The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in an era of European history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It spanned the years from 500-1500.

In the 5th Century, Germanic invaders overran the western half of the Roman Empire. This will cause a series of changes that altered the economy, government, and culture.

Disruption of Trade: As invasions began to happen more frequent, businesses collapsed and money became scarce.

Downfall of Cities: Cities will be abandoned as centers of administration.

Population shifts: Nobles will retreat to the rural areas.

Decline of Learning: As invasions weakened the Roman Empire, the level of learning sank sharply.

Loss of a Common Language: by the 800’s, French, Spanish, and other Roman-based languages had evolved from Latin.

In the years between 400-600, small Germanic kingdoms replaced Roman provinces. Unlike the Romans, Germanic peoples lived in small communities that were governed by unwritten rules and traditions.

Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty to him. In peacetime, these followers lived in their lord’s hall. He gave them food, weapons, and treasure. In battle, warriors fought to the death at their lord’s side. They considered it a disgrace to outlive him.

But they did not feel any obligation to obey a king that they did not even know.

The Germanic stress on personal ties made it impossible to establish orderly government for large territories.

In the Roman province of Gaul( modern day France and Switzerland), a Germanic people called the Franks held power. Their leader was Clovis and he would bring Christianity to the region. By 511, Clovis had united the Franks into one kingdom.

To adapt to the rural conditions, the Church built religious communities called monasteries. There, Christian men called monks gave up their private possessions and devoted their lives to serving God. Women who followed this way of life were called nuns and lived in convents.

Around 520, and Italian monk named Benedict writing a book describing a strict yet practical set of rules for monasteries. Monasteries became the Europe’s best-educated communities. Monks opened schools, maintained libraries, and copied books.

In 590, Gregory I, also called Gregory the Great became pope.

Under Gregory I, the papacy also became secular, or worldly, power involved in politics.

The pope’s palace was the center of Roman government. Gregory used church revenues to raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. According to Gregory, the region from Italy to England and from Spain to Germany fell under his responsibility. This idea of a churchly kingdom, ruled by a pope, would be a central theme of the Middle Ages.

After the Roman Empire dissolved, small kingdoms sprang up all over Europe. For example, England splintered into seven tiny kingdoms no larger than the state of Connecticut.

By 700, an official known as the major domo, or mayor of the palace, had become the most powerful person in the Frankish kingdom.

The mayor of the palace in 719 was Charles Martel. He will extend the Franks’ reign to the north, south, and east. He will also defeat the Muslim raiders from Spain at the Battle of Tours. After his death, Charles Martel will pass his power down to his son, Pepin the Short.

Pepin the Short will cooperate with the pope to help fight the Lombards. Because of this cooperation, the pope anointed Pepin “king by the grace of God”. Thus began the Carolingian Dynasty. This dynasty will last from 751-987.

Pepin will die in 768. He will leave his kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Charles. After Carloman’s death in 771, Charles will take over. He will be known as Charlemagne.

Charlemagne will build an empire greater than any known since the Roman Empire. By 800 Charlemagne’s empire was larger than the Byzantine Empire and he will become the most powerful ruler in western Europe.

In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome to protect the pope from an angry mob. In gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor.

Charlemagne strengthened his royal power by limiting the authority of the nobles. To govern his empire, he sent out royal agents. They made sure that the powerful landholders, called counts, governed their counties justly.

A year before he died, Charlemagne gave his power over to his son, Louis the Pious. Louis’ sons will split the empire and as a result, a new system of governing came about-feudalism.

From 800-1000, invasions will help destroy the Carolingian Dynasty. Europe was attacked from 3 sides: Muslims from the south, Magyars from the east, and Vikings from the north.

The Muslims will attack Italy and Spain. Instead of setting up colonies, they will just raid.

The Magyars will cross the Danube River and since the Europeans thought they were Huns, they will become known as Hungarians. They will raid northern Italy, southern Germany and into France.

During the 800’s, a Christian prayer was heard throughout Europe: “Save us O God, from the violence of the Northmen!” The “Northmen”, also known as Normans or Vikings, were pagan Germanic people from Scandinavia(Norway, Sweden and Denmark).

The Vikings actually began their assault on Europe in 787 and by the mid 900’s had brought a large section of continental Europe and Britain to its knees.

The Vikings were excellent sailors and when they raided it was with terrible speed and ferocity. As the Vikings beached their ships they jumped out, clutching wooden shields, swords, and other weapons and raided a village. Before anyone knew what happened, the Vikings were back on their ship and out to sea.

The average Viking ship was about 65 feet long, propelled by oars or sails and could carry between 40-60 men. The largest was a 72 oar ship that carried 300 men. The average ship weighed 20 tons fully loaded.

The prow of each ship swept gradually upward, often ending with a carved head of a sea monster. These boats were suited for the sea, rivers and creeks.

At first, the Vikings attacked and sailed off but later they will return and settle down and colonize. Once they settled down, they will accept Christianity and stop raiding. The climate in Europe will begin to warm a little and so farming will become easier in Scandinavia.

The invasions by the Vikings, Magyars and Muslims will cause widespread disorder and suffering. This will speed up the development of feudalism. This is the system of governing and landholding that will emerge in Europe during the 800-900’s.

The feudal system was based on rights and obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The person receiving a fief was called a vassal.

At the peak of the pyramid was the king. Next in line came the most powerful vassals-wealthy landowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were knights. Knights were mounted horsemen who pledged to defend their lords’ lands in exchange for fiefs. At the base were the landless peasants. Most peasants were serfs. Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place where they were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves.

The manor was the lord’s estate. The manor system was the basic economic arrangement during the Middle Ages. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obligations between lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, farmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lord’s lands, cared for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate.

Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their own manor. A manor usually covered only a few square miles of land. It typically consisted of the lord’s house, a church, and workshops. 15-30 families lived in the village. The manor was a self-sufficient community.

For the privilege of living on the lord’s land, peasants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground in the lord’s mill. Any attempt to avoid taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime.

Peasants also paid a tax on marriage. Weddings could take place only with the lord’s consent. After all these payments to the lord, peasant families owed the village priest a tithe, or church tax. A tithe represented 1/10 of their income.

Serfs lived in crowded cottages, one or two room “shacks”. If it was a two room cottage, the main room was used for cooking, eating and household activities. The second was the family bedroom. To warm the dirt floor, pigs were brought in. At night, the family huddled on a pile of straw that often crawled with insects

By the 11th century , western Europe was battleground of warring nobles vying for power. To defend their territories, feudal lords raised private armies of knights. In exchange for military service, feudal lords used their most abundant resource-land. They rewarded knights, their most skilled warriors, with fiefs from their sprawling estates.

Wealth from these fiefs allowed knights to devote their lives to war. Knights could afford to pay for costly weapons, armor and warhorses.

From his knights, a lord typically demanded about 40 days of combat a year. Knights’ pastimes also often revolved around training for war.

Knights were expected to display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord. By the 1100s, the code of chivalry, a complex set of ideals demanded that a knight fight bravely in defense of three masters. He devoted himself to his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. The chivalrous knight also protected the weak and the poor. The ideal knight was loyal, brave, and courteous.

Sons of nobles began their training for knighthood at an early age and learned the code of chivalry. At age 7, a boy would be sent off to the castle of another lord. As a page, he waited on his hosts and began to practice fighting skills. At around age 14, the page reached the rank of squire. A squire acted as a servant to a knight. At around age 21, a squire became a full-fledged knight.

After being dubbed a knight, most young men traveled for a year or two. The knights gained experience fighting in local wars. Some took part in mock battles called tournaments. Tournaments combined recreation with combat training.

By the 1100’s, massive walls and guard towers encircled stone castles. These castles dominated much of the countryside in western Europe. Lord and lady, their family, knights and servants made their home in the castle. The castle also was a fortress, designed for defense.

A castle under siege was a gory sight. Attacking armies used a wide range of strategies and weapons to force castle residents to surrender. Defenders of a castle poured boiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers. Expert archers were stationed on the roof of the castle.

TREBUCHET MANGONEL

SIEGE TOWER BATTERING RAM

Battering Ram: made of heavy timber with a sharp metal tip. Swung like a pendulum to crack castle walls.

Mangonel: flung huge rocks that crashed into castle walls. Propelled objects up to a distance of 1,300 feet.

Siege tower: had a platform on top that lowered like a drawbridge.

Trebuchet: worked like a giant slingshot. Propelled objects up to a distance of 980 feet.

The Age of FaithEurope 800-1500

Age of Faith

Around the 900’s, a new spirit invaded the church and brought about a spiritual revival in the clergy. Monasteries led this reformation. Influenced by the religious devotion and reverence for God shown by the new monasteries, the popes began to reform the Church.

A new age of religious feeling was born-the Age of Faith yet still many problems faced the Church.

Age of Faith

Problems with the Church: Some priests were nearly illiterate and could barely read their prayers. Some popes were men of questionable morals. Reformers were distressed over 3 main issues:

1: Many village priests married and had families.

2: Bishops sold positions in the Church, a practice called simony.

3: Using the practice of lay investiture, kings appointed church bishops.

Age of Faith

In the early 1200’s, wandering friars traveled from place to place preaching and spreading the church ideas. Like monks, friars took vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Friars owned nothing and lived by begging.

During the medieval period most people worshiped in small churches near their homes. Between 800-1100, churches were built in the Romanesque style. The churches had round arches and a heavy roof held up by thick walls and pillars.

Romanesque Church

Age of Faith

In the early 1100’s, a new style of architecture, known as Gothic, evolved throughout Europe. The term Gothic comes from a Germanic tribe named the Goths. Unlike the heavy, gloomy Romanesque buildings, Gothic cathedrals thrust upward as if reaching toward heaven. Light streamed in through huge stained glass windows. Other arts of the medieval world were evident around or in the Gothic cathedral: sculpture, wood carvings, and stained glass windows. All of these elements were meant to inspire the worshiper with the magnificence of God.

Gothic Churches

York Minster - the widest Gothic cathedral in northern Europe. York Minster was built between the 12th and the 15th Century and is the largest Gothic church in England. It is 524 feet (160m) long and 249 feet (76m) wide. The height from floor to vault is over 90 feet (27m).The twin west towers are about 184 feet (56m) high, and the lantern tower 234 feet (71m).

Gothic Churches

1: ribbed vaults that supported the roof’s weight. 2: flying buttressesthat transferred weight to the thick exterior walls. 3: pointed arches that framed huge stained glass windows. 4: Tall spires that seemed to point to heaven.

Chartres Cathedral

Notre Dame Cathedral

Notre Dame Cathedral

Crusades

The Age of Faith also inspired wars of conquest. In 1093, the Byzantine emperor Alexius Comnenus sent an appeal to the Count of Flanders. The emperor asked for help against the Muslim Turks. Pope Urban II also read the letter and shortly afterward issued a call for what he termed a “holy war”, a Crusade, to gain control of the Holy Land. The Crusades will last from 1096-1270 with 12 total Crusades to the Holy Land

Crusades

The Crusades had economic, social, and political goals as well as religious motives. The Muslims controlled Palestine and threatened Constantinople. The pope wanted to reclaim Palestine and reunite Christendom, which had split into Eastern and Western branches in 1054.

In addition, kings and the Church both saw the Crusades as an opportunity to get rid of quarrelsome knights who fought each other and threatened peace and Church property.

Crusades

Others who participated in the Crusades were younger sons who did not stand to inherit their father’s property. They were looking for land and a position in society, or for adventure.

Pope Urban’s call brought a tremendous outpouring of religious feeling and support for the Crusade. According to the pope, those who died on Crusade were assured of a place in heaven.

Map of the Crusades

Crusades

By early 1097, 3 armies of knights and people of all classes gathered outside Constantinople. From here the Crusaders will march to the Holy Land. The Crusaders were ill-prepared for the First Crusade because they knew nothing of the terrain, climate, culture of the Holy Land. They also had no grand strategy to capture Jerusalem. On July 15, 1099, after a month long siege, the Crusaders captured Jerusalem.

Crusades

The Second Crusade was organized to recapture Edessa in 1144 but the Crusaders returned to Europe in defeat. In 1187, Europeans were shocked to learn that Jerusalem itself had fallen to a Kurdish warrior and Muslim leader Saladin.

The Third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem was led by three of Europe’s most powerful monarchs. They were Phillip II (Augustus) of France, German emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), and the English king Richard the Lion-Hearted.

Crusades

Phillip argued with Richard and went home. Frederick drowned on the journey so Richard was left to lead the Crusaders in the attempt to regain the Holy Land from Saladin.

After many battles, the two agreed to a truce in 1192.Jerusalem remained in Muslim control. In return, Saladin promised that unarmed Christian pilgrims could freely visit the city’s holy places.

King Richard and Saladin

Teutonic and Templar Knights

Crusades

The Fourth Crusade to capture Jerusalem failed as well. The knights did not reach Jerusalem and sacked the city of Constantinople instead. The religious spirit of the First Crusade had ended by the 1200’s.

In Spain, Muslims called Moors controlled most of the country until the 1100’s. The Reconquista was a effort by the Spanish to drive the Muslims out of Spain. By 1492, the Muslims will finally be removed from Spain.

Crusades

To unify their country under Christianity and to increase their power, Isabella and Ferdinand made use of the Inquisition. This was a court held by the Church to suppress heresy. Heretics were people whose religious beliefs differed from the teachings of the Church.

Many Jews and Muslims will convert to Christianity during the late 1400’s.

A person suspected of heresy might be questioned for weeks and even tortured. Once suspects confessed, they were burned at the stake.

Torture during the Inquisition

Medieval Society

Between 1000-1300, agriculture, trade, and finance made significant advances. Towns and cities grew during this time as well.

Around 800, some villages began to organize their lands into three fields instead of two. Under this new three-field system, farmers could grow crops on two-thirds of their land each year, not just on half of it. As a result, food production increased.

Three field system

Guilds

A second change in the European economy was the development of the guild. A guild was an organization of individuals in the same business or occupation working to improve the economic and social conditions of its members.

The first guilds were merchant guilds. At the same time, skilled artisans, such as wheelwrights, glassmakers, winemakers, tailors, and druggists began craft guilds.

Guilds

Apprentice: Parents paid for training and it lasted between 2-7 years. When trained worked as a journeyman.

Journeyman: Worked 6 days a week and needed to produce a masterpiece to become a master. Had to be accepted by the guild to become a master.

Master: Owned his own shop. Worked with other masters to protect their trade and often served in civil government.

Commercial Revolution

Increased availability of trade goods and new ways of doing business changed life in Europe. This expansion of trade and business is called the Commercial Revolution.

Most trade took place in towns. Peasants traveled to town on fair days, hauling items to trade. Great fairs were held several times a year, usually during religious festivals.

Cloth was the most common trade item. Other items included bacon, salt, honey, cheese, wine, leather, dyes, knives, and ropes.

Commercial Revolution

As traders moved from fair to fair, they needed large amounts of cash or credit and ways to exchange many types of currencies. Enterprising merchants found ways to solve these problems. For example, bills of exchange established exchange rates between different coinage systems.

Commercial Revolution

Merchants looked for new markets and opportunities to make a profit. Merchants first had to produce goods from distant places. To do so they had to borrow money, but the Church forbade Christians from lending money at interest, a sin called usury. Over time, the Church relaxed its rule on usury and Christians entered the banking business. Banking became an important business, especially in Italy.

Commercial Revolution

As trade grew, towns all over Europe swelled with people. This will cause problems for those living in the towns. Streets were narrow, filled with human and animal waste. Many people never bathed, and their houses lacked fresh air, light, and clean water.

Commercial Revolution

New ideas and forms of expression began to flow out of the universities. At a time when serious scholars and writers were writing in Latin, a few remarkable poets began using a lively vernacular, or the everyday language of their homeland.

Dante Alighieri wrote The Divine Comedy (1308-1314) in Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales(1386-1400) in English.

England

During the 800’s, Britain was constantly attacked by Viking raiders. Alfred the Great (871-899) will stop the attacks by the Vikings. Gradually he and his successors united the kingdom under one rule, calling it England, “Land of the Angles”. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that had invaded the island of Britain.

England

In 1016, the Danish king Canute will conquer England and unite the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings into one people. In 1042, King Edward will take over but will die in 1066 with out an heir. This will lead to a struggle for the throne and one last invasion.

The invader was William, duke of Normandy, who will become known as William the Conqueror. Normandy is the region in the north of France that had been conquered by the Vikings.

Normandy

England

As King Edward’s cousin, William claimed the English crown and invaded England with a Norman army. William’s rival was Harold Godwinson. On October 14, 1066 the Normans and Anglo-Saxons will fight at the Battle of Hastings. William’s army will defeat Harold’s army and conquer England.

England

After his victory, William declared all England his personal property. William kept about 1/5 of England for himself. The English lords that supported Harold lost their lands and William granted 200 Norman lords who swore oaths of loyalty to him land in England.

By doing this, William unified control of the lands and laid the foundation for centralized government in England.

England

William the Conquerors descendants owned land both in Normandy and England. The English king Henry IIadded to these holdings by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine from France.

The marriage brought Henry a large territory in France called Aquitaine and because of this, he will become the vassal to the French king.

England

Henry ruled England from 1154-1189. He strengthened the royal courts of justice by sending royal judges to every part of England at least once a year. They collected taxes, settled lawsuits, and punished crimes.

Henry also introduced the use of the jury in English courts. A jury in medieval England was a group of loyal people-usually 12 neighbors of the accused-who answered a royal judge’s questions about the facts of the case.

England

Jury trials became a popular means of settling disputes yet only the king’s courts were allowed to conduct them.

Over the centuries, case by case, the rulings of England’s royal judges formed a unified body of law that became known as canon law.

Henry was succeeded first by his son Richard the Lion-hearted but when he died, Richard’s younger brother John took the throne. John ruled from 1199-1216.

England

John failed as a military leader and lost Normandy and all lands in northern France. Not only did he have problems with the military, he also had problems with the people of England. He was cruel to his subjects, taxed the people heavily and alienated the Church.

His nobles will revolt. On June 15, 1215, they forced John to agree to the most celebrated document in English history, the Magna Carta.

England

The Magna Carta guaranteed certain basic political rights. The nobles wanted to safeguard their own feudal rights and limit the king’s power. Rights that were guaranteed: No taxation without representation, a jury trial, and the protection of the law.

Another step toward democratic government came during the rule of the next English king, Edward I. Edward needed tax money for a war against the French.

England

In 1295, Edward summoned two burgesses (citizens of wealth and property) from every borough and two knights from every county to serve as a parliament, or legislative group.

From 1300-1400, the king called the knights and burgesses whenever a new tax was needed. Gradually, these two groups will form an assembly of their own called the House of Commons. Nobles and bishops met separately as the House of Lords.

France

By 1000, France was divided into about 47 feudal territories. In 987, Hugh Capetwill take over the throne. The Capet family ruled only a small territory, but at the center was Paris. Hugh began the Capetian Dynasty of French kings that ruled France from 987-1328.

France

One of the most powerful Capetians was Philip II, called Philip Augustus, who ruled from 1180-1223. He seized Normandy from King John in 1204 and by the end of his reign, he had tripled the lands under his direct control.

Philip II not only wanted more land, he also wanted a stronger central government. He established royal officials called bailiffs. They were sent from Paris to every district in the kingdom to preside over the king’s courts and to collect taxes.

France

France’s central government became even stronger during the reign of Louis IX, who ruled from 1226-1270. He will create a French court of appeals, which could overturn the decisions of local courts. These royal courts of France strengthened the monarchy while weakening feudal ties.

In France, the Church leaders were known as the First Estate, and the great lords as the Second Estate. The commoners, wealthy landholders or merchants made up the Third Estate.

Estates-General

France

The whole meeting was called the Estates General. The Estates General helped increase royal power against the nobility. The Estates General never became an independent force that limited the king’s power. However, in 1789, the Third Estate would play a key role in overthrowing the French monarchy during the French Revolution.

Great Schism

In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII attempted to enforce papal authority on kings as previous popes had. King Philip IV tried to assert his authority over the French bishops, Boniface sent a document to all kings that stated that kings must always obey popes. Philip IV, instead of obeying Boniface, he had him arrested. Before he was to be put on trial, Boniface was rescued but died a month after his rescue.

Great Schism

In 1305, Philip IV persuaded the College of Cardinals to choose a French archbishop as the new pope. Clement V, the newly selected pope, moved from Rome to the city of Avignon in France. Popes would live there for the next 69 years. This move will weaken the power of the Church and when reformers tried to move the papacy back to Rome, the result was even worse. In 1378, Pope Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. The cardinals announced to the crowd that an Italian had been chosen: Pope Urban IV.

Great Schism

After he took the oath of office, many cardinals regretted the choice because Urban VI’s passion for reform and his arrogant attitude cause the cardinals to elect a second pope. They chose Robert of Geneva, who spoke French. He took the name Clement VII.

Now there were two popes. Each declared the other to be a false pope, excommunicating the other. The French pope lived in Avignon, while the Italian lived in Rome. This began the split in the Church known as the Great Schism, or division.

Great Schism

In 1414, the Council of Constance attempted to end the Great Schism by choosing a single pope. By now, there were a total of three popes. With the help of the Holy Roman Emperor, the council forced all three to resign. In 1417, the council chose a new pope, Martin V, ending the Great Schism.

Black Death

During the 1300’s an epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Approximately 1/3 of the population of Europe died of the deadly disease known as the bubonic plague.

The plague began in Asia but in 1347 it will hit Europe. In 1347, a fleet of Genoese merchant ships arrived in Sicily from the Crimea carrying the plague. By the spring of 1348, southern Germany was hit as well as France. By the end of June 1348. England was hit as well.

Black Death map

Black Death

The bacteria that caused the plague likes to live in the bloodstream of an animal or, ideally in the stomach of a flea. The flea in turn resides in the hair of a rodent. In this case, the Black Rat. The black rat traveled by ship, where it would feast for months on the cargo of grain. Being well fed it will multiply and when the ships docked, the rats will descend on the cities.

The plague took two forms: bubonic: rat/flea carried and pneumonic: airborne

Black Death

Black Death

The living conditions in Europe helped spread the virus. Here are the symptoms of the plague:

1: Growth the size of an apple (max) in the armpit, groin, neck will form. If lanced and drained, victim had a better chance of survival.

2: Appearance of black spots or blotches caused by the deterioration of the blood veins.

3: Severe coughing and spitting blood.

Black Death

The Black Death

What is the Black Death’s medical name?

Where did the plague begin?

What spread the plague?

What were the treatments for the plague?

How many Europeans died from the plague?

What finally stopped the spread of the plague?

Hundred Years’ War

When the last Capetian king died without a successor, England’s Edward III, as grandson of Philip IV, claimed the right to the French throne. The war that Edward III launched for that throne continued on and off from 1337-1453. It became known as the Hundred Years’ War.

This war will bring changes in the style of warfare in Europe. The English introduced the longbow and demonstrated its power in three significant battles: Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt.

Hundred Years’ War

At the Battle of Crecy on August 26, 1346 the English army was outnumbered 3-1. As the French marched toward the English, the longbowmen let loose thousands of arrows onto the French. The French knights trampled their own crossbowmen and archers to cut a path to the English. The knights became unhorsed under the volley by the English and lay helplessly on the ground.

Ten years later the English repeated their victory at the Battle of Poitiers and again at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415.

Hundred Years’ War

Hundred Years’ War

In 1420, the French and English signed a treaty stating the Henry V would inherit the French crown upon the death of the French king Charles VI. Then in 1429, a teenage French peasant girl named Joan of Arc felt moved by God to rescue France from its English conquerors. When Joan was 13, she had visions of God and the saints urging her to drive the English out of France and give the French crown to France’s true king: Charles VII, son of Charles VI.

Joan of Arc

Hundred Years’ War

On May 7, 1429, Joan led the French army into battle at the city of Orleans. After a long siege, the French will defeat the English and begin to drive them out of France. On July 17, 1429, Charles VII was crowned king of France.

In 1430, Joan was captured by the English and turned over to the Church to stand trial for heresy. Although Charles VII owed his crown to Joan, he will do nothing to save her. Condemned as a witch and a heretic because of her claim to hear voices, Joan was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431.

RENAISSANCE AND

REFORMATION

Chapter 17

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

A movement started in Italy that will cause an

explosion of creativity in art, writing, and thought that

will last approximately from 1300-1600. Historians call

this period the Renaissance. The term means rebirth,

and in this context, it refers to a revival of art and

learning. The educated men and women of Italy hoped

to bring back to life the culture of classical Greece and

Rome.

The study of classical texts led to humanism, an

intellectual movement that focused on human potential

and achievements. Instead of trying to make classical

texts agree with Christian teachings as medieval

scholars had, humanists studied them to understand

ancient Greek values.

RENAISSANCE ITALY

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Humanists influenced artists and architects to carry on

classical traditions. Also, humanists popularized the

study of subjects common to classical education, such as

history, literature, and philosophy. These subjects are

called the humanities.

Humanists suggested that a person might enjoy life

without offending God. In Renaissance Italy, the wealthy

enjoyed material luxuries, good music, and fine foods.

Most people remained devout Catholics. However, the

basic spirit of Renaissance society was secular-worldly

rather than spiritual and concerned with the here and

now. Even church leaders became more worldly. Some

lived in beautiful mansions, threw lavish banquets, and

wore expensive clothes.

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

Church leaders during the Renaissance beautified Rome

and other cities by spending huge amounts of money for

art. They became patrons of the arts by financially

supporting artists. Renaissance merchants and wealthy

families also were patrons of the arts. Renaissance

writers introduced the idea that all educated people

were expected to create art. In fact, the ideal individual

strove to master almost every area of study. A man who

excelled in many fields was praised as a “universal

man”. Later ages called such people “Renaissance men”.

A young man should be charming, witty, and well

educated in the classics. He should dance, sing, play

music, and write poetry. In addition, he should be a

skilled rider, wrestler, and swordsman.

ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

As the Renaissance advanced, artistic styles changed.

Medieval artists had used religious subjects to convey a

spiritual ideal. Renaissance artists often portrayed

religious subjects, by they used a realistic style copied

from classical model. Greek and Roman subjects also

became popular. Renaissance painters used the

technique of perspective, which shows three

dimensions on a flat surface.

Following the new emphasis on individuals, painters

began to paint prominent citizens. These realistic

portraits revealed what was distinctive about each

person. During this time, 4 main artists will change the

way people paint, sculpt and view art.

PERSPECTIVE

FOUR MAIN RENAISSANCE ARTISTS

Michelangelo was a Renaissance man. He excelled as a painter, sculptor, architect, and poet. He is most famous for the way he portrayed the human body in painting and sculpture.Influenced by classical art, he created figures that are forceful and show heroic grandeur. Among his achievements are the dome of St. Peter’s, the paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and the statue of David.

DAVID

PIETA

CREATION

FOUR MAIN RENAISSANCE ARTISTS

Donatello also made sculpture more realistic by carving natural postures and expressions that reveal personality. He revived a classical form in his statue of David, a boy who, according to the Bible, became a great king. This statue was created in the late 1460s. It was the first European sculpture of a large, free-standing nude since ancient times. For sculptors of the period, David was a favorite subject.

DONATELLO’S DAVID

FOUR MAIN RENAISSANCE ARTISTS

Raphael learned from

studying the works of

Michelangelo and Da

Vinci. One of Raphael’s

favorite subjects was

the Madonna and child.

Raphael often portrayed

their expressions as

gentle and calm. He

was famous for his use

of perspective.

MADONNA AND CHILD

CHERUBS

FOUR MAIN RENAISSANCE ARTISTS

Leonardo Da Vinci was a painter, sculptor, inventor, and scientist. A true “Renaissance man”, he was interested in how things worked. He studied how a muscle moves and how veins are arranged in a leaf. He filled his notebooks with observations and sketches. Then he incorporated his findings in his art.

Among his many masterpieces, Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa as well as The Last Supper.

HUMAN BODY

MONA LISA

LAST SUPPER

RENAISSANCE WRITERS

Renaissance writers produced works that reflected their

time, but they also used techniques that writers rely on

today. Some followed the example of the medieval writer

Dante. He wrote in the vernacular, his native

language, instead of Latin. Renaissance writers wrote

either for self-expression or to portray the individuality

of their subjects.

Francesco Petrarch was one of the earliest and most

influential humanists. Some have called him the father

of Renaissance humanism. Petrarch wrote both in

Italian and in Latin. In Italian he wrote sonnets-14 line

poems.

RENAISSANCE WRITERS

The Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio is best known

for the Decameron, a series of realistic, sometimes off-

color stories. The stories are supposedly told by a group

of worldly young people waiting in a rural villa to avoid

the plague sweeping through Florence. In its stories, the

author uses cutting humor to illustrate the human

condition. Boccaccio presents his characters in all of

their individuality and all their folly.

One of the most influential writers of the time was

Niccolo Machiavelli. He is famous for writing The

Prince. He will examine the imperfect conduct of

human beings. It does so by taking the form of a political

guidebook.

THE PRINCE

In The Prince, Machiavelli examines how a ruler can gain

power and keep it in spite of his enemies. In answering this

question, he began with the idea that most people are selfish,

fickle, and corrupt. To succeed in such a wicked world,

Machiavelli said, a prince must be strong as a lion and shrewd

as a fox. He might have to trick his enemies and even his own

people for the good of the state. In The Prince, Machiavelli

was concerned with what was morally right, but with what

was politically effective.

He pointed out that most people think it is praiseworthy in a

prince to keep his word and live with integrity. He argued

that in the real world of power politics a prince must

sometimes mislead the people and lie to his subjects.

Machiavelli suggested that in order for a prince to accomplish

great things, he must be crafty enough to only overcome the

suspicions but also gain the trust of others.

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

By the 1450’s, the Renaissance that began in Italy will

start to spread into northern Europe. The ideas that

came out of Italy will mingle with northern traditions. As

a result, the northern Renaissance will develop its own

character.

Many northern European artists will travel to Italy to

study and then move back to their home countries to

work. The most famous person to do this was the German

artist Albrecht Durer. He will travel to Italy to study in

1494. When he returned to Germany, he will produce

woodcuts and engravings. Durer will also influence Hans

Holbein. He will specialize in painting portraits that are

almost photographic in detail. He will be famous for

painting King Henry VIII of England.

DURER’S FOUR HORSEMEN OF THE

APOCALYPSE

HOLBEIN’S THE AMBASSADORS

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

The support of wealthy merchant families in Flanders

helped to make Flanders the artistic center of northern

Europe. The first great Flemish Renaissance painter

was Jan van Eyck. Van Eyck used recently developed

oil-based paints to develop techniques that painters still

use. By applying layer upon layer of paint, van Eyck was

able to create a variety of subtle colors in clothing and

jewels.

Flemish painting reached its peak after 1550 with the

work of Pieter Bruegel. Bruegel was also interested in

realistic details and individual people. He was very

skillful in portraying large numbers of people. He

captured scenes from everyday peasant life such as

weddings, dances, and harvests.

VAN EYCK’S MADONNA OF CHANCELLOR ROLIN

VAN EYCK’S THE ARNOLINI MARRIAGE

BRUEGEL’S PEASANT WEDDING

BRUEGEL’S THE FIGHT

WRITERS

Italian humanists were very interested in reviving the classical languages and classical texts. The northern humanists were critical of the failure of the Christian Church to inspire people to live a Christian life. This criticism produced a new movement known as Christian humanism. The focus of this movement was to reform society. Two of the most famous Christian humanists were Desiderius Erasmus of Holland and Thomas More of England.

Desiderius Erasmus, in 1509, wrote the book The Praise of Folly. This book poked fun at greedy merchants, heartsick lovers, quarrelsome scholars, and pompous priests. Erasmus believed that in a Christianity of the heart, not one of ceremonies or rules. He thought that in order to improve society, all people should study the Bible.

WRITERS

Thomas More tried to show a better model of society.

In 1516, he wrote the book Utopia. In Greek, utopia

means “no place”. In English it has come to mean an

ideal place as depicted in More’s book. The book is about

an imaginary land where greed, corruption, and war

have been weeded out. In Utopia, because there was

little greed, Utopians had little use for money. More

wrote in Latin. As his work became popular, More’s

works were translated into French, German, English,

Spanish, and Italian.

HOLBEIN’S THOMAS MORE

THE ELIZABETHAN AGE

The Renaissance spread to England in the mid-1500s. The period was known as the Elizabethan Age, after Queen Elizabeth I. Elizabeth reigned from 1558-1603. She was well educated and spoke French, Italian, and Greek. She also wrote poetry and music. As queen she did much to support the development of English art and literature.

The most famous writer of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare. Many people regard him as the greatest playwright of all time. Shakespeare was born in 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon, a small town about 90 miles northwest of London. Shakespeare’s works display a masterful command of the English language and a deep understanding of human beings. His most famous plays include the tragedies Macbeth, Hamlet, Othello,Romeo and Juliet, and King Lear.

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

During the 13th

century, block printed

items reached Europe

from China. European

printers began to use

block printing to create

whole pages to bind

into books. However,

this process was too

slow to satisfy the

Renaissance demand

for knowledge,

information, and

books.

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE

Around 1440 Johann

Gutenberg, a craftsman

from Mainz, Germany,

developed a printing press

that incorporated a

number of technologies in

a new way. The process

made it possible to produce

books quickly and cheaply.

Using the improved

process, Gutenberg

printed a complete Bible,

the Gutenberg Bible, in

about 1455. it was the first

full-sized book printed

with moveable type.

GUTENBERG BIBLE

REFORMATION

Over the centuries, many people criticized the Church’s practices. They felt that Church leaders were too interested in worldly pursuits, such as gaining wealth and political power. By 1500, additional forces weakened the Church. The Renaissance emphasis on the secular and the individual challenged Church authority. The printing press spread these secular ideas. In addition, some rulers began to challenge the Church’s political power.

Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. Pope Alexander VI, admitted that he had fathered several children. Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties.

REFORMATION

The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests and

monks were so poorly educated that they could scarcely

read, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly

vows by marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled.

In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John Wycliffe of

England and Jan Hus of Bohemia had advocated Church

reform. They denied that the pope had the right to

worldly power. They also taught that the Bible had more

authority than Church leaders did. By the 1500s,

Erasmus and More added their voices to the criticism.

REFORMATION

Martin Luther will teach scripture at the University of Wittenberg from 1512-1546. His parents wanted him to be a lawyer but at the age of 21, Luther was caught in a terrible thunderstorm. Convinced he would die, he cried out “Saint Anne, help me! I will become a monk.” By studying the Bible, Luther came to the conclusion that faith alone was the key to salvation.

In 1517, Luther decided to take a public stand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God’s right to judge. Tetzel gave the impression that by buying an indulgence, they could buy their way into heaven.

REFORMATION

Luther was troubled by Tetzel’s tactics. In response, he

wrote 95 theses, or formal statements, attacking the

“pardon-merchants”. On October 31, 1517, he posted

these statements on the door of the castle church in

Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him.

Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a

printer. Soon, Luther’s name became known all over

Germany. His actions began the Reformation, a

movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of

Christian churches that did not accept the pope’s

authority.

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE 95 THESES

REFORMATION

Luther’s teachings went beyond criticizing indulgences.

He wanted full reform of the Church. His teachings

rested on three main ideas:

1. People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of

forgiveness.

2. All Church teachings should be clearly based on the

words of the Bible.

3. All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did

not need priests to interpret the Bible for them.

REFORMATION

Initially, Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply

as a rebellious monk who needed to be punished by his

superiors. However, as Luther’s ideas became more

popular, the pope realized that this monk was a serious

threat. In an angry reply to the pope for his criticism,

Luther suggested that Christians drive the pope from

the Church by force.

In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther

with excommunication unless he took back his

statements. Luther did not take back his statements

and burned the pope’s decree in a bonfire. Leo

excommunicated Luther.

REFORMATION

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V opposed Luther’s teachings and summoned Luther to the town of Worms in 1521 to stand trial. He was told to recant, or take back his statements, and Luther refused. A month after his “trial”, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned. Yet, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For a year, he gave Luther shelter in one of his castles. While there, Luther translated the New Testament into German.

Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of his ideas were already being put into practice. Luther and his followers had become a separate religious group, called Lutherans.

REFORMATION

Some people began to apply Luther’s revolutionary ideas

to society. In 1524, German peasants, excited by

reformers’ talk of Christian freedom, demanded an end

of serfdom. The peasants raided monasteries, pillaged

and burned. This revolt horrified Luther and he will

write a pamphlet urging the German princes to sho the

peasants no mercy. They did and crushed the revolt,

killing at least 100,000. The peasants, feeling betrayed

by Luther, will reject his teachings.

While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs,

others like his beliefs for their own selfish reasons. They

saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church

property and to assert their independence from Charles

V.

REFORMATION

In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther’s ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement. These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants. Eventually, the term Protestantwas applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches.

Still determined to keep his subjects Catholic, Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to bring them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. This famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg.

REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he

was a devout Catholic. Political needs though soon tested

his religious loyalty. He needed a male heir and he was

fearful that a war would break out when he died if he did

not have one. He and his wife, Catherine of Aragon had

one living child, Mary.

By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42 year old

Catherine would have no more children. He wanted to

divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law did

not allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set

aside, Henry’s marriage if proof could be found that it

had never been legal in the first place. Henry asked the

pope to annul his marriage but the pope said no. The

pope didn’t want to offend Catherine’s powerful nephew,

Charles V.

HENRY VIII

REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem himself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws that ended the pope’s power in England. This Parliament will become known as the Reformation Parliament.

In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her twenties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine. A year later, Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England’s Church. This act did meet some opposition. Thomas More will refuse to take the oath and Henry will have him arrested. In 1535, More was found guilty of high treason and executed.

REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

Henry did not immediately get the male heir that he sought. After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry’s favor. Eventually she was charged with high treason and was beheaded in 1536. Almost at once he married Jane Seymour and she gave him a son named Edward. Two weeks after the birth, Jane died. Henry will marry three more times.

REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

Henry’s son, Edward, became king when he was just nine years old. He was too young to rule alone so he will listen to his advisors, which were Protestant. Edward VI only reigned for six years. Mary was a Catholic who returned the English Church back to the rule of the pope. Elizabeth will take over in 1558 and was determined to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559, Parliament will set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as its head. This was to be the only legal church in England.

Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept. To please the Protestants, priests were allowed to marry and could deliver their sermons in English. To please the Catholics, some of the traditions were kept.

CALVINISM

In 1536, John Calvin published Institutes of the

Christian Religion. This book expressed ideas about God,

salvation, and human nature. It was a summary of

Protestant theology, or religious beliefs. Calvin wrote

that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking

Luther’s idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin

went on to say that God chooses a very few people to

save. Calvin called these few the “elect”. He believed that

God has known since the beginning of time who will be

saved. This doctrine is called predestination. The

religion based on Calvin’s teachings is called Calvinism.

JOHN CALVIN

CALVINISM

Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders.

In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city. He and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing or played card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake.

An admirer of Calvin was a Scottish preacher named John Knox. Knox will put Calvin’s ideas to work when he returned to Scotland in 1559. Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters. Followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians.

ANABAPTISTS

Protestants taught that the Bible is the source of all

religious truth and that people should read it to discover

those truths. As Christians interpreted the Bible for

themselves, new Protestant groups will form.

One such group baptized only those persons who were

old enough to decide to be Christian. They said that

persons who had been baptized as children should be

rebaptized as adults. These believers were called

Anabaptists, from the Greek word meaning “baptize

again”. The Anabaptists taught that church and state

should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars.

RELIGIONS OF EUROPE 1560

CATHOLIC REFORMATION

While Protestant churches won many followers, millions remained Catholic. Helping Catholics to remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation. Important leaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius and two popes: Paul III and Paul IV.

In 1521, while recovering from wounds received in a war, he thought about his past sins and about the life of Jesus. His daily devotions, he believed, cleansed his soul. For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the pope created a religious order for his followers called the Society of Jesus. Members were called Jesuits. The Jesuits focused on three main activities: founded schools, convert non-Christians to Catholicism, and to stop the spread of Protestantism.

CATHOLIC REFORMATION

Two popes took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church. Paul III, pope from 1534-1549, took four steps to reforming: Directed the council of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling and other abuses. He approved the Jesuit order. He used the Inquisition to seek out heresy in papal territory. He called a council of Church leaders to meet in Trent, Italy.

From 1545-1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several doctrines.

Paul IV, in 1559, had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. This list was known as the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughout Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including the Protestant Bible) and burn them.