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The Late Middle Ages and the Black

Death

* Christian Anti Semitism in Medieval Europe • A History of Persecution

• Anti-Semitism, or prejudice against people of the Jewish faith, has been around

for almost as long as there has been a Jewish faith. • The Jewish people have faced persecution at the hands of Babylonians,

Assyrians, Romans, Spaniards, Englishmen, Frenchmen, Germans and Russians.

• Indeed, no European nation's history is completely free of anti-Semitism.

• Yet, of all Judaism's persecutors, none, not even the Nazis, have been as

pernicious, as tenacious or as pervasive as Christianity. • Over the centuries Christians have robbed, evicted, tortured and

murdered countless Jews.

• The history of Christianity is littered with such atrocities.

* Christian Anti Semitism in Medieval Europe • The Roots of Christian Anti-Semitism

• So where did this terrible pattern of behavior come from? What caused

Christians to view their Jewish neighbors with such distrust and hatred? What possible reason could Christians have to abandon the preaching of their savior, Jesus, himself a Jew, and commit violence and murder against their fellow man?

• The Roots of Christian Anti-Semitism

• The roots of Christian anti-Semitism stretch back to the earliest days of

Christianity. • It is important to remember that, in the beginning, Christianity was simply

a heretical sect of Judaism. • As such, Christianity did not receive a warm welcome from Judaism.

• The Jews rejected Christian claims of Jesus' divinity.

• They chased Christians out of town and even stoned a few of them.

• It is worth noting that the church was just as harsh with its own

heretics, if not more so.


• As Christians began to realize that the Jews were not going to convert to

Christianity, they began to try to differentiate themselves from Judaism. • They came up with their own holy days and their own rituals and beliefs.

• Moreover, some early Christian writers responded to Judaism's initial

hostility with a hatred of their own. • As they wrote the letters and stories that would eventually come

together to form the New Testament, Christians began to blame the Jews for killing Jesus. • Now, this required a great deal of mental gymnastics, as the Jews

at the time of Jesus had almost no political power.

• Their home country, Judea, was a province of Rome, and a particularly mistrusted one at that.

• Everyone knew that Jesus was condemned to death by the Roman Empire and that he died by crucifixion, a typically Roman form of capital punishment.


• These early Christian writers could not get around these facts.

• The worst they could do in their accounts was to emphasize the

Jewish role in the affair.

• In doing so, they may have taken some artistic license.

• Yet, even if we take the Bible's account at face value, the Jewish people's role in Jesus' death consisted of arresting a confessed heretic, handing him over to the Romans and then not rescuing him from the Roman justice system's typical sentence for trouble makers and rabble rousers: crucifixion.

• This hardly seems worthy of condemnation, especially considering how the church dealt with its own heretics.

• It is doubtful that any of these early Christian writers had any idea of the trouble they would cause by telling a story in which the Jewish people seem to be at least partially to blame for the death of Jesus.


• At the time the first books of the New Testament began being written,

about a hundred years after the death of Christ, Christians weren't in any position to oppress anyone.

• Christians were the underdog of the time, and many of them viewed the Jews as their oppressors as much as the Romans.

• Yet, this early Christian resentment, and perhaps even hatred of the Jews,

found its way into the Bible. • And the Bible, with its occasional anti-Semitic undertones, lived on

long after Christianity had anything to fear from Judaism or even Rome.

• Centuries later, people had forgotten that the Bible was, in fact, written by people, who are prone to their own failings and foibles. • The Bible was viewed as the inspired word of God.

* Christian Anti Semitism in Medieval Europe • Other Causes of Christian Anti-Semitism

• So, if the Bible said that a few Jews were indirectly responsible for Jesus' death

hundreds of years ago, that was enough for many later Christians to condemn the entire Jewish faith.

• This inclination was exacerbated by the exclusive nature of Judaism. • Judaism is not just a religion, but a racial and political identity.

• Jews believe themselves to be God's chosen people.

• Their holy texts require things that set them apart from non-Jews, whom

they call Gentiles.

• Jews are forbidden by their religion to marry Gentiles.

• Judaism also demands a very restrictive diet, meaning that the Jews could not eat many of the things that their Gentile neighbors enjoyed.


• These may seem like small points, but remember that intermarriage and communal

feasting are some of the most fundamental ways that disparate groups come to accept and understand each other. • Without these basic connections, Jews found themselves isolated from their

Christian neighbors. Of course, this was also partially because Jews often found themselves restricted to living in ghettos.

• Another factor that drove a wedge between Jews and Christians was the perception

that the Jews were rich, while their Christian neighbors were poor. • This perception, though often exaggerated, was based on a kernel of truth.

• You see, the Bible forbids Christians from charging each other usury, or

interest on a loan. • Interest is the basis of all banking.

• The ban on usury effectively removed all incentive for a Christian to start a

bank.


• Without the ability to charge interest, a Christian banker could never

hope to make money.

• Yet, people still needed loans, and the Jews had no problem whatsoever with charging interest. • As a result, many of the banks in Medieval Europe were owned and

operated by Jews, making many Jews very wealthy indeed.

• A side effect of this arrangement was that a lot of Christians owed a lot of money to Jews, including lords, kings and even the papacy in Rome.

• The resentment of debtors toward their creditors, or simply a desire to rob someone wealthy without consequence, likely was a regular, if unspoken, cause of Christian anti-Semitism.

• After a lifetime of religious propaganda, reinforced by cultural differences

and fueled by resentment or avarice, it is not surprising that many Christians viewed their Jewish neighbors with distrust.


• This distrust made Jews a convenient scapegoat for the problems of

medieval society, and Jews found themselves being blamed for everything from plague to poverty.

• Forms of Christian Anti-Semitism

• So, we've seen how Christian anti-Semitism got started, and we've seen the

factors that contributed to its persistence.

• Now, let's look at the various forms this Christian anti-Semitism took.

• One of the biggest culprits of Christian anti-Semitism was the church itself. • Though the church often made use of the Jews, especially in their role

as money lenders, and even protected them from time to time with decrees and such, the church was just as likely to condemn the Jews as to protect them.

• We've already seen how Christian anti-Semitism made its way into the Bible, yet most people in the Middle Ages could not read.

* Christian Anti Semitism in Medieval Europe • Forms of Christian Anti-Semitism

• And those that could read, could not read the Bible, which was

written in Latin and Greek. • The common people found out what the Bible said through the

sermons of their priests. • Many of these priests chose to focus on the evils of the

Jewish people.

• This practice was especially prevalent around Easter, when Christians remember the death and resurrection of their savior.

• It was around Easter that local churches often put on

Passion plays, or reenactments of Christ's trial, torture and execution.


• These plays were often enough to incite even the most

level-headed peasant to bloody hatred as they witnessed the Jews, who played a much larger role in Passion plays than in the Bible itself, insulting, beating and otherwise abusing Jesus during the last days of his life.

• These plays were often financed by local lords or even businessmen, presumably moved by Christian charity, but possibly motivated by the gain of seeing their creditors ripped limb from limb by an angry mob.

• But, Jews did not just receive abuse from church leaders. Secular

leaders also found many ways to make life miserable for Jews. • Some levied special taxes on the Jews, condemning their

charging of interest, even as they profited from their taxes.


• Others were encouraged by the church to enforce Jewish

dress codes, compelling Jews to wear patches, armbands or badges. • Even the pointy hat, the identifying feature of a wizard,

was initially a required part of the Jewish dress code in Germany.

• Still others relegated the Jews to Jewish ghettos and forbade them to conduct business in Christian districts.

• As leaders grew more powerful, so too did their persecution of the Jews. • Inquisitions were held across Europe, subjecting the

Jews and other non-believers to torture, ostensibly to bring them to Jesus Christ, but more likely to seize Jewish property and nullify debts to Jewish bankers.


• Lords, barons, dukes and kings all threatened the Jews

with mass expulsions and massacres, and of course, confiscation of property.

• With the church condemning the Jews as the murderers of Jesus and the

aristocracy taking every opportunity to steal Jewish wealth, it is not surprising that these attitudes trickled down to the common people. • There were several ridiculous anti-Semitic accusations in circulation among

commoners in the Middle Ages. • These included poisoning wells to cause the Black Death and other

accusations of magic and witchcraft.

• Yet, perhaps the most enduring claims were that of desecrating the host and blood libel.

• Desecrating the host refers to a Christian accusation that Jews

would steal the Eucharist crackers, which were supposedly the body of Christ, and stab them to see if they would bleed.


• The blood libel was a claim that Jews would kidnap Christian

babies and kill them to drink their blood. • Despite the sheer lunacy of these claims, they proved

remarkably resilient and even persist among some isolated Christian sects to this day.

• All of these factors combined to make being a Jew in Medieval Europe incredibly dangerous.

* The Babylonian Captivity and the Decrease of the Power of the Papacy • The Babylonian Captivity

• The Babylonian captivity was an important event in Jewish history.

• In the 6th century BC, the Jews were exiled to Babylon.

* The Babylonian Captivity and the Decrease of the Power of the Papacy • The Babylonian Captivity

• They were forced to stay there for several decades until a Persian king,

Cyrus the Great, allowed them to return to Jerusalem and rebuild their destroyed temple.

• So how does this relate to the Papacy in the 14th century?

• In 1309, the Pope moved his court from Rome to Avignon in France and

remained there until 1376. • Francesco Petrarch, an Italian scholar, referred to this event as the

'Babylonian captivity.' • Petrarch believed the popes during this time lost their spiritual

integrity and became enslaved to the ambitions of the king of France.

• The Avignon Papacy

• In the Middle Ages, there were two people who argued over who was the leader of all Christian people: the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor.

* The Babylonian Captivity and the Decrease of the Power of the Papacy • The Avignon Papacy

• Clement was French, and his first act was to create nine French

cardinals. • Cardinals voted on who would be pope, so this meant the next

popes were more likely to be French.

• Clement's nationality and appointment of French cardinals were unpopular in Rome.

• To escape the conflict, Clement made the decision to move his residence and base of Catholicism to Avignon, France.

• Aside from Clement V, there were six other popes in Avignon.

• They were Pope John XXII from 1316-1334,

• Pope Benedict XII from 1334 to 1342,

• Pope Clement VI from 1342 to 1352,


• Pope Innocent VI from 1352 to 1362,

• Pope Urban V from 1362 to 1370 and

• Pope Gregory XI from 1370 to 1378.

• We will learn later in the lesson that Pope Gregory was responsible for moving

the Papal court back to Rome.

• The popes in Avignon are known for being under the influence of the French ruler. • One of the first examples is the suppression of the Knights Templar, a

Christian military order that began to protect Christians who traveled to Jerusalem. • On October 13, 1307 (a Friday), King Philip IV ordered the Knights

Templar to be arrested. • Hundreds were arrested and tortured into confessing to crimes.


• This is why Friday the 13th is considered unlucky.

• In 1310, the king had many of the knights burned at the stake.

• The king threatened military action against the Pope if he

didn't join him in destroying the order, and the Pope finally had the order disbanded.

• As England and France began fighting over English territories in France, each

pope tried to mediate between the two. • English rulers did not trust the popes, since they lived so close to the

French kings, claiming they were too heavily influenced by France to remain neutral.

• Still under the influence of France, Pope Urban V supported the marriage

of the French king's son to Margaret of Flanders. • Marriage to Margaret meant the power to rule over more territory.


• The Pope's choice to support the French prince over an English prince was

viewed as a biased decision.

• The Schism

• Pope Gregory XI was pope from 1370-1378.

• He decided to move his court back to Rome after conflict developed and spread through Italy.

• Gregory died soon after the move, and Urban VI was elected the new pope. • Urban was Italian, and it alienated the French cardinals.

• The French cardinals then held their own election and named their own

pope, Clement VII.

• Clement returned to Avignon and served as pope there from 1423 to 1429, though he had very little following.

* The Babylonian Captivity and the Decrease of the Power of the Papacy • The Schism

• He was succeeded by Benedict XIII from 1394 to 1423,

• Benedict XIV from 1424 to 1429 and

• Benedict XV from 1430 to 1437.

• Because the popes who served from Avignon beginning with Clement VII were

seen as illegitimate and had a very small following, they are referred to as antipopes. • After 1378, only popes who served in Rome are considered legitimate

popes.

• This action began a schism within the Catholic Church. • A schism is a division among people.

• The argument over who was the legitimate pope lasted from 1378 until 1417.

• A council was held in 1409 in an attempt to end the schism.

* The Babylonian Captivity and the Decrease of the Power of the Papacy • The Schism

• Another pope, Alexander V, was elected but the other two popes did not

step down.

• Now, there were three popes.

• Another council was held in 1414 at Constance to bring an end to the schism. • At this council, claimants to the Papacy were either forced from office or

resigned and a new pope was elected to end the schism.

• The council then elected the new pope, Martin V. • Although there were a few factions of people who continued to

support the other popes, the council succeeded in finding a solution to the schism.

* England and France and the Hundred Years War • The Avignon popes seemed to fall further under France's influence during the

Hundred Years' War between England and France. • During this time England made claims to the French throne while France

attacked English territories within its borders.

• England fought to keep control of its land and was successful during the early part of the conflict. • The war reached a turning point after Joan of Arc began rallying French

troops.

• Politics held a major involvement in the war, and the power and influence of the pope was coveted by those involved.

• Conflict was also rampant in Italy, where aristocrats battled over control of Italian provinces.

• Why Did England and France Go to War?

• England and France fought over who would be the king of France.

* England and France and the Hundred Years War • Why Did England and France Go to War?

• The war lasted from 1337 to 1453.

• To understand the beginnings of this war, we can look all the way back to

William the Conqueror, who became king of England in 1066. • He united England with Normandy in France, and he ruled over both areas.

• Under a new king, Henry II, the lands that belonged to England and France

expanded.

• By 1327, when England was under the rule of Edward III, England had lost control of most of their French lands.

• When the French king, Charles IV, died in 1328, he had no male heirs to the kingship. • Charles' sister was Isabella, who was the mother of Edward III.

• Edward thought he should be king of France.

* England and France and the Hundred Years War • Why Did England and France Go to War?

• However, Charles also had a cousin named Philip who thought he should

be king.

• The lands owned by Edward in France came under attacks by the French. • Edward decided to declare he had a right to the French throne because of

his relation to Isabella.

• In England, inheritance could be gained through the mother or the father's bloodline, but in France, it could only be gained by the father's bloodline.

• Major Battles

• France and England fought many battles. We will now learn a little about some

of the most important battles.

• Battle of Crecy

• In 1346, the Battle of Crecy occurred near Normandy.

* England and France and the Hundred Years War • Major Battles

• Battle of Crecy

• Edward had come to France with thousands of soldiers, and the

French pursued them.

• Edward stopped near Normandy, in Crecy, to fight against the French. • The French attacked several times, but they were defeated by

England - mostly because of English longbowmen.

• The first attack from the French came from crossbowmen. • They hoped the use of the crossbows would frighten the English

soldiers. • However, crossbows were slow to shoot.

• Crossbowmen could shoot only about one or two bolts each

minute.


• Battle of Crecy

• Their crossbows were met with English longbowmen.

• The use of the longbow was unpopular in most countries because it

required so much training. • In England, archery was a popular sport.

• In fact, England didn't allow any other sports to be practiced on

Sundays.

• Often, tournaments were held to encourage people to build archery skills.

• At any time, the king would have a multitude of people skilled in archery to fight in his army.

• Longbowmen held an advantage over those using crossbows.


• Battle of Crecy

• Longbows had a longer range and could be loaded faster.

• The French were not expecting the devastating effect of this weapon.

• The French group of crossbowmen was devastated by the

longbow archers. • As the French cavalry began to charge against the English,

the archers continued their attack.

• Every wave of arrows caused a break in their line.

• Although the army was led by the French king's son, the king didn't send reinforcements.

• The prince was wounded but remained alive.

• He ordered a retreat, signaling an English victory.


• Battle of Poitiers

• In 1356, the second major battle happened.

• This battle was called the Battle of Poitiers.

• This battle erupted after Edward's son (Edward III) raided France.

• When French soldiers met the English for this battle, the English

soldiers tricked the French into thinking that they were retreating.

• The French soldiers charged and were met with masses of falling arrows from the longbowmen.

• Archers may have experienced difficulty in penetrating the armor of the French soldiers, so they aimed for their horses, breaking their strong cavalry line.


• Battle of Poitiers

• As the soldiers met and fought in close combat, a hidden reserve of

English soldiers that was waiting nearby encircled and attacked the French soldiers from the sides and behind.

• King John (now king of France) was defeated and captured.

• King John died in captivity, and his son Charles V took over.

• Battle of Agincourt

• In 1415, at the Battle of Agincourt, England defeated France. • The battlefield was a strip of land that was situated between two

wooded areas. • This would have limited maneuvers to small-scale tactics.

• Longbow archers were again used against the French.


• Battle of Agincourt

• They were positioned behind a line of stakes to prevent attacks

on them.

• They shot at the French soldiers as they moved in on the English.

• The battlefield was overcrowded with soldiers and horses.

• The French wore heavy armor, making it difficult for them to move in the crowd.

• The land was muddied from rain.

• Because the archers only wore light armor, they were eventually ordered to attack the French with swords or axes.

• The French were defeated and lost thousands of soldiers.


• Siege of Orleans

• France experienced their first major victory in 1428 and 1429 at the Siege

of Orleans. • The victory was aided by Joan of Arc, who led French troops against

the English. • Joan was only a teenager when she joined the fight.

• She claimed to see visions of angels and saints that spoke to her.

• They instructed her to aid the French king in his war.

• She led French troops against the English in Orleans in 1429.

• She brought with her supplies needed by the French and

inspired them to fight.


• Siege of Orleans

• With Joan's encouragement, the French defeated the

English on May 8.

• Battle of Castillon

• The final battle of the Hundred Years' War was in 1453, at the Battle of Castillon. • At this battle, England attacked a French force in Castillon.

• The English faced French soldiers that were using guns against them.

• The English couldn't compete with the firepower of the French in

this battle.

• Fighting only lasted for a short amount of time and was ended when a large French cavalry arrived and attacked the English from the side.


• Battle of Castillon

• English survivors retreated and finally returned home.

* The Longbow in the Hundred Year’s War

• What Is a Longbow?

• A longbow is a bow that is about equal to the height of the person using it.

• Longbows in the Middle Ages were made of different types of wood. • A longbow could be made of a single piece of wood and could be made

quickly.

• The bows were called longbows because of their size and to distinguish them from another popular weapon at the time, the crossbow.

• Usually a longbow was made out of yew wood.

• This type of wood must be dried for up to two years. During the drying period, the wood is shaped slowly into its final form of a longbow. Eventually, the process was sped up by using shortcuts (like rewetting the wood for shaping). The bow was constructed from one branch cut in half. The heartwood, or the inner part of the branch, was used on the inside of the bow, facing the archer. This is because the heartwood has more resistance to compression. The sapwood, or the outer part of the branch, was used on the outside of the bow because it reacts better to tension. Bowstrings were usually made from linen or sometimes hemp.

The longbow may have had a range of up to 270 yards, but it was difficult for the archer to be accurate at this distance. Better accuracy could be had if the archer was around 80 yards from the intended target. However, accuracy was less important if archers were shooting at a large number of assailants. Longbow archers would usually have enough arrows to last for around three to six minutes of continuous fire. They may have increased their speed by taking arrows out of their quiver and sticking them into the ground for quick access. Longbow archers could be more vulnerable than other soldiers because they didn't have adequate armor and weapons to use for close combat. Archers had to be positioned at a distance or behind some kind of physical obstruction like a body of water. The archers could also be positioned behind lines of infantry. The archers could shoot at attacking groups to help protect the infantrymen in front of them. Special arrows were made for longbows. The heads of the arrows were created in a way to allow them to penetrate the chainmail and other types of light armor soldiers might wear. Archers could also aim for the horses of mounted soldiers who wore heavier plate armor. Forcing them down from their mounts took away an advantage gained by fighting on horseback. The Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years' War was a war that occurred between 1337 and 1453 between England and France. At the time, Edward III was king of England and Charles IV was king of France. When Charles died, he didn't have any sons or brothers. Edward's mother, Isabella, was Charles' sister. Edward thought he should be king of France, but Charles' cousin Philip claimed the throne for himself. Philip started attacking lands over which England held control in France. England and France fought over these territories until France won back control of all of them but one small territory. This war lasted 116 years and ended in 1453. Crecy The Battle of Crecy occurred in 1346. Edward landed in France and was pursued by the French. The troops stopped to fight a battle in Crecy where they were outnumbered by the French. The French sent out crossbowmen who could fire at about three to five bolts (arrows used for crossbows) per minute. This was much slower than the longbowmen, who could fire ten to twelve arrows per minute. France's cavalry proceeded to attack 16 times. However, along with the archers and other soldiers, the English fought them off every time. Agincourt In 1415, France and England fought another major battle. Upon landing in France, around 2,000 English soldiers died from dysentery. Henry V (now king of England) and his troops were again outnumbered and were short on supplies. As they marched towards a French port hoping to return to England for supplies, they were met near Agincourt by the French soldiers. The French stalled to allow England's supplies to dwindle even more. Henry decided to force them into battle, though he was highly outnumbered. Again, the longbowmen moved in on the French, forcing them to move directly into the main army's advance. The archers continued to attack the French until they were defeated. The Success of the Longbow The two major battles discussed here are a good example of why the longbow was so important to Middle Age warfare. The longbow could be loaded faster and had a longer range than other bows. English kings encouraged the use of longbows by holding tournaments. Sports aside from archery may have been banned on Sundays. By encouraging English people to build this skill, the king would have a number of capable archers available for battle at any given time. The longbow required a lot of force in order to be used properly. While this discouraged other countries from having skilled longbowmen, England's support of archery allowed them to have skilled archers in training at all times. Eventually, around 1350, England found itself becoming short of yew used to make the bows. Ships trading in English ports were required to provide bows as a part of their payment. In the 16th century, bows became less popular as firearms were developed. At the time, the guns used fired more slowly than an archer but required less training.



• This type of wood must be dried for up to two years. • During the drying period, the wood is shaped slowly into its final

form of a longbow.

• Eventually, the process was sped up by using shortcuts (like rewetting the wood for shaping). • The bow was constructed from one branch cut in half.

• The heartwood, or the inner part of the branch, was used

on the inside of the bow, facing the archer. • This is because the heartwood has more resistance to

compression.

• The sapwood, or the outer part of the branch, was used on the outside of the bow because it reacts better to tension.



• Bowstrings were usually made from linen or sometimes hemp.

• The longbow may have had a range of up to 270 yards, but it was difficult for

the archer to be accurate at this distance. • Better accuracy could be had if the archer was around 80 yards from the

intended target.

• However, accuracy was less important if archers were shooting at a large number of assailants.

• Longbow archers would usually have enough arrows to last for around three to six minutes of continuous fire. • They may have increased their speed by taking arrows out of their quiver

and sticking them into the ground for quick access.

• Longbow archers could be more vulnerable than other soldiers because they didn't have adequate armor and weapons to use for close combat.



• Archers had to be positioned at a distance or behind some kind of physical obstruction like a body of water. • The archers could also be positioned behind lines of infantry.

• The archers could shoot at attacking groups to help protect the

infantrymen in front of them.

• Special arrows were made for longbows. • The heads of the arrows were created in a way to allow them to penetrate

the chainmail and other types of light armor soldiers might wear.

• Archers could also aim for the horses of mounted soldiers who wore heavier plate armor. • Forcing them down from their mounts took away an advantage gained

by fighting on horseback.


• The Success of the Longbow

• The longbow could be loaded faster and had a longer range than other bows, including the French crossbow.

• English kings encouraged the use of longbows by holding tournaments. • Sports aside from archery may have been banned on Sundays.

• By encouraging English people to build this skill, the king would have a

number of capable archers available for battle at any given time.

• The longbow required a lot of force in order to be used properly. While this discouraged other countries from having skilled longbowmen, England's support of archery allowed them to have skilled archers in training at all times.

• Eventually, around 1350, England found itself becoming short of yew used to

make the bows. • Ships trading in English ports were required to provide bows as a part of

their payment.


• The Success of the Longbow

• In the 16th century, bows became less popular as firearms were developed.

• At the time, the guns used fired more slowly than an archer but required less training.

* Joan of Arc and the End of the Hundred Year’s War

• Who Was Joan of Arc?

• Joan of Arc was a Frenchwoman born around January of 1412. • She was born a peasant but became a hero to the French.

• Joan's father was a farmer.

• She couldn't read or write.

• She experienced a fairly normal childhood. However, as she grew older her

life changed.


• Who Was Joan of Arc?

• Around 1425, Joan claimed she began to hear voices or see visions. • She would later claim that her visions were of angels and saints that would

offer her counsel.

• Included in her visions were St. Catherine, St. Margaret, and the archangels Michael and Gabriel.

• These visions would eventually lead her to come to the aid of the king who was at war with England.

• The Hundred Years' War

• During the early part of the war, England dominated France.

• It wasn't until Joan joined the battle that France began to experience major

victories. • In 1429, after an examination by high-ranking Catholic clergy, Joan

convinced the king to allow her to accompany an army to Orleans.



• She arrived dressed in men's battle attire.

• She immediately began to reform the troops by requiring them to go to church and to confession.

• She disallowed swearing and looting and harassment of the civilians in the area.

• She and her troops took one English fortress after another.

• The victories at Orleans were due to an aggressive attacking behavior not

typical of French commanders. • As French troops attacked the English at a church named Saint Loup,

she rallied them by carrying a French banner. • Although she placed herself in danger, it is thought she generally

took this role rather than fighting with a weapon.



• After the church was under French control, they went on to take other English strongholds. • Joan led the troops to overcome a monastery named Bastille des

Augustins that controlled a south approach to two English strongholds, Les Tourelles and part of the Orleans bridge.

• The English were overrun and abandoned these posts.

• After this victory, France went on to reclaim other areas under English command.

• With Joan's help, the French fought another victorious battle called the

Battle at Patay. • French troops attacked an English relief force before their

longbowmen were prepared.

• Joan attempted to take control of Paris but was wounded.



• After this, a truce was signed with the Duke of Burgundy to keep a temporary peace between France and England.

• At the conclusion of the truce, Joan had another vision that she would

be taken prisoner. • This prediction came true when she was captured on May 24,

1430, defending a town against an English attack.

• She was severely outnumbered.

• She was captured and ransomed to the English. • Joan's Trial

• After her capture, Joan was placed on trial for heresy at a series of hearings

between February and March in 1431.

• She was held at the Castle of Rouen.

* Joan of Arc and the End of the Hundred Year’s War • Joan's Trial

• Many accounts relay that she was denied a fair trial.

• The trial was held in several hearings that ranged from February 21 to late

March in 1431.

• These trials were supposed to hold testimonies of witnesses. • The verdict would be based on the testimonies.

• However, Joan was the only witness allowed to testify at her trial.

• Many involved in the trial may have attempted to manipulate her into

incriminating herself. • Accounts of the trial say that Joan asked several times to be tried in front

of nonpartisan judges and to appeal to the Pope, but these requests were not granted.

• Charges of witchcraft were brought against her, accusing her of using a magical banner, but these charges were dismissed.


• The direction she received from archangels and saints was discredited as

advice from demons.

• She was held in a secular prison with male guards. • At this time, it was against scripture for women to wear men's clothing.

• Joan, dressed in men's attire, was accused of heresy.

• Upon her request, she was provided with a dress, but it was stolen

from her. • She was faced with the choice to either remain nude or resume

wearing her men's clothing. • Reports say that her guards attempted to rape her multiple

times.

• When she chose to dress in her men's attire again, she was again accused of heresy.


• At this time, she was found guilty of the crime and sentenced to

execution. • She was burned at the stake on May 30, 1431.

• Accounts of her execution say that many involved in

the trial cried openly at her execution.

• She asked for a cross and a sympathetic soldier made a small one for her out of wood.

• Those involved in the execution spoke sometimes that they feared God's wrath for their actions.

• The War Ends

• The war ended several years after Joan's execution.

• Slowly, England lost control over their territories in France.

* Joan of Arc and the End of the Hundred Year’s War • The War Ends

• France gained full control of Paris in 1436 and Normandy in 1450.

• The war came to an end when all other English territories came under

French control except for Calais, which remained under England's control until 1558.

* The Little Ice Age and the Black Death

• Europe Cools Down • Before the 14th century, Europe experienced a large population growth.

• However, by the late 13th century, this resulted in land being overworked and

production being slowed. • In addition to the overworked soil, the global climate experienced a cooling

phase. • The reasons for this are unknown.


• Europe Cools Down

• Although the temperature change was small, maybe as little as one degree, it had a large impact on agricultural production.

• The cooling phase brought with it wet conditions and heavy rainfall.

• This period in history has been labeled the Little Ice Age.

• During the cooling phase, the growing season changed by up to 20%.

• This basically means the normal growing season was shortened by up to two months. • Seeds that were used to growing at the time were not able

to withstand extreme changes in the weather and moisture as we see in our modern seeds.

• These factors led to a shortage in usable crops.



• Wheat and rye, which were staples at the time, experienced a significant drop in production across Europe.

• Snow could be found on the ground late in the spring, encouraging the existence of parasites that devastated crop growth.

• There was also less hay to feed livestock, and straw or pine was used as a substitute.

• Still, much of the livestock had to be slaughtered to feed starving nations.

• As crop production declined, famine began to spread across Europe.

• Famine began around 1315 and lasted until around 1317.



• This was a slight beginning of population decline.

• The cool moisture in the air led to the spread of illnesses that could affect entire villages with gangrene or death.

• Grains that were kept in storage during these conditions could have developed fungi or could have fermented long enough to cause hallucinations.

• Grain may have even developed a fungus called ergot blight, which is sometimes recognized by some historians as the cause of a mass hysteria-led witch hunt in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692.

• The Little Ice Age also caused a decline in the

production of wine.

• Because of the weather, a lot of farms were destroyed.


• Fewer taxes could be collected, and property value declined.

• The Black Death

• Several years later, around 1347, an even more devastating event began.

• The Black Death began to spread throughout Europe.

• The Black Death was devastating and wiped out at least a third of

Europe's population in less than a decade.

• The Black Death, sometimes referred to as 'the plague,' was spread by rat fleas.

• A person who contracted the plague could die within a matter of days - usually less than five.

• People who contracted the plague experienced a high fever, diarrhea, delirium, swollen lymph nodes, and eventually black splotches on the skin, giving it its moniker.


• The Black Death

• Plague victims could also experience bleeding in their lungs, nausea and vomiting, muscle pains, and disorientation.

• There were no antibiotics or medication at this time for the plague.

• Some treated plague by draining swollen places or giving the

victim arsenic, lily root, or dried toad.

• Those who lived in towns and cities caught the disease more easily. • People in cities lived very close together.

• At the time there was no knowledge of how contagious

illnesses spread.

• The bodies of those who had died were not disposed of in a way that slowed the spread of disease.


• The Black Death

• Those who handled the bodies did not wear any protective garments.

• The towns were dirty and rats were plentiful. • Rats carrying diseased fleas helped spread the disease

throughout many towns.

• People, having no medical knowledge, began to blame the disease on witches, astrology, or religious groups.

• The plague spread and encircled Europe within about five years, then disappeared.

• Impacts of the Plague

• The consequences of the Little Ice Age, famine, and the Black Death were

mostly seen in the population decline. • The population would not increase to its original numbers until after 1500.



• The consequences of the Little Ice Age, famine, and the Black Death were mostly seen in the population decline. • The population would not increase to its original numbers until after 1500.

• People realized the plague spread more readily through cities, and a trend of

de-urbanization resulted. • People became more separated from each other and turned to extreme

religious beliefs to quell their fear.

• Many people gave their possessions and even land to the Church in exchange for protection from the illness.

• Alternately, many began to doubt the legitimacy of the healing power of

the clergy against illness. • There were groups of people who practiced behaviors outlawed by

the Church, like drinking, gambling, gluttony, and extravagance.



• Additionally, the plague led to the development of medical sciences. • While the plague wiped out many doctors and priests that practiced

healing by faith and superstition, education evolved to place a higher emphasis on anatomy and science.

• The workforce decreased significantly, and the cost of labor skyrocketed.

• This was the beginning of the decline of the feudal system and a positive

move for peasants who gained more freedom and land.

• Aristocrats, however, pushed for a return to feudalism, eventually leading to peasant revolts.

• The orientation to agricultural life grew into industrial systems after European towns repopulated.

• Because the population declined so quickly, there was a labor shortage.



• The working class could now demand better wages, but the nobles still attempted to create restrictions on wages while the government imposed higher taxes to fund war efforts like The Hundred Years’ War.

• In addition to the socioeconomic state of Europe, the power of the pope began to decline as well. • Disputes erupted over who had more secular power, the pope or the kings.

• The power of the church was challenged by reformers and a pessimistic

working class.

• Additionally, between 1309 and 1377, the papal court moved from its home in Rome, Italy to Avignon, France.

• Once the papacy returned to Rome, arguments over who should be

pope led to a Great Schism between two popes. • A third was appointed to end the dispute but none of the popes

stepped down.



• Eventually, two popes were removed while the third stepped down, and a new pope was appointed.

• Although the situation was resolved, the call for reform and arguments among the highest officials of the church led to doubt and confusion regarding the church's authority.

• Death, political unrest, and religious confusion were felt across Europe in the

fourteenth century.

• Peasants felt they were bearing the worst of the times, and soon revolts erupted across Europe.

• England

• One of the most well-known revolts occurred in June of 1381.

• In 1377, King Richard II forced a poll tax on peasants to help

finance his military in foreign ventures.



• Another poll tax was issued two years later, in 1379.

• Yet another poll tax was issued within this timeframe that left peasants paying different amounts. • Peasants felt the weight of the taxes and were increasingly

angry at the unfairness of the taxes issued.

• After all, King Richard at the time was only a teenager.

• In 1351, King Edward III passed a law that limited the wages of peasants to those that existed before the plague occurred. • Those who broke the new rule were punished with fines or being placed in

stocks.

• Fed up with the taxes and the unfair treatment, peasants captured the Tower of London.



• The king met with the peasants several times and promised to give them what they asked for.

• Peasants weren't organized or skilled enough to stand up to a royal army, nor could they continue to not work for wages.

• Upon hearing the promises of the king, the peasants disbursed and returned to work. • The king did not follow through on most of his promises, though

he did lift some of the tax burden off of the peasants.

• France

• Another revolt occurred in France in 1358, known as the Jacquerie.

• French peasants also felt the aftereffect of the Black Death. • However, they were also dealing with the destruction of land by

English and French soldiers as well as hired mercenaries.



• At the time, the French king, John II, had been captured at the Battle of Poitiers in the Hundred Years' War.

• Because power was divided among several people, the influence of the nobles greatly diminished.

• In order to ensure they kept some of the power, the nobles, along with the church clergy, forced heavy taxes on the peasants.

• The peasants attacked aristocracy for several weeks throughout

the summer. • They lacked organization, and many of the uprisings were

local attacks on tax collectors, governors, and other nobility.

• They were eventually suppressed by a group of nobles led by Charles the Bad of Navarre.

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