarms,amountingon average to about34percent, however it used to reachover40percentinpreviousyears.Costoflabour,liverawmaterialandotheroperationalcostsamountto19percent,16percentand14percentrespectively.Othercomponentscostsarerelativelysmall.

Polish trout production faces new challenges in terms of marketdemands as well as increasing pressure on reducing environmentalimpact.ThePolishTroutBreedersAssociationfacesthesechallengesandamongotheractivities introduceda fouryearpromotional cam-paignof trout inPoland.Thecampaign focusesmainlyonpromotingtroutasasourceofhealthynutrition,aswellasspreadingknowledgeaboutthespecies.

Denmark4

by Brian Thomsen, Director Danish Aquaculture Organisation

Danish trout farmers almost exclusively usefish feed manufactured in Denmark. Themains reasons are that they view it asbeingsuperiorandthat it is incompliance

withnational legislation.Danishnational legislationalsoregulatesdigestibilitybutmosttypesoffeedexceedsthelegalrequirements.

Keydecisionparameterswhenchoosingafeedinclude:lowFQR,highgrowthrates,nationalregulation,environ-mentalimpact–ingeneral'price/performance'.

ThenationalaverageFQRisapproximately0.94,thusweuseonaverageapproximately940gof feedtomake1kgoftrout.Theproteincontentisgraduallydecliningbutitistypicallyaround42percent.Themainproteinsourceisfishmeal.

ThelegislationforfreshwaterfarmingwaschangedthisFebruary.Oneofthekeychangesisthatfarmsmaynowchoosetoberegulatedonoutput(dischargequotas)andnotoninput(feedquotas).Thiswillprobablyputsevenmoreemphasisonthe'price/performance'ratio.

Thefishfarmersarewellawareofthefact 'thatwearewhatweeat'.Thereforequalityisofthehighestimportance.Wemainly farmwhite fishbutcaratenoidsareused in fishfeedsthatareusedtomakepinktrout.

Thecostoffeedisalwaysakeyfactorbutthecostisjudgedagainstperformance.Thekeyquestionisthereforenot the price per kg per se but the 'price/performance'ratio.

We produce approximately 10,000 tons of trout inmarinefarmingand25,000tonsinfreshwaterfarming.Thegrossoutput(2010)wasapproximately φ45mformarinefarming and φ80m for freshwater farming. The industryemploysapproximately1000people(includingproductionandfeedandprocessing).


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United Kingdom5

by David Bassett, British Trout Association

UK trout farming differsto some other countriesin that the UK employsa number of different

productionmethods.Trout are farmedin freshwater open net pens, earthponds and concrete raceways and arealsofarmedinopennetpensinmarinewateroffthewestcoastofScotland.UKtroutfarmersalsoemployrecirculationtechnology–mostcommonlyaspartialrecirculationinhatcheryfacilitiesratherthan the entirely closed recirculationsitesasmaybeseenelsewhere.

The UK primarily produces rainbow trout, although brown troutarefarmedtoo.Bothspeciesmaybefarmedtoorganicstandards,andconsequently use organic feeds, although this market remains small,producingonly in thehundredsof tonnes.Bothbrownand rainbowtrout are farmed for the restocking market (i.e. sale of live fish forstockingtofisheries)althoughthemajorityoffishthatarefarmedareforthetablemarket.

Production tonnages vary annually, but current official statisticssuggestthatcirca11,000tonnesoftabletroutarefarmedeachyear,withafurthercirca3,500tonnesforrestocking.Largetroutproduction,thosefishfarmedinmarinewater,isincreasing,with2011productionbeingestimatedat2,000tonnes,upfromcirca1,600tonnesin2010.

Fish feed accounts for approximately 50 percent of productioncosts,andso isofparamount importancetoUKproducers.Throughboth European Union and UK domestic legislation, fish feeds, theircompositionandtheiruse,are tightly regulated.Thevastmajorityoftroutfarmssourcefeedfromthemajorcommercialsuppliers.Skrettinghasthelargestmarketshare,althoughothersuppliersincludeEWOS,Biomar,LeGouessantandAllerAqua.However,whilstcostsarehigh,troutfarmersseekvalueformoneyandareturnintermsofperform-anceandassuchwouldprefertopayforatopqualityfeedinthatthisisabetter investmentinthelongtermresultinginabetteryieldandhealthierfish.

Feedcompositionsvarybetweenmanufacturesandspecificformu-lations/diets.Themajorsourceofproteincontinuestobefishmeal.Increasingly,producers seek tobeable tovary the inclusion rates indiets of such ingredients as fish and vegetable oils. With the globalcommodity index affecting the price of key ingredients, trout farm-

ers support feedmanufactures in theirattempts tooperateusing

aswideabasketofingredientsaspossible,tooptimisevariationsinthecommoditymarket.

With the exception of fish farmed to organic standards, the UKmarketprefersfishthatis“pink”fleshed.Assuch,astaxanthinoncan-thaxanthinareincludedintheformulationofdiets.

MostUKfeedsforthetablemarketavoidusinglandanimalprotein.Althoughpermitted todosoby law, retailbuyers seemreluctant topurchase fish fed using such diets. However, research undertakenby industry andother thirdparties suggests that there is little to nooppositiontotheinclusionofsuchproteinsourcesonthepartoftheconsumer /generalpublic,whoremaingenerallyunconcernedaboutthedietsfedtofarmedfish.

Incommonwithothersectors,'sustainability'isatermthatisusedincreasinglyoftenwithregard to fish farmingand fish feeds.Whilstadefinitionofsustainabilityisalwayshardtoachieve,itwouldbefairtosuggest thatmuch greater emphasis is nowbeing placed upon suchissuesasFishInFishOut(FIFO).AsatradeassociationrepresentingtheUKfarmingindustry,theBritishTroutAssociationisincreasinglyliaisingwithfeedcompaniesandNGOorganisationsoverissuesrelatingtotheinclusionpercentagesof fishmealand fishoil indiets,and theoriginof the fishmeal and fish oil that is used. It is predicted that greateremphasiswill be placed upon such issues in the future,with certaincertification schemes placing greater emphasis on the sustainabilityimprintofallaspectsofproduction.Howmuchimportanceconsumersattachtothishasyettobedemonstrated.

UK fish farming is strictly regulated in relation to discharges intotheaquaticenvironment.Assuch,farmerspaycloseattentiontofeedconversions ratios and associated nutrient discharge and suspendedsolids.WhilstfeedconversionratiosvaryacrosstheUK,giventhewiderangeinproductionsystems,watertemperaturesandothervariables,feedconversionandfeedingprotocolshavecontinuedto improve insophistication and understanding with reported ratios varying fromunder1:1(typically0.95)to1.2:1.

UKtroutfarmersenjoyacloseandmutuallybeneficialworkingrela-tionshipwithcommercialfishfeedmanufacturersandasanindustrywecontinuetoworktogethertobeattheforefrontoftroutproduction.


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David Bassett

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Buxton Trout and Salmon Farm, Australia

by Mitch MacRae, Secretary of the Australian Trout & Salmon

Farmers Association

At BuxtonTrout & Salmon Farmwe have a general feed conver-sion rate of 1.1 – 1.2. Proteincontentofthefeedweuseis45

percentand thepercentageof fishmeal isnotknown.Thereareonly2 feedsuppliersin Australia, we chose Skretting as theirfeed performs better (better FCR) withoutcompromising environmental targets ondischarge and is more economical becauseoffreightcosts.

The tasteof the trout isnotaffectedbythe feed, however the colour is dependingonhowmuch colour is added to the feed.CostsoffeedandFCRareimportantfactorsasmarginsare tight, and fish feed isoneofour biggest costs. On average to produce1kgoftroutwewillneed1.1–1.2kgoffeed.

In Australia approximately 1500-2000tonnes of trout are produced each year,withapproximately85percentofAustralia’strout being grown in the Murrindindi regioninVictoria.Australia’stroutproductionhasanapproximatevalueof10-15milliondollarsperyearandemploysapproximately200people.


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"The taste of the trout is not

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colour is depending on how much

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Above & Below Mitch MacRae on the grounds of Buxton Trout Farm

Farm FocusFarm

Focus

Trout culture

and feed in

Turkeyby Dr Atilla Ozdemir, Central Fisheries Research Institute, Turkey

AlthoughAquaculturehasarelativelyshorthistoryinTurkey,itbeganwithrainbow trout (Onchorhynchusmykiss)andcommoncarp(Cyprinus

carpio)inthelate1960sanddevelopedfurtherwith gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) andEuropean seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax)culture in the mid-1980s. Production reached167,000tonnesayearin2010ofrainbowtrout,seabass, seabream, mussel, common carp andotherspecies,producedonnearly2100farms.

The rainbow trout has been culturedsincetheearly1970sandTurkeyhasbecomeone of the top trout producing countries inEurope with an annual production of over85,000 tonnes, or almost 50 percent of thecountry's total aquacultureproduction.Withthe surprising appropriate ecological supplyfor trout culture in the marine environmentthanks to low salinity the Black Sea has anenormous potential. Today there are morethan 20 sea-based farms which are situatedin the Black Sea. This tends to increase innumberoffishfarmsandproduction.

Apart from marine and some freshwatercagefarmsinlakesandreservoirs,themajor-ityof the trout farmsemploysmallconcreteraceways mainly using stream waters. In thepasttenyears,troutcagecultureindamshasreachedaveryimportantlevelofproduction.Over 50 percent of the farms have theirown hatcheries with eggs being producedduringthenaturalbreedingseason(betweenDecemberandFebruary).Ongrowinginrace-ways lasts between 12 and 24 months. Themajorityoffisharesoldlocallyasportionsize

whitetrout.IntheBlackSea,fisharerearedincagesupto0.5–1.5kgandsoldas'BlackSeasalmon'.

Steadily increasing productionhas accompanied a large volume

of fish feed needs. Trout feeds areproduced in state-of-the-art facilities

using leading-edge quality assurancetechniques. There are currently 10 feed

millswith the total capacityofover300,000tonnesperyear.Almostallfeedmillsproducetrout, sea bass and sea bream feeds usingextrudingtechnologymadeafter2000.Sincetheregulatorystandardsarehigh,allfishmillstrack rawmaterialsacquisition,handlingandstorage, production processes and packaginganddelivery.

Themainproteinsourceisalwaysdeclaredas fishmeal.But reliabledataon this ishardto obtain. Although Turkey has differentzonesallaroundcountryhavingvariouswatercharacteristicfeatures,thefeedsareproducedregardless ecological differences as imple-mentedinsomecountriesbychosendifferent

protein/lipid/energyratios.There is high variation in FCRdepending

on feed management in farms and locationof farms. The lowest rate obtained in cagesinBlackseaas0,9andhighestas1,2ininlandfarms.Theeffectoftypeoffeedontasteandcolourofthefishishasnotbeenconsideredverymuchsofar.

Theinitialon-farmexperienceandfollow-ingdemands/complaintsfromprocessingunitsmay lead producers to select the best avail-able feed. No carotenoids are incorporatedinto most trout diets produced in Turkeybut in some cases producers in Black Seademandedpigmentedfeeds.

Thecostandqualityarealmostequalfac-torsinchoosingfeed.Asproductionincreases,

themarketcompetitionisgettingmorestress-ful for producers. As a consequence ofcompetitionbetweenfarmers,feedproducersarealwaysintroducedthebestavailablefeedsin order to reach desired size as quickly aspossible.Sothegrowthrateisalmostprimaryfactor feed driven. The intrabrand competi-tionoccursalsoamongfeedproducers.

Theenvironmentalpressuresand impactscausedby the typicalproductionof rainbowtroutinTurkeyhavebeentakenintoconsid-eration particularly in the last decade. Afterthe adoption of new regulations on aquac-ulture in Environment Law, all aquaculturefacilities are under amonitoringprogramme.Through implementation of a control pro-grammethefarmersaredirectlyor indirectlyforcedtousebetterqualityfeedsparticularlyin low phosporus content. Since the overallproductionisincreasingsteadily,thispressureisexpectedtoincreaseinnearfuture.

6table 1: High quality feeds from hatching to harvest are produced in different size range

Starter feeds 300-1500micron

Pregrowers 2 – 3mm

Grower feeds 4 – 10mm

Broodstock 10 – 12mm

table 2: the protein/lipid content of feeds may vary among producers but can be summarized in following table

Size Crude protein (%)

Crude lipid (%)

300-1500 micron 50-56 12-18

2 – 3 mm 45-50 18-20

4 – 10 mm 43-45 18-23

10 – 12 mm 47-50 14-20


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Bibury Trout Farm is one of Britain’s oldest, andcertainlymostattractive,troutfarms.Foundedin1902bythefamousnaturalistArthurSevern,thefarmwassetuptostockthelocalriversandstreamswiththe

nativebrowntrout.Today,itcovers15acresinoneofthemostbeautifulvalleysintheCotswolds,theColnValley.TheFarmhasdiversifiedovertheyears,andtheleisuresideofthebusinessnowplaysaveryimportantpart.

Situated inthe heart ofthebeautifulvil-lage of Bibury,the farm ben-efits from thelarge numberof tourists whovisit the region.Thecrystalclearwaters of theBibury Springprovide theessential purewater requiredto run thehatchery whichspawns up tosixmilliontroutovaeveryyear.

Up to athirdoftheovaaresoldtoout-lets throughoutBritain andoccasionallyabroad. Theremainder aregrown on andsold to supplyangling watersthroughout the

country, approxi-mately 80 tons. Asmall proportion (20tons) are sold toother trout farms tosupplythetablemar-ket and are sold tolocalhotels,wholesal-ersandtothepublicthrough both thefarm shop and farm-ers markets as freshgutted trout, filletsor smoked trout, allsmoked and pack-agedonthepremises.

On the farm visi-tors can learn aboutthe rainbow andbrown trout whilethey wander in thebeautiful surround-ings.There isachance toseegrading inprogresswhen the fishareselectedforsizeandqualitybeforebeingtransportedtonewhomesinoxygenatedwaterinspeciallymadefibreglasstanks.

Informationboardsgiveainsighttowhatgoesoninthehatch-eryandfryaryareasandstaffareonhandtoansweranyquestions.Feedingisdonedailybystaffandthewatercomestolifeasthefishvieforthelastmorsel.

Forthemoreadventurous,orthebuddingfisherman,Bibury'sCatch Your Own Fishery is an ideal opportunity to catch yoursupperorgethookedonanewhobby.OpenatweekendsduringMarch-October,andduringthelocalschoolholidays,weprovidealltheequipmentandhelpifrequired.

In addition to the farm, our recently refurbished fish shopwhichnowhousesawonderfulrangeofwines,deliproducts,andpreservesaswellasqualitybreads,eggs,andmilk.

TheTroutFarmissituatedinthecentreofthevillageofBibury,nexttoArlingtonMill.BiburyisbetweenCirencesterandBurfordintheUnitedKingdomWebsite: www.biburytroutfarm.co.uk

Behind the scenes at Bibury Trout FarmA working trout farm that is attracting new business from tourism

by Kate Marriott, General Manager, Bibury Trout Farm, United Kingdom


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"The Farm has diversified

over the years, and

the leisure side of the

business now plays a

very important part"

Farm FocusFarm

Focus


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Emerging disease in Mexican trout by Celene Salgado Miranda, Mexico State University, Mexico

Infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) is adisease caused by a birnavirus affectingseveral wild and commercial aquaticorganisms. Salmonid species are the

most affected, having an importantimpact in the salmon and troutcultureduetoahighratemortalityoffryandfingerling.IPNdiseaseislistedinthefishdiseasesoftheInternationalHealthCode,WorldOrganizationforAnimalHealth (OIE). For this reason, anyIPNoutbreakhastobereported.TheepizootiologicalknowledgeoftheIPNisrelevantforestab-lishing preventive and controlstrategies against both disease andcausativeagent.

DistributionThe IPN and the causative agent (IPNV)

has been reported in several countries:Australia, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Scotland,Spain, Finland, France, England, Italy, Japan,NorwayandSwitzerland,amongothers.Basedonthesereports,IPNisregardedasaworld-widedistributeddisease.InMexico,IPNVwasidentifiedin2001fromUS-importedrainbowtroutfry.Inarecentstudy,theIPNVwasiso-latedfromthreerainbowtroutbreedingfarmslocatedatMexicoState,Mexico, regardedasthemainproducerofthisfishspecies.

EtiologyThecausativeagentofIPNisavirusbelong-

ingtotheBirnaviridaefamily.Othermembersof this family include infectiousbursaldisease

(IBD) of chickens and X virus of Drosophilamelanogaster. This birnavirus is single-shelledicosahedronswithcharacteristicisometrichex-agonalprofi les andhas adiameterof about60nm.The genome consists of two segmentofdouble-strandedRNA.GenomesegmentAencodingtwostructuralproteins(VP2yVP3)andanonstructuralprotease,whilesegmentBencodingforaRNApolymerase.VP2proteininduces the production of specific-type neu-tralizing monoclonal antibodies. It is thoughtthatVP2containsall theepitopesrecognizedbytheseantibodies.

The serological classification scheme ofHill and Way recognizes nine different IPNVserovars into the serogroup A. Seven oftheseserotypeshavebeen identified in IPNVrainbow trout isolates. Serogroup B includesa single serotype represented by the TV-1archetype isolated from brown trout (Salmotrutta) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio).Each serotype includes a number of strainsthat differ in virulence. This variationcomplicates the disease which islittleunderstood.

EpizootiologyNaturalandexperimentalhostsSalmonids

are themost susceptible speciesundernatu-ral conditions. The brook trout (Salvelinusfontinalis) is the most susceptible one tolethal effects of IPNV, followed by rainbowtrout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Atlanticsalmon(Salmosalar).Also,IPNVhasbeeniso-latedfromarticchar(Salvelinusalpinus),browntrout(Salmotrutta)andlaketrout(Salvelinusnamaycush).

The IPNV has been isolated from impor-tant non-salmonid species in marine aqua-culture: turbot (Scophthalmus maximus),sole (Solea senegalensis) and Atlantic hali-but (Hippoglossus hippoglossus).Also hasbeen isolated from some fishs as pike (Esoxlucius), goldfish (Carasius auratus), discus fish(Symphysodon discus) and bream (Abramisbrama),amongothers. IPNVwasexperimen-

tally inoculated and re-isolated from zebrafish eggs (Brachydanio rerio).Some IPNVcases have been reported in American andEuropean eels (Anguilla anguilla). However,theinfectioninJapaneseeel(Anguillajaponica)hasagreatereconomicimpact.

In summary, the IPNVhasbeen identifiedinanumberofteleostsfamilyfish:Anguillidae,Atherinidae, Carangidae, Channidae,Cichlidae, Clupeidae, Cobitidae, Cyprinidae,Gadidae, Esocidae, Percichthyidae, Percidae,Pleuronectidae, Poeciliidae, Salmonidae, andSciaenidae.

Transmission, carriers and vectorsInfectedfishcantransmitthevirusbyboth

horizontalandvertical transmis-sion.Thesefishshedthevirus by urine andfaeces, con-trib-

uting tothe horizontal trans-

mission. In breeding fish, ithas been demonstrated that the IPNV is

vertically transmitted by viral adsorption tothe surface of spermatozoids, or it can bepresent in the follicular fluid, but not in thenonfertilizedeggs.

Bebaketal.experimentallydeterminedtheIPNVexcretionpatterns inrainbowtrout fry.The time between challenge and excreting,andchallengeandsignsonsetwereevaluated.

The authors also estimated the rate ofsusceptible-excreting fish into a populationfrominoculatedIPNVfry.ItwasdemonstratedthatIPNV-infectedrainbowtroutfryshedthevirustwodayspost-inoculation,andtheshed-dingisincreased,andapproximatelydecreasedafter 12days post-inoculation.More than 75percentof the rainbowtroutpopulationwasinfectedinlessthanaweekfromthebeginningoftheviralshedding.

Inrotifers(Brachionusplicatilis)ithasbeenobserved birnavirus lesions associated withanIPNV-likevirus. It is likelythatinvertebrateanimals used as living-food for seabreamand

7


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turbot larvae, could be involved in the viraltransmission.

Similarly, it has been demonstrated thatthefreshwatercrayfish

(Astacusastacus)retainsthevirusintissuesandhemolymph,constantlysheddingthevirusto thewater.Halder andAhne suggest thattheseorganismsareinfectedbytheconsump-tionofIPNV-infectedtrouts.

Thefollowingshellfishspeciesareregard-edasreservoirsoftheIPNV:mussels(Mytilusgalloprovincialis), oysters (Crassostrea gigas),periwinkles(Littorinalittorea),andwildfishassandeels(Ammodytessp),sprat(Sprattussprattus)andblue

whiting (Micromesistiuspoutasou), among others. IPNV

has been also isolated from moistfish pellets and marine sediments.Wild piscivorous birds are regardedasvectorsoftheIPNV,whichcanbeisolatedfromfaecessamples.

SignsTheIPNisatypicaldiseaseinearlyages

ofsalmonids,causingupto100percentofmortalit y in fi ngerlings and fi rst-feedingfry.Anexperimentalstudyreportedameancumulative mortality ranging from 84 per-cent to 92 percent in challenged Atlanticsalmonfry.Thefishmortalitystartedsevendays post-challenge and peaked at 10-12days.

Generallyaffectedfishshowedanorexiaandrotateabouttheirlongaxisinawhirlingmotion with lapses of ataxia. In these fishdarkeningoccurs (hyperpigmentation).Mildto moderate exophthalmia and abdominaldistentionarecommon.Also,gillsare typi-cally pale and hemorrhages are sometimespresentinventralareas,includingtheventralfins. Many emaciated fish trail long, thin,whitish,cast-likeexcretionsfromthevent.

Macroscopic and microscopic findings

According to necropsy findings, spleen,heart,liverandkidneysoffryareabnormallypaleandthedigestivetractisalmostalways

devoid of food. Petechiae are observedin some viscera. Sometimes, food residueremains in the gut, the quantity is small andconfined to the far distal or rectal portion.Veryoftenthebodycavitymaycontainasciticfluid.Thestomachandanteriorintestinecon-tainsacleartomilkycohesivemucus,amongotherfindings.

Main lesions found atthe histopathology study

include: focalcoagulat-ive necrosis in pan-

creas, kidney andintestine. Thepancreatic tissue

showed

degenerative changes, including acinar cellareas,andzymogengranulesfreeing.Nuclearpyknosis of different sizes are observed. Inmanycases, inflamatorycell infiltration isnotevident.Infishthatsufferedthediseaseuptotwoyearsbefore thehistology study,hyper-trophy of Langerhans’ islets with abundantfibrosiswerefound.

In cases of pancreatic lesions, also acuteenteritisfeaturedbynecrosisandsloughingoftheepitheliumareobserved. Inthe intestinallumen,catarrhalwhitishexudateisassociatedwith the disease. Inclusion bodies are notobserved in affected cells. In many cases,the renal tissue has small focal degenerativechanges. In fish that were infected duringearlyages,abundantroundingupofepithelialcellswithkaryorhecticnucleiwasfound.Thisfindingsuggest that theycanbeviral replica-tion sites in carrier fish; however, it has notbeenconfimed.


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Aller Aqua A/SAllervej 130, AllerDK-6070 [email protected]. +45 7022 1910Fax +45 3841 2059

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DiagnosisTheprocedure for IPNdiagnosis, recom-

mendedbytheOIE,isbasedontheisolationofIPNVinsusceptiblecelllines(Figure1),andfurtheridentificationbyserologicaltechniquesbyimmunofluorescenttest,neutralizationtestandELISA.

Diagnosis of clinical outbreaks is basedon histology and immunological ev idenceof the IPNV in infected tissues. These casesare confirmed by the IPNV isolation andimmunologicalidentificationofthevirus.Dueto insufficient knowledge of the serologicalresponsesoffishtoIPNVinfection,thedetec-tionoffishantibodiesto IPNVhasnotbeenacceptedbytheOIE(2003)asroutinetests.

Detectionof IPNV in cell lines is consist-ent and simple, particularly in cell lines fromhomologousspecies.Itisdueto:1)thevirusispresentinhighleveltitersinthetissues;2)viralisolationcouldbepositivefromnon-dis-

easedfish3)viral isolationcouldbepositivefromanyviralphase;4) twoto threeweeksare required for isolation and identificationof the agent,which is not a critical issue forpresentationof a epizooticoutbreak, and5)highsensitivityandeasyobservablecytopathiceffect. Cell lines used for the IPNV isola-tion include: RTG-2 (rainbow trout gonad),CHSE-214 (chinook salmon embryo) andBF-2(bluegillfry).

Currently, some methods have beendeveloped for detecting IPNV by reversetranscriptase-polymerase chain reaction(RT-PCR) technique. However, sensitivity ofthistechniquehasnotbeengreaterthanthecell culture. Hence, viral isolation and sero-logicalconfirmationofthevirusareregardedas the choice procedures for the IPNVidentification.

Prevention and controlCurrentpreventivemethodsarebasedon

the onset of control and hygiene practicesduringrearingofsalmonids,avoidingintroduc-tion or importation of fertilized eggs or fishfrom IPNV-infected breeding trouts. Also,the use of fish-free freshwater (for exam-ple, spring water), particularly IPNV-carrier

fish, reduces the risk of infection. However,in Mexican trout farms, this condition isnot always possible. As mentioned above,Salgado-Miranda carried out the IPNV isola-tionfromthreerainbowtroutbreedingfarmslocatedatMexicoState.

Obtained results indicated a possiblehorizontaltransmissionthroughoutthewatersupply from a farm where a previous IPNoutbreak in frywasrecorded. Inthesecases,treatment of supplied water could decreasetheriskofan IPNoutbreakandother infec-tious agents. Liltved et al. experimentallyexposed live cultures of Aeromonas salmo-nicida subsp. salmonicida, Vibrio anguillarum,V. salmonicida, Yersinia ruckeri and IPNV toozoneorultraviolet(UV)irradiationatnine°-12°C. The four bacteria tested were inacti-vatedby99.99percent(fourlogreductionsinviable count) within 180 seconds at residualozoneconcentrationsof0.15-0.20mg/L.

The IPNV was inactivated within 60 sec-ondsatresidualozoneconcentrationsof0.10a0.20mg/L.

Similarly, the four bacteria tested wereinactivated by 99.9 percent (five log reduc-tions in viable count) at a UV dose of 2.7mWs/cm2at roomtemperature. IPNVwasmuch more resistant to UV irradiation thanthebacteria.AnaverageUVdoseof122mWs/cm2wasrequiredfor99.9percent(threelog)reductioninvirustiter.However,ithastobeconsideredthatozone lowresidual levels(0.010a0.20mg/L)havealsocausedmortali-tiesintroutrecirculatingsystems.

Aconcentrationof40ppmavailablechlo-rinewasrequiredtoexperimentallyinactivate10 TCID50 of IPN V/ml in 30 minutes.Similarly,aconcentrationof35ppmofactiveiodinewas required to completely inactivate10 TCID50 of IPNV/ml in the same time.Other studies, where several disinfectantswere tested, 25ppm of iodine was requiredtoinactivateIPNV,infectioushaematopoyeticnecrosisvirus(IHNV)andviralhaemorrhagicsepticemia(VHS).

It is importanttohighlightthat IHNVandVHS are exotic infectious agents in Mexico.ForcontrollingIPNinbreedingfarms,infectedfishand itsoffspring(eggs,fingerlingand fry)have to be sacrificed. IPNV transmission byfertilized eggs can occur in spite of iodinetreatment. Propagation of IPNV-free stocksmonitored by viral isolation during severalyears,hasbeenagoodstrategyforthecontrolofIPNinbreedingfarms.

InareaswhereIPNisenzootic,itisrecom-mended,duringanoutbreak,todecreasethedensity of the affected population, reducingthe impact on the total mortality. A studyshowedthatinteractionbetweenfishdensityand number of infected fi sh, affected significantly the mortality parameter. However,therearesomedisagreementsaboutit.

Up to date, highly effective IPNV-

inactivated vaccines do not exist. Treatmentwith formalin or ß-propiolactone for use invaccines, completely inactivated IPNV, butcaused a slight reduction in antigenicity upto50percent .Anactive vaccine containingan IPNVnon-pathogenic strain,normal troutserum-sensitive, didnot conferprotection inexperimentalchallengedfish.

In Norway, both inactivated and recom-binantvaccinesarewidelyused.Therecom-binant vaccine, the first one licensed forusing in fish, express the VP2 sequence inEscherichia coli and induce specific IPNVantibodies.

Asithappensinotherviraldiseases,thereisno treatment for the IPN.Several antiviralcompounds inhibitsthe invitroreplication incellculture;forexample,ribavirin,pyrazofurinand 5-ethynyl-1-ß-D-ribofuranosylimidazole-4-carboxamide (EICAR),among other com-pounds. Research on EICAR as an antiviralcompound showed good results in experi-mentallyIPNV-infectedrainbowtrout.

The effect of the administration of lys-ozyme(KLP-602)inthefeedofIPNVexperi-mentallyinfectedrainbowtrout,hasbeenalsoevaluated.Cumulativemortalitywaslowerinfish fed on dietary treatment containing lys-ozyme (30%), comparedwith untreated fish(65%).Basedonthesignificantincreaseofallthe immunologicalparameters, theseauthorsrefer that the lyzozyme modulated the cel-lular and humoral defense mechanisms aftersuppressioninducedbyIPNV.Also,aselectedtrout strain resistant to natural infection bythisvirushasbeenreported.

As Håstein et al. pointed out, futurenationaland internationalaquacultureregula-tions for the establishment of preventiveand control strategies of infectious diseasesinclude: adoption of standardized controlmethods, suitable infrastructures develop-ment, and a deeper comprehension of theepizootiologyofaquaticorganismdiseases.

ConclusionIPNV is a birnavirus affecting mainly sal-

monid species, being the rainbow trout themostsusceptiblespecies. InMexico, isolationand identification of this infectious agentfrom rainbow trout was recently reported.Neither a treatment nor totally effectivevaccines against this disease are available,being the preventive and control measuresof great importance. Introduction into farmsof eggs, fish and water supply free of IPNVare themainpreventive strategy.These alsoconstitute themost important risk factors inspreadingofthisdisease.

Acknowledgments

ThecollaborationinstructuredesignandcriticalreviewofthemanuscriptbyDr.EdgardoSorianoVargas,CIESA-FMVZ-UAEM,isgreatlyacknowledged.


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Struggling Downstream? The trout value chain in Peru

by Jodie Keane with Alberto Lemma, based on studies by Juana Kuramoto at GRADE, a member of the Consorcio de Investigación Económica y Social (CIES), Peru.

In Peru, the United States AgencyInternationalAid (USAID) project forPoverty Reduction and Alleviation(PRA) has been one of the pioneers

of value chain interventions. Under thePRA,valuechainsofdistinctproductshavebeen fostered, ranging from agro-industrialproductstoartisanalgoodsandsmallmanu-facturing,whichhavethengainedplacementininternationalmarkets.

ThechainfortroutisoneofthesuccessfulchainsachievedbythePRA.Notonlyhas itcombined the natural advantages of raisingthis fish in Peruvian territory, but also it hasmanaged to consolidate access to foreignmarkets through a national producer andtrader,PiscifactoríaLosAndes.

Raising trout has a long history inPeru. The species was introduced in thecountry in the1930s,with the importofeggs and fry brought from the US. Thedevelopment of trout farming occurred

extensively,bypopulatinglakesandwatersources.

By the1980s, therewas aneweffort topropel this activity through the constructionof fish farms in various mountainous prov-incesof the country.However, raising troutdidnot takeoffasaneconomicactivityandthe infrastructure that was constructed wasleftunderused.

In the 2000s, the Peruvian enterprisePiscifactoríaLosAndesmadeimportanteffortsto begin trout export to foreign markets.TheseeffortscomplementedthePRAproject,with the development of trout value chainsinitiatedinJunín,HuancavelicaandPuno.

Linking producers to exporters Although the initial investments required

for trout production may be low, exportof trout to international markets requiresa series of sanitary certifications, imposinga high cost on producers and traders. Thevalue chain for trout is divided into threewell-determined links: fry production, troutproductionandmarketing.Theselinksdefinetheprincipalactorsinthevaluechain.

"The United States Agency

International Aid project for Poverty

Reduction and Alleviation (PRA)

has been one of the pioneers of

value chain interventions. The chain

for trout is one of the successful"


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THE 7TH INDONESIA’S NO.1 LIVESTOCK, FEED, DAIRY AND FISHERIES INDUSTRY SHOW

Directorate General of Livestock and Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Indonesia

Hosted by

Official Regional Publication

Supporting Publications

"Food EducationCampaign"

Organised by

PT. NAPINDO MEDIA ASHATAMAJl. Kelapa Sawit XIV Blok M1 No.10, Billy & Moon, Pondok Kelapa Jakarta 13450, IndonesiaTel: (62-21) 8644756/85 | Fax: (62-21) 8650963E-mail: [email protected]

www.indolivestock.comwww.sdticampaign.com

Official LocalPublication

C

M

Y

CM

MY

CY

CMY

K

IDL-IAF.pdf 1 5/8/12 9:58 AM

8

One company in Peru accounts for themajority of trout exports (90 percent as of2006) and is the largest and oldest withinthe industry in Peru. Piscifactoría Los Andesrecognised that it would need to increaseproductioninordertobeginexportingtrout.In2000, thecompanydecidedtoparticipatein thePRAprojectand initiatednegotiationswith producer organization, SAIS. The com-panywould provide the necessary capital aswellaspurchasingthefryandbalancedfood.

SAISagreedtohandoveritsproductiontothecompanyoncethetrouthadreachedtheoptimalsizeandweight.ThePRAfinancedthecontractingofseveralexperts,whoprovidedtechnicalassistancetoSAIS.

Despite initial incomplianceon thepartofSAIS, the interaction allowed for PiscifactoríaLosAndes to increaseproductionandsell tothe export market. The agreement betweenSAIS and Los Andes was broken, but thecoordinationmodelmusthaveappealedtothecompany because it continued to participatewith the PRA in other regions. In fact, thecompanyhassignedanagreementwithprivatecompany California’s Garden de OxapampawithintheframeworkofaPRAproject.

The experience of Acoria Inthiscase,thecoordinationwasbetween

the Municipality of Acoria and the LosAndes company. The agreement continuesto present day. In 2003, initial productionreached 12 metric tones of trout per yearand production is expected to reach 72metric tones in2008. In2007, themunicipalenterprise attained financial self-sufficiencyandmanagedtogenerateemploymentforitscommunitymembers (including singlemoth-ersandwidows).TheMunicipalityofAcoriaiscontemplatinginitiatingtroutfarminginotherlocationsinitsjurisdiction.

Thereareseverallessonstobelearntfromthisexperience.First,coordinationagreementsneed to be put in place to facilitate invest-ments in public infrastructure; managementcouldberealisedbyamunicipalcompanyorby a company under a franchise agreement.Second,itisfeasibletoreplicatecoordinationmodelsonasmallscale,butitisstillnecessarytoincludecomponentsoftechnicalassistanceand financing. Third, expanding the level ofproductionoftroutrequiressignificantcapital.Thefinancialsolvencyoflargeproducersandcoordinatorsisvital.

The experience of PunoIn Puno, there are different institutions

linkedtotroutfarming,suchasstrongproduc-er associations like the Association of TroutProducers(APT),whicharerelativelyactiveinpromotingtechnicalassistanceprojectsforthebenefitoftheirassociates.However,initiativeshave not managed to coordinate the valuechain strongly, owing to budget limitations

and overemphasis on the provision of basictrainingtotheneglectofotheractivities.Thelow prices that are prevalent in the region,lack of credit, high levels of informality, lackofcoordinationoftheactionsofstateorgansandscantknowledgeofmarketingaspectsoftroutarethemainobstaclestothedevelop-mentofthisactivityinPuno.

Conclusions This study showed thatvaluechain inter-

ventions should be utilized for programswhose main objective is to increase thedynamism of economic activity in a specificterritory,assuchprogramsarenotnecessarilyeffectiveinalleviatingpoverty.

In general, value chain interventions aretargeting foreign markets, which are subjectto quality certification and sanitary normsthat can present bottlenecks for small localproducers.Moreover, coordinating the chainrequires significant technical and financialcapacity. In the examples discussed, suchassistance has been forthcoming from thePRA, but project objectives have not alwaysbeenachieved.

It is importantnotonly toprovide technicalassistance,butalsotoofferaccesstofinanceandtofacilitateinstitutionaldevelopment.Sensitisationprogramsarerecommendedinordertopromotetheformalizationofproducersandmembershipinassociations,andtoengenderconfidenceandrespectintheagreements.

Poverty alleviation programs should bedesigned mainly to elevate basic povertyindicators,andnottocoordinatewithsophis-ticated markets. Poor producers generallymanage a range of resources and activitiesin order to support themselves, and oftenconsiderfocusingonasingleeconomicactivitytobeahighrisk.

In parallel with the promotion of valuechainsthatcoordinatewithforeignmarkets,itisnecessarytoworkontheformationofvaluechains that coordinatewith regionalmarketsandthedomesticmarket,inordertopreventpricesfallingfromexcesssupply.Tothisend,it is necessary to work on the formation ofregionalmarkets and the provision of publicgoods in the form of physical infrastructureandmarketinformationsystems.

The focus on demand promoted by thePRA project should be supported by theimportantactivityofmarketintelligence.Onlyinthiswaywillwebeabletoconstructstabledemand for local producers andensure thatmarketpricesareadequateinordertogener-atesufficientutilitytocovertheriskthattheyfacefortheirspecialization.

More inforMation:The full study is available in Spanish on the COPLA website:http://www.cop-la.net


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"There are several

lessons to be learnt

from this experience.

First, coordination

agreements need to be

put in place to facilitate

investments in public

infrastructure; management

could be realised by a

municipal company or

by a company under a

franchise agreement.

Second, it is feasible to

replicate coordination

models on a small scale,

but it is still necessary

to include components

of technical assistance

and financing.

Third, expanding the level

of production of trout

requires significant capital.

The financial solvency

of large producers and

coordinators is vital"


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OUR N

EXT

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OPI

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WILL

BE ... TILAPIA

Australian Trout & Salmon Farmers AssociationMitchMacRae-Email:[email protected]://www.growfish.com.au/grow/pages/Site/Associations.htm

British Trout AssociationDavidBassett-Email:[email protected])http://www.britishtrout.co.uk

Polish Trout Breeders [email protected]

Danish Aquaculture AssociationBrianThomsen-Email:[email protected]://www.danskakvakultur.dk/default.aspx?pageid=291

Peruvian Aquaculture [email protected]://www.peruvianaquaculture.com/

Turkey Central Fisheries Research [email protected]://www.sumae.gov.tr/en/

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TROUTINFO

TalapiawillbetheExpertTopic

fortheJuly/August2012issueof

InternationalAquafeed.

Wearecurrentlyaccepting

suggestionsforfuturearticles

andfeatures-soifwouldlike

tocontributepleasecontactthe

AssociateEditor,AliceNeal,

[email protected]

The trade in ornamental fish andinvertebrates is a truly globalindustry, generating many millionsof dollars, and touching the lives

of a vast range of people. From artisanalfishermen in Indonesia, to importers andexporters in Singapore and Spain, farmersin the Czech Republic and Florida andendingwiththehomeaquaristinanyoneofhundredsofcountriesworldwide,theappealofornamanetalsisworldwide.

While freshwater ornamental fish arelargelyfarmed,therebyprovidingasustainableand renewable supply, marine species arelargelywildcaught, leading toapotential forspeciesloss,ecologicalimbalance,andhabitatdegradation.Astheornamentalindustrypro-vides livelihoods inmanyplaceswherethereareveryfewopportunitiesforemployment,it

isimportantthattheindustryisencouragedtogrow,butitisessentialthatpropermonitoringisinplacetoensurethatthisgrowthissustain-able,intermsofindividualspecies,populationecology,andhabitatpreservation.

Industry scaleLivengoodandChapman(2008)estimated

thatsome1539speciesofmarineandfresh-water fish, 102 species of hard and softcoral and 293 species of invertebrates weretraded globally. According to FAO statisticsfrom 2004, as summarised by Ploeg (2004),between 1974 and 2004, the number ofcountries reporting ornamental fish exports

rose from 28 to 146, and this number isexpectedtocontinuetorise.

It is expected that most of these aredeveloping countries which see the exportof ornamental fish as a means to increaseemploymentandgeneratewealth.Theworld-widevalueofexports in2004was reportedto be US$251m, a rise of US$230m in thepreceding30yearsatanaverage14percentper annum, with a retail value of approxi-matelyUS$2.2bn.

A further FAO report in 2008 valuedexportsatUS$278min2005(LivengoodandChapman,2008).At these rates, it couldbeestimatedthatglobalexportsnowvalueoverUS$600m, although theeffectsof the globaleconomic slowdown are not yet known forthesector.

In terms of the division of these exportsbetweenregionsandcountries,55percentof

the 2004 exportscame from Asia,while 25 percentcamefromEurope,mainly the CzechRepublic. Between1974 and 2004,the number ofcountries importingornamental speciesrose from 32 to120, with a slight

dipintheinterim.Thelargestoftheimport-ers of ornamental fish was Europe with 51percent (the UK alone imports 19 percentof this figure), and North America with 26percentofthemarketshare(theUSAmakingup87percentofthis,makingthelargestsinglecountry importer with nearly 23 percent oftheglobalmarketshare).

Of the exporting countries, the fastestgrowthwasseeninCzechRepublicandSpain,whiledropswerenoted inexports fromtheUSA, Germany and Hong Kong, presumablylinked to reducing imports into Japan, animportant destination for ornamentals fromthesecountries.

Monitoring of the global trade

The effective monitoring of the globaltradeisessential inordertoproperlyrecordand analyse the volumes of species traded,in particular those perceived as vulnera-ble or under threat, to prevent irreversibledamage. Through monitoring, a balance canbe achieved and maintained between thedemandforornamentalspecies,theneedforincome and employment, and the ecologicalrequirements of habitats and populations.This balance can then provide for a sustain-ableindustryintothefuture,reducingtheriskof catastrophic loss of habitat or ecologicalimbalance potentially leading to socioeco-nomicissuesinlessdevelopedareas.

In 2000, in response to a need for bet-ter monitoring of marine ornamental trade,theUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeWorld Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC), the Marine AquariumCouncil (MAC) and members of variousaquariumtradeassociationsbegan,incollabo-ration, to address this need and created theGlobalMarineAquariumDatabase(GMAD).

Trade data has been obtained fromwholesaleexportersandimportersofmarineaquariumorganismsandintegratedintoquan-titative,species-specificinformationwhichhasbeenmadepublic.

Fifty-eight companies, approximatelyone-fifthof thewholesalers in business, and fourgovernment management authorities haveprovideddatatoGMAD.InAugust2003thedatasetcontained102,928traderecords(7.7million imported and 9.4 million exportedanimals) covering a total of 2,393 speciesoffish,coralsandinvertebratesandspanningtheyears1988to2003. Itwasbelievedthatthisdatapermittedthemostaccuratequantitativeestimates available of the size of the globaltrade in marine ornamental fish and corals,and the firsteverestimates for invertebratesotherthancorals.

A consultation on the monitoring theindustry conducted in 2008 carried out for

for home aquariaby Dr Jack M James, AquaBioTech Group, Malta

Ornamental fish and invertebrates

The worldwide value of ornamental fish

exports in 2004 was reported to be US$251m,

a rise of US$230m in the preceding 30 years

at an average 14 percent per annum, with a

retail value of approximately US$2.2bn.


FEATURE


theEuropeanCommissionbyUNEPandtheWCMCstatedthataproperlymonitoredandsustainably managed industry can present avaluable opportunity for income generationandsupporttolivelihoods,whilealsoprovid-inganalternativetoenvironmentallydestruc-tiveactivities.

Not monitoring the trade could, onthe other hand, lead to an over exploi-tation of resources, damaging the longtermfuturepotentialoftheindustry.Theconsultation identified the six mecha-nismsformonitoringthetradeatspecieslevelas:1.the monitoring activities put in place

by certification schemes (e.g. MarineAquariumCouncil-MAC)

2.GMAD3.thestatisticsgeneratedbyCustomsand

FAO,4.CITES5.veterinarycontrols6.Annex D of the EU Wildlife Trade

Regulations.Inanalysingthesemonitoringoptions,they

determined that certification schemes aredesirable but provide only partial coverage,are expensive, some have been unsuccess-ful, and there is little evidence of consumerawareness.

GMAD,beingvoluntary,wasfoundtonot

be comprehensive enough formonitoring trade for conserva-tionpurposes.

Informationgeneratedbycus-toms and FAO lacks the detailin the information required forconservationpurposes.

CITES iseffectiveat targetedmonitoring of individual speciesof interest, however the mon-etarycostofobtainingpermitstotradecanbeprohibitive.

Veterinarycontrols,forexam-ple in the EU, record speciesleveldatawhichcouldbeusefulforconservationpurposes;how-ever, at the time of the report,thisdatawasbeingnotcapturedand sovaluable informationwasnotbeingaggregated inastand-ardisedandaccessiblemanner.

Finally, Annex D of the EUWildlife Trade Regulationsproved to be the most effec-tive tool for monitoring for conservationpurposes, providing species level data ofunrestricted species, with no monetary costtotheimporter,makingittheonlyinstrumentthatcould,atthetimeofthereport,providecomprehensive species level data on theinternational trade inspeciesofconservation

concern.However,therewasawillingnessforECveterinarycontrolstobeinvestigatedasafurthermechanismformonitoringthetrade.

Whileconcernswereraisedregardingthefact that these controls will only accuratelymonitoring imports into theEUwhile globaltrade may be underestimated, the fact that


FEATURE

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there is a system in place which is effectiveatmonitortheornamentaltradeisencourag-ing.It isthereforeimperativethatmonitoringsystemswhich canactona global scale andbased on those identified as being effectiveareinitiatedinordertoprovidepropertrace-ability and sustainable development of theindustrygoingforward.

Sustainability of marine ornamental supply

Despite sometimes beingaccused of causing undue degra-dation of populations and habitats,the marine ornamental trade is a lowvolume, high value industry. In 2000, 1kg ofaquarium fish from the Maldives was valuedat almost US$500, whereas 1kg of reef fishharvested for food was worth only US$6.Furthermore,thelivecoraltradeisestimatedto be worth about US$7,000 per tonne,whereas the use of harvested coral for theproduction of limestone yields only aboutUS$60 per tonne (Wabnitz et al, 2003).There is therefore a clear financial incentivetopreservetheimportantmarinehabitatsandpopulationswhichprovidetotheornamentalindustry,suchascoralreefsandmangroves.

It is clear from the information availablethatthepotentialisthereforasustainableandprofitableindustry,butfromthecasestudyofthe GMAD, there are clearly still large gapsin the knowledge on, in particular, marineornamentalharvesting.

This creates a need for a two prongedapproach todevelopinga sustainablemarineornamentalindustry–thefirstbeingimprovedmonitoring as discussed previously, and thesecondbeinganefforttoincreasethenumberofspecieswhichareculturedfortheindustry.Only one-10 percent of marine ornamentalfishand lessthanonepercentofhardcoralsare cultured (Wabnitz et al, 2003), this is incontrast to over 90 percent of freshwaterornamental species. Inorder to increase theproportionofmarinespeciescultured,simpleand cost effective culture methods must besoughtwhichenablepoorcommunitieswhichrely on harvesting to switch their efforts toculture, thereby moving towards a moresustainable industry while not neglecting thebeneficial potential of the ornamental tradeforthesecommunities.

The responsible aquaristAnappreciationbythehomeaquarististhe

firststeptoself-regulationintermsofpromot-ingsustainablysourcedorfarmedanimalsoverthoseknowntocomefromunsustainablewildfisheries. For example, in some wild fisheriescollectorsmayusehighlytoxicsubstancessuchassodiumcyanideinmarineenvironmentsandrotenoneinfreshwatersystemstoincapacitatethefishpriortocollection.

Suchpracticescanhavelongtermtoxiceffects

on the species assemblageand the community as awhole.Lossespostcapturecan also be very high,up to 80 percentfor sometropicalmarine

fish,whileother spe-cies such ascardinal tetracan have mor-tality as low assix percent, andsoproperspeciesselection to reducedemandforlivestockwhichdonottravelwellcanhaveabeneficialimpact.

Additionally,betterguidelinesforcollection,transport, and storage can help to reducemortality.Thereforetheconsumercanhaveamarkedimpactonenhancingthesustainabilityof the industry through being aware of andchoosing the most sustainably sourced live-stockavailable,whileensuringtheyareproperlyeducatedontherequirementsoftheirchosenlivestock,soreducingmortalityathome.

To highlight the role that responsibleand properly informed aquarists can play,tradedata,correlatedwithaquariumsuitabilityinformation,indicatesthattwospeciesknownnottoacclimatisewelltoaquariumconditionsarenonethelessverycommonlytraded.Theyare thebluestreakcleanerwrasse(Labroidesdimidiatus:87,000individualstradedbetween1997 and 2002) and the mandarin fish(Synchiropussplendidus:11,000 live individu-alsexportedtotheEUinthesameperiod).

Data further indicates that species charac-terised as ‘truly unsuitable’, mainly due to theirrestricteddietaryrequirements,suchasthefour-eye butterflyfish (Chaetodon capistratus), theharlequin filefish (Oxymonacanthus longisrostris)and the Hawaiian cleaner wrasse (Labroidesphtirophagus), arealsocommonly traded, albeitinlowernumbers(Wabnitzetal,2003).Demandfor species such as these is presumably per-petuated by mortality in home aquaria due totheunsuitableconditions,anditisthesekindsofpractiseswhichcanbeminimisedoreradicatedthroughresponsibleaquariumkeeping.

The global ornamental trade is a strongandgrowingindustry,anditbenefitsallwalksoflifethroughwealthgenerationandaesthetic

enjoy-

ment. It has the opportunity to becomea unique example of an ecologically andfinanciallysustainableandrenewableindustry,wherewealthflowsfromsomeoftheworldsrichesteconomiestosomeoftheverypoor-estcommunitiesaroundtheworld.

However, in order to do this, improvedsystems for monitoring the global trademust be sought and implemented, andaquaristsmuststrivetobeaswelleducatedaspossibleonthesourceandcareoftheirlivestock. In thisway, the inhabitantsofourhome aquaria can remain some of theworld’s most popular companion animals,while remainingaffordableandhealthy,andabove all without damaging their naturalhabitatsandpopulations. ■

References

Livengood,E.J.,&Chapman,F.A.(2008).TheOrnamentalFishTrade:AnIntroductionwithPerspectivesforResponsibleAquariumFishOwnership.UniversityofFloridaIFASExtension,(FA124).FisheriesandAquaticSciences.

Ploeg,A.(2004).TheVolumeoftheOrnamentalFishTrade.OrnamentalFishInternational.OrnamentalFishInternational.

Wabnitz,C.,Taylor,M.,Green,E.P.,&Razak,T.(2003).FromOceantoAquarium:theglobaltradeinmarineornamentalspecies.Cambridge:UNEP-WCMC.

UNEP-WCMC.(2008).MonitoringofInternationalTradeinOrnamentalFish-ConsultationPaper.Context.


FEATURE

Theeffectof stresscausedbyenvi-ronmental pollution and farmingconditionson thehealthandyieldof fish in intensive aquacultures is

becomingincreasinglyimportant.

Factors such as stocking density, con-tamination,toxins,pollutantsandoutbreaksofdiseasehaveanegativeeffectontheimmunestatusofthefish.Theconsequenceofthis isanincreasedsusceptibilitytoinfectionthroughbacterial, viral, fungal or parasitic pathogens.Increased loss rates and reduced growthperformance result in lower profitability forthefishproductionindustry.

As a consequence, the monetary and

quantitative overheads for the vaccinationandmedicinaltreatmentofthefishincreases.Inmany cases, antibiotics are given not onlytherapeutically, but also prophylactically as astandardadditiveinfishfeed.

The intensive farming methods used forfish cultivation in aquatic environments witha direct connection to the groundwater areespecially liable to facilitate the very rapidanddirect spreadofproblematicproductionresiduestohumans.Resistantpathogensandgerms do not just limit the effectiveness of

therapeuticantibioticsforfish.Thetransferofgenes for resistance between different spe-cies of bacteria is accelerated, leading to anexacerbationof theproblemof resistance inthetreatmentofhumandiseasesworldwide.

Future-oriented production methods inthe fish farming industry should thereforebe targeted towards minimising the use ofantibiotics and medicinal drugs. It is of greatimportance to analyse the negative effectscausedbyenvironmentalpollutionandfarm-ingmethods.

More crucial still will be to influence theanimal's metabolism so that external toxinshave a lesser impact, even under intensiveconditions. A healthy gut and a functioning

non-specificimmuneresponsearefundamen-talprerequisitesforthis.

Excellent for the gutBrewers’ yeast cells are like miniature

power houses, and are responsible for thealcoholicfermentationthattakesplaceduringthebrewingstageofbeerproduction. Inthecourse of the fermentation of malt extract,high concentrations of minerals and traceelements, amino acids and nucleotides, Bvitaminsandenzymes,aswellasmanymicro-

nutrients accumulate within the cells of theyeastspeciesSaccharomycescerevisiae.Beingorganically bound ensures high availabilityof these active substances. Dried brewers’yeast is used veryoften in fishnutritiondueto the high bioavailability of the constituentcompounds.

In addition to this, brewers’ yeast hascell walls that are composed of mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS).Thiscomplexnet-workofmannans andßglucans serves as asubstrate for the beneficial gut flora. Thefish's limited digestive tract benefits inparticular from the prebiotic properties ofthe yeast cell walls, which stabilise the gutandensureahealthybalanceofmicroflora

(eubiosis). In addition to this, themannan-oligosaccharides in brewers’ yeast are ableto bind harmful toxins in the food, andthus inhibit their absorption and resultantmetabolicharm.Lastbutnotleast,thefor-mationofabiofilmontheintestinalmucosaenhances this protective barrier againstpathogens.

Glucan and the immune systemThe cell wall of brewers’ yeast com-

prisesapproximately20-25percentmannans

Brewers’ yeast as a supplement in aquaculture

by Jan Frericks, Leiber GmbH, Germany

"The cell wall of brewers’ yeast comprises approximately 20-25%

mannans and 25-30% ß-glucans. ß1,3/1,6(D) glucan molecules can

be isolated from it using special hydrolytic processes. The molecules

consist of characteristic (1,3)-beta-glycosidic linked D-glucose

subunits connected with with irregular beta-(1,6)-linked side chains of

various length. Only this free ß-glucan structure from Saccharomyces

cerevisiae has an immunomodulatory effect on the metabolism"


FEATURE


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and 25-30 percent ß-glucans. ß1,3/1,6(D)glucanmoleculescanbeisolatedfromitusingspecial hydrolytic processes. The moleculesconsist of characteristic (1,3)-beta-glycosidiclinked D-glucose subunits connected withwith irregularbeta-(1,6)-linked side chainsofvarious length.Only this free ß-glucan struc-ture from Saccharomyces cerevisiae has animmunomodulatoryeffectonthemetabolism.

Incontrastwith intactyeastcellsorman-nan-oligosaccharides, free ß1,3/1,6(D)glucanmoleculesareable topass through thepro-tective epithelial barrier in the gut with thehelp of specialised M cells. In gut-associatedlymph tissue (GALT), ß-glucans act like anti-gens, stimulating specific macrophage recep-torswiththeircharacteristicsurfacestructures(epitopes) (EngstadandRobertsen1993).Acascade of immune responses is triggered,andnon-specificimmunesystemcellssuchasmonocytes, natural killer cells, B-cells, T-cellsor lysozymesarereleasedoractivated.Theyput the animal on a high state of alert andpreparedness to defend against all types offoreign attack. What differentiates this froman actual infection is that ß-glucan does notpossess any pathogenic properties, and actswithoutcausinganyadversehealtheffects.

A quality criterion for the effectiveness of

ß-glucanproducts is notonly the source andcharacteristicmolecularstructure,butalsothepurityof theproduct.Aminimumcontentof70percentpureß1,3/1,6(D)glucan shouldbeaimed for.The standardgradeLeiber®BetaShasaß-glucancontentof80percent.Themet-abolicactivityofthisproducthasalreadybeentestedonmanyanimalspeciesandverified.

Tests were recently performed on sev-eralspeciesoffishthatconfirmastimulatoryeffect on the non-specific immune system.Rainbowtroutandcarpreceived0.02percentßglucan(Leiber®BetaS)administeredintheirfeed ration. The potential killing activity ofphagocytes, the proliferative response of Tand Blymphocytes and the concentration ofimmunoglobulinsandlysozymesinthebloodserum was measured four weeks and eightweeks after beginning administration. In tworepetitions, a significant stimulation of theseparameters was demonstrated in both rain-bowtroutandcarp.

In subsequent infection studies using twobacterial (Aeromonas salmonicida; Yersiniaruckeri) and one viral pathogen (IPN virus),the survival rate of rainbow trout and carpwith0.02percentLeiber®BetaSintheirfeedshowedanabsoluteincreaseof30-40percent(Siwicki,etal.2008;Siwicki,etal.2009).

Oral administration testsPurified ß1,3/1,6(D)glucans enhance the

animals'non-specificimmuneresponse.Thisisofparticularvalueinthefishfarmingindustry,astherearemultiplestressandenvironmen-tal factors that impact and stress the fish. Ifthey become infected, the specific immunesystem is only able to respond slowly andinadequately. In suchsituations,aheightenednon-specificcapabilitycansupportoracceler-ate the specific immune response and theproductionofspecificantibodies.

Fish are subject to similar, added stressesduring vaccinations too. A study by Siwickiet al. (2011) investigated the effect of orallyadministered ß1,3/1,6(D)glucan (100mg or200mgLeiber®BetaSperkgoffeed)ontheantibody secreting cells (ASC) and specificantibodytitresafterimmunisationofrainbowtrout fingerlings (Oncorhynchus mykiss) byimmersionwithanti-entericredmouthdiseasevaccine(AquaVacERM).Inoculationwasper-formedoneweekafterthestartofadministra-tionwithLeiber®BetaS.

These two parameters were measuredon day seven, 14, 21, 28 and 40 in thebloodserumandadrenalglands.Bothdos-agelevelsstimulatedthenumberofspecificASCsandspecificantibody levels,whereby0.02 percent Leiber® BetaS in the fishfeed was more effective. In each case theimprovementsweresignificantfromday21onwards.

The beneficial effect of ß1,3/1,6(D)glucaniswellknowninthefishnutritionindustry.Theadministrationof0.02percentLeiber®BetaSinfishfeedactivatesthenon-specificimmunestatus of the fish on the one hand, and ontheother,actsasanadjuvantduringvaccina-tions,thusenhancingtheimmunocompetenceof the fish. Its safe and simple method ofuse, as well as the fact that ß-glucan fromSaccharomyces cerevisiae is harmless to fishand the environment,will become yetmoreimportantinthefuture. ■

Tests were recently performed

on several species of fish that

confirm a stimulatory effect on the

non-specific immune system


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IfyouenjoyInternationalAquafeedmagazine,whynothavealookatitsonlinecompanion,theAquaculturalist–www.theaquaculturalist.blogspot.com.WrittenbytheAquacultralistandstaffatthemagazine,theblogisthetheplacetokeepup-to-datewiththelatestaquaculturenewsandevents.SinceOctober2010,theAquaculturalisthasbroughtadailydoseofrelevantinformationattheclickofthemouse.Infact,inApril2012,theblogpassed100,000hitsandnowaverages400viewsaday.


After 15 years of algae valorization, what are your observations?

HervéBalusson(OlmixGroupCEO):WhenIbegantogetinterestedinmacro-algae,15yearsago,peoplebelievedIwasamarginal.However,theseaisunquestionablyanamazingsourceof'bluebiotechnology'.Thenumberofalgaespeciesintheworldisestimatedatalmostonemillion.Attheoutsetofthenewmillennium,thestudyofalgaeisoneofthemostpromisingwaystoprovideanswerstomankindissuessuchasenvironmental,foodandenergychallenges.Naturehasalreadytheanswerstotakeupthesechallenges.

Renewablebiomasses,algaearerichinproteins,carbohydrates,traceelementsandespeciallyinactiveprinciplesoftenunderestimated.

Algaereflectthecompany’sphilosophyassustainablesolutions:thankstoalgae,Olmixisabletoprovidenatural,efficientanduniversalsolutions.By'universal',Imeanthatourproductshavethecapacitytoadapttovarioustypesofproduction,indifferentcontexts.

Themacro-algaehighpotentialcombinedwithourmasteryinsourcingandindustrialprocessesledustotechnologicalbreakthrough,tothedevelopmentofnumerousinnovationsandrevolutionaryproducts,particularlybytheassociationofthemineralandtheorganic.

Ourgrouphastheadvantageofbeingabletopromptlylaunchitsnewtechnologyatcompetitivepricesonthemarketthankstoourwellestablishedinternationalsalesteam.Thisterritorialanchoragegivescompanyopen-mindednessanddynamism.

Aquaculture is today facing some challenges, what solutions do you provide?

Increasingproduction,fishmealreplacement,highqualityproductsrequirement(incompliancewithstandardsandcertifications),feedefficiencyimprovement,pathologieslimitation,maintainingwaterquality…Thesearethechallengestheaquaculturesectorisfacingtoday.

Olmixproposessolutionsinlinewiththemarketconcernsandprovidesafullrangeofproductsintendedforaquaculture.

Fishmealreplacementhasforexamplegeneratedanewproblematic,previouslyunknown,themycotoxinsriskmanagement,linkedtorecoursetoplantorigincommodities.MTX+respondstothisnewdemandbysupplyinganeffectiveandreliablesolutiontocontrolthisrisk.

Theinnovativenatureofourproductsisintrinsicallyrelatedtovaluationofbothnutritionalandfunctionalalgaepropertieswhichensureeffectivenessandoriginality.

SolutionsprovidedbyOlmixareuniversalandmeetthefeedmillersandfarmersneedsandarebesidestheresultofaprivilegedrelationshipbasedonourproximitywithourdifferentpartners.

Is the future of Olmix linked to algae valorization?

Thegroup’smediumandlong-termdevelopmentisindeedpredicatedontheimplementationofacompletesectorformacro-algaevalorization.

Thisyearwearestartingalarge-scaleproject,the'IndustrialStrategicInnovation'programfromOséocalledULVANS,gathering5companies(OLMIX,PRP,MELSPRING,AMADEITE,AGRIVAL)andtwoFrenchacademicpartners(SouthBrittanyUniversity,NationalCentreofScientificResearchfromMulhouse).

TheaimoftheULVANSprojectistocreateasealettucevalorizationsector,fromtheharvestingtothemarketingofinnovativeproductsdestinedfortheanimalandvegetablenutritionandhealthmarkets.

Health through algae, a new challenge for Olmix?

Ourexpertiseintheknowledgeandthemasteringofactiveprinciplesstemmingfrommacro-algaeopenedupnewfieldsofapplication.Thegroup’sResearchandDevelopmentteamsfocustodayonthevalorizationofourinnovationsinthehealthsector.

Theseamustbeconsideredasaninfinitereservoirofsolutions,itcontainsthepotentialtosolvemajorhealthissues.

'Healththroughalgae'isthefoundingconceptofthenewAmadéitecompanywhichisdevelopingbreakthroughproductsdedicatedtocontrolanimalandvegetablepathologies(immunostimulation,anti-infectiveagents,elicitationeffect).

Developing nutritional alternatives from marine resources

HervéBalussonfoundedOlmixGroupinBrittany,Francein1995.Unusuallyforthetime,Olmixdevelopednaturalalternativestochemicaladditivesusedinagriculture.Usinghighqualitytraceelements,specificclaysandmacro-algae,thegroupcreated

awiderangeofnaturalproductstosubstitutesynthesisadditives.HervéBalusson,OlmixGroupCEO,shareshisviewsonthefutureofthecompanyanddifficultiesfacedbyaquaculture.

Today,Olmixisoneoftheworld’smainspecialistsin'greenchemistry'andisoneofthepioneersofthe'bluebiotechnology'.Olmixhas12subsidiariesworldwide,ispresentin60countriesandemploys250people.TheBretonSMEreachedaturnoverof€53min15years,ofwhich80percentwasexportedsales.ThecompanyiswellestablishedinAsiawhereitachievesa30percentgrowthbyyearonaverage.Infact,theASEANarearepresentsanincreasingshareofthegroup’sturnover.OlmixGroupislistedontheParisStockExchangeandhassevenproductionplantsinEurope.

The aquafeed interviewH

ervé Balu

sson

fou

nd

er of O

lmix G

rou

p, Fran

ce

OlmixGroup,France,issponsoringtheup-comingBiomarineBusinessconvention2012inLondon,UK,fromOctober24th-25th2012.


"The sea must be considered as an infinite reservoir of solutions,

it contains the potential to solve major health issues"

Hervé Balusson founder of Olmix GroupFrance

INDUSTRYEVENTS

22nd-23rdMay124thAlgaeWorldEurope,Munich,Germany

Contact: Ms Fu Huiyan, 80 Marine Parade Rd, #13-02 Parkway Parade, Singapore 449269

Tel: +65 6346 9113Fax: +65 6345 5928Web: /www.cmtevents.com

23rd-24thMay12AQUACULTUREUK2012,MacdonaldHighlandResort,Aviemore,UK

Contact: David Mack, Rosebank, Ankerville Street, Tain IV191BH, UK

Tel: +44 1862892188Email: [email protected]: www.aquacultureuk.com

4th-7thJune12ISFNF-InternationalSymposiumonFishNutritionandFeeding,Molde,Norway

Contact: Reidun Lilleholt

Tel: +47 930 62 994Email: [email protected]: http://www.isfnf.org

7th-9thJune12FutureFishEurasia2012,IzmirInternationalFairCentreIzmir,Turkey

Contact: Levent Akdogan, Eurasia Trade Fairs Ali Sami yen Sk. No.9 D.4 Gayrettepe 34394 Istanbul - Turkey

Tel: +90 212 3471054Fax: +90 212 3471053Email: [email protected]: www.future-fish.com

11th-16thJune12FeedsandNutritioncourse,Amsterdam,theNetherlands

Contact: Schothorst Feed Research, Box 533, 8200 AM, Lelystad, the Netherlands

Tel: +31 320 252294Fax: +31 320 255030Email: [email protected]: www.schothorst.nl

11th-14thJune12WorldAnimalHealthCongressAsia2012,GrandCopthorneWaterfrontHotel,Singapore,392HavelockRoad,Singapore169663

Contact: Lydia Sebastian, 1 Harbourfront Place, #18-01, Harbourfront Tower 1, Singapore 098433

Tel: +65 632 22750Email: [email protected]: www.terrapinn.com /animalhealthasia

13th-14thJune123rdFoodProteininnova-tionConference,Amsterdam,Netherlands

Contact: Bridge2Food, Jan van Eijcklaan 2, 3723 BC Bilthoven, The Netherlands

Tel: +31 30 225 2060Email: [email protected]: www.bridge2food.com/Food-Protein-innovation-Conference-Bridge2Food-2012.asp

14th-17thJune12SEAEXPOTURKEY2012,IstanbulIFMHall9,Turkey

Contact: Hande Biber, HKF Trade Fairs, Barbaros Bulvari 163/2, 34349 Besiktas, Istanbul - Turkey

Tel: +90 212 216 40 10Fax: +90 212 216 33 60Email: [email protected]: www.seaexpoturkey.com

4th-6thJuly12INDOLIVESTOCK2012EXPO&FORUM,JakartaConventionCenterIndonesia

Contact: Didit Siswodwiatmoko or Devi Ardiatne, Jl. Kelapa Sawit XIV Blok M1 No. 10, Kompleks Billy & Moon, Pondok Kelapa, Jakarta 13450

IndonesiaTel: +62 21 – 864 4756 ext : 118 & 123Fax: +62 21 – 865 0963Email: [email protected]: www.indolivestock.com

1st-5thSeptember12Aqua2012,Prague,CzechRepublic

Contact: Mr Mario Stael, Marevent, Begijnengracht 40, 9000 Gent, Belgium

Tel:+32 9 233 49 12Fax: +32 9 233 49 12Email: [email protected]: www.marevent.com

5th-7thSeptember12AquamarInternational2012,CancúnMexico

Contact: Lic. Fernanda Tovar Galindo, Mexico, Distrito Federal

Tel: +52 998.267.82.93Email: ventas @aquamarinternacional.comWeb: www. aquamarinternacional.com

23rd-25thSeptember12VIVChina2012,Beijing,China

Contact: Anneke van Rooijen, Postbus 8800, 3503 RV, Utrecht, Holland

Tel: +31 30 295 2772Email: anneke.van.rooijen @vnuexhibitions.comWeb: www.vivchina.nl/en/Bezoeker.aspx

10th-13thOctober12AquaSur2012,PuertoMontt

Contact: María Paz Fernández, Lado Poniente Km 1.018 Ruta 5 Sur- Puerto Montt- Chile

Tel: +56 2 7565402Email: [email protected]: www.aqua-sur.cl

17th-19thOctober12OffshoreMaricultureConference2012,HiltonHotel,Izmir,Turkey

Contact: Isobel Roberts, Mercator Media Ltd, The Old Mill, Lower Quay, Fareham, Hampshire, PO16 0RA, UK

Tel: +44 1329 825 335Fax: +44 1329 825 330Email: conferences @offshoremariculture.comWeb: www.offshoremariculture.com/

24th-25thOctober12BioMarineBusinessConvention2012,Fishmonger’sHall,London,UK

Contact: Veronique Erwes

Email: [email protected]: www.biomarine.org

EventsKey:

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•=Moreinformationavailable

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INDO LIVESTOCK 2012 EXPO & FORUM, Jakarta Convention Center, Indonesia

IndoLivestockseries2012Expo& Forum is Indonesia’s biggestfeed,dairyandlivestockindustry

show.Hostedby theMinistry ofAgriculture of the Republic ofIndonesia, Indo Livestock2012 isheld concurrently with the IndoFisheries2012Expo&Forum.

The expo will bring together400 exhibitors from 40 coun-tries with more than 10,000tradevisitorsexpectedtoattend.Buyers can source new tech-nology and equipment whileindustryprofessionalscangetuptodateonthe latest technolog-icaladvancesandindustrytrendsthrough seminars and technicalproductpresentations.

PREVIEW

International Aquafeed events go mobile!Review all of our industry's key events for 2012/13 on our new Events section on the Perendale Publishers App.


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Aqua_Feed-July_2011.indd 1 28.07.2011 12:23:44

may | june 2012 international aquafeed

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